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{{short description|Activities and actions required to manage waste from its source to its final disposal}}
{{About||the company|Waste Management (corporation)|other uses}}
{{redirect|Waste disposal|the kitchen device|Garbage disposal unit}}
{{Distinguish|Sanitary engineering}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Pollution sidebar|Solid waste}}
[[File:Sophämtning 2010.jpg|thumb|A specialized trash collection truck providing regular municipal trash collection in a neighborhood in [[Stockholm]], Sweden]]
[[File:Agbogbloshie Ghana.jpg|thumb|[[Waste picker]]s burning [[Electronic waste|e-waste]] in [[Agbogbloshie]], a site near Accra in Ghana that processes large volumes of international electronic waste. The pickers burn the plastics off of materials and collect the metals for recycling, However, this process exposes pickers and their local communities to toxic fumes.]]

[[File:Recycling containers Gdansk University of Technology, Poland.jpg|thumb|upright|Containers for consumer waste collection at the [[Gdańsk University of Technology]]]]
[[File:Sysav–flygbild 06 september 2014.jpg|thumb|A recycling and waste-to-energy plant for waste that is not exported]]

'''Waste management''' or '''waste disposal''' includes the processes and actions required to manage [[waste]] from its inception to its final [[Waste disposal|disposal]].<ref name="UN-1997">{{cite web|title= Environment Statistics|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/environmentgl/|website=United Nations Statistics Division|access-date=3 March 2017|archive-date=17 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170317075312/https://unstats.un.org/unsd/environmentgl/|url-status=live}}</ref> This includes the [[Waste collection|collection]], [[transport]], [[Sewage treatment|treatment]], and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and regulation of the waste management process and waste-related [[Waste management law|laws]], technologies, and economic mechanisms.

Waste can either be solid, liquid, or gases and each type has different methods of disposal and management. Waste management deals with all types of waste, including [[industrial waste|industrial]], [[chemical waste|chemical]], [[Municipal solid waste|municipal]], [[organic waste|organic]], [[biomedical waste|biomedical]], and [[radioactive waste]]s. In some cases, waste can pose a threat to human health.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Giusti |first=L. |date=2009-08-01 |title=A review of waste management practices and their impact on human health |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X09001275 |url-status=live |journal=Waste Management |language=en |volume=29 |issue=8 |pages=2227–2239 |bibcode=2009WaMan..29.2227G |doi=10.1016/j.wasman.2009.03.028 |issn=0956-053X |pmid=19401266 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181125122728/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X09001275 |archive-date=25 November 2018 |access-date=4 December 2020|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Health issues are associated with the entire process of waste management. Health issues can also arise indirectly or directly: directly through the handling of solid waste, and indirectly through the consumption of water, soil, and food.<ref name=":0" /> Waste is produced by human activity, for example, the extraction and processing of raw materials.<ref name="UN97">{{cite web |title=Waste |work= Environment Statistics|url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/environmentgl/gesform.asp?getitem=1178|publisher=United Nations Statistics Division|access-date=3 March 2017|archive-date=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201041942/https://unstats.un.org/unsd/environmentgl/gesform.asp?getitem=1178}}</ref> Waste management is intended to reduce the adverse effects of waste on human [[health]], the [[Environment (biophysical)|environment]], planetary resources, and [[aesthetics]].

The aim of waste management is to reduce the dangerous effects of such waste on the environment and human health. A big part of waste management deals with [[municipal solid waste]], which is created by industrial, commercial, and household activity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-11-02 |title=Wastes |url=https://www.epa.gov/report-environment/wastes |access-date=2023-08-19 |website=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref>

Waste management practices are not the same across countries ([[developed nation|developed]] and [[developing nation]]s); regions ([[urban area|urban]] and [[rural area]]s), and [[residential area|residential]] and [[Industrial sector|industrial]] sectors can all take different approaches.<ref>{{cite web |last=Davidson |first=Gary |date=June 2011 |title=Waste Management Practices: Literature Review |access-date=3 March 2017 |publisher=Dalhousie University – Office of Sustainability |url=https://www.dal.ca/content/dam/dalhousie/pdf/sustainability/Waste%20Management%20Literature%20Review%20Final%20June%202011%20(1.49%20MB).pdf |archive-date=1 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120201020208/https://www.dal.ca/content/dam/dalhousie/pdf/sustainability/Waste%20Management%20Literature%20Review%20Final%20June%202011%20(1.49%20MB).pdf }}</ref>

Proper management of waste is important for building sustainable and liveable cities, but it remains a challenge for many developing countries and cities. A report found that effective waste management is relatively expensive, usually comprising 20%–50% of municipal budgets. Operating this essential municipal service requires integrated systems that are efficient, sustainable, and socially supported.<ref name="wb1">{{cite web|title=Solid Waste Management|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/urbandevelopment/brief/solid-waste-management|access-date=2020-09-28|website=World Bank|language=en|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930095656/https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/urbandevelopment/brief/solid-waste-management|url-status=live}}</ref> A large portion of waste management practices deal with [[municipal solid waste]] (MSW) which is the bulk of the waste that is created by household, industrial, and commercial activity.<ref name=HMSW>{{cite book|year=2003 |title=Handbook of Solid Waste Management and Waste Minimization Technologies |pages=337–465 |doi=10.1016/B978-075067507-9/50010-3 |chapter=Glossary of environmental and waste management terms |isbn=978-0-7506-7507-9 |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann }}</ref> According to the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC), municipal solid waste is expected to reach approximately 3.4 Gt by 2050; however, policies and lawmaking can reduce the amount of waste produced in different areas and cities of the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/ |access-date=2022-04-05 |website=www.ipcc.ch |language=en}}</ref> Measures of waste management include measures for integrated techno-economic mechanisms<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gollakota |first1=Anjani R. K. |last2=Gautam |first2=Sneha |last3=Shu |first3=Chi-Min |title=Inconsistencies of e-waste management in developing nations – Facts and plausible solutions |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |date=1 May 2020 |volume=261 |article-number=110234 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110234 |pmid=32148304 |bibcode=2020JEnvM.26110234G |s2cid=212641354 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479720301699 |access-date=27 February 2021 |language=en |issn=0301-4797 |archive-date=20 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920212812/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479720301699 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> of a [[circular economy]], effective disposal facilities, export and import control<ref>{{cite web |last1=Elegba |first1=S. B. |title=Import/export control of radioactive sources in Nigeria |url=https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:39046407 |website=Safety and security of radioactive sources: Towards a global system for the continuous control of sources throughout their life cycle. Proceedings of an international conference |access-date=27 February 2021 |language=English |date=2006 |pages=393–402 |archive-date=20 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920213243/https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:39046407 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=E –Waste Management through Regulations |journal=International Journal of Engineering Inventions |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Prem-Baboo/post/Comparison_of_e-waste_regulations_e-waste_regulations/attachment/59d6367979197b8077993e4b/AS%3A388818185277444%401469712887190/download/B0320614.pdf |access-date=27 February 2021 |archive-date=16 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716205819/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Prem-Baboo/post/Comparison_of_e-waste_regulations_e-waste_regulations/attachment/59d6367979197b8077993e4b/AS%3A388818185277444%401469712887190/download/B0320614.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and optimal [[sustainable design]] of products that are produced.

In the first [[systematic review]] of the scientific evidence around global waste, its management, and its impact on human health and life, authors concluded that about a fourth of all the municipal solid terrestrial waste is not collected and an additional fourth is mismanaged after collection, often being burned in open and uncontrolled fires – or close to one billion tons per year when combined. They also found that broad priority areas each lack a "high-quality [[research]] base", partly due to the absence of "substantial [[funding of science|research funding]]", which motivated scientists often require.<ref name="waste-crisis">{{cite news |title=Health crisis: Up to a billion tons of waste potentially burned in the open every year |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-01-health-crisis-billion-tons-potentially.html |access-date=13 February 2021 |work=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=25 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125160905/https://phys.org/news/2021-01-health-crisis-billion-tons-potentially.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cook |first1=E. |last2=Velis |first2=C. A. |title=Global Review on Safer End of Engineered Life |journal=Global Review on Safer End of Engineered Life |date=6 January 2021 |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/169766/ |access-date=13 February 2021 |language=en |archive-date=22 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222190045/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/169766/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Electronic waste (ewaste) includes discarded computer monitors, motherboards, mobile phones and chargers, compact discs (CDs), headphones, television sets, air conditioners and refrigerators. According to the Global E-waste Monitor 2017, India generates ~ 2 million tonnes (Mte) of e-waste annually and ranks fifth among the e-waste producing countries, after the [[United States]], the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Japan]] and [[Germany]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=R. Dhana|first=Raju|year=2021|title=Waste Management in India – An Overview|url=https://uijrt.com/articles/v2/i7/UIJRTV2I70022.pdf|journal=United International Journal for Research & Technology|language=English|volume=02|issue=7|pages=175–196|eissn=2582-6832|access-date=21 June 2021|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624202508/https://uijrt.com/articles/v2/i7/UIJRTV2I70022.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Effective 'Waste Management' involves the practice of '7R' - 'R'efuse, 'R'educe', 'R'euse, 'R'epair, [[Repurposing|'R'epurpose]], 'R'ecycle and 'R'ecover. Amongst these '7R's, the first two ('Refuse' and 'Reduce') relate to the non-creation of waste - by refusing to buy non-essential products and by reducing consumption. The next two ('Reuse' and 'Repair') refer to increasing the usage of the existing product, with or without the substitution of certain parts of the product. 'Repurpose' and 'Recycle' involve maximum usage of the materials used in the product, and 'Recover' is the least preferred and least efficient waste management practice involving the recovery of embedded energy in the waste material. For example, burning the waste to produce heat (and electricity from heat).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/zsdmm39#zfwxxbk|publisher=BBC|title=Waste and waste management|access-date=27 May 2025}}</ref>

== Principles of waste management ==
[[File:Waste hierarchy rect-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Diagram of the waste hierarchy]]

=== Waste hierarchy ===
The [[waste hierarchy]] refers to the "3 Rs" [[Reduce (waste)|Reduce]], [[Reuse]] and [[recycling|Recycle]], which classifies waste management strategies according to their desirability in terms of [[waste minimisation]]. The waste hierarchy is the bedrock of most waste minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of end waste; see: [[resource recovery]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.disposalmag.com/#The_Proper_Care_and_Use_of_a_Garbage_Disposal|title=The Proper Care and Use of a Garbage Disposal|last=Albert|first=Raleigh|date=4 August 2011|website=Disposal Mag|access-date=2017-03-03|archive-date=13 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713133552/https://www.disposalmag.com/#The_Proper_Care_and_Use_of_a_Garbage_Disposal|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-30 |title=14.6: Waste Management |url=https://med.libretexts.org/Courses/Chabot_College/Introduction_to_Health/14%3A_Environmental_Health/14.06%3A_Waste_Management |access-date=2023-08-19 |website=Medicine LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> The waste hierarchy is represented as a pyramid because the basic premise is that policies should promote measures to prevent the generation of waste. The next step or preferred action is to seek alternative uses for the waste that has been generated, i.e., by re-use. The next is recycling which includes composting. Following this step is material recovery and [[waste-to-energy]]. The final action is disposal, in landfills or through incineration without [[energy recovery]]. This last step is the final resort for waste that has not been prevented, diverted, or recovered.<ref name="UN">{{cite book |publisher=United Nations Environmental Programme |year=2013 |title=Guidelines for National Waste Management Strategies Moving from Challenges to Opportunities |url=http://www.unep.org/ietc/Portals/136/Publications/Waste%20Management/UNEP%20NWMS%20English.pdf |isbn=978-92-807-3333-4 |access-date=3 May 2014 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304201816/http://www.unep.org/ietc/Portals/136/Publications/Waste%20Management/UNEP%20NWMS%20English.pdf }}</ref>{{page needed|date=November 2016}} The waste hierarchy represents the progression of a product or material through the sequential stages of the pyramid of waste management. The hierarchy represents the latter parts of the life-cycle for each product.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-30 |title=14.6: Waste Management |url=https://med.libretexts.org/Courses/Chabot_College/Introduction_to_Health/14%3A_Environmental_Health/14.06%3A_Waste_Management |access-date=2023-06-17 |website=Medicine LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref>

=== Life-cycle of a product ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2024}}
{{AI-generated|section=Life-cycle|date=August 2025}}
The life-cycle of a product, often referred to as the [[product lifecycle]], encompasses several key stages that begin with the design phase and proceed through manufacture, distribution, and primary use. After these initial stages, the product moves through the waste hierarchy's stages of reduce, reuse, and recycle. Each phase in this lifecycle presents unique opportunities for policy intervention, allowing stakeholders to rethink the necessity of the product, redesign it to minimize its waste potential, and extend its useful life.

During the design phase, considerations can be made to ensure that products are created with fewer resources, are more durable, and are easier to repair or recycle. This stage is critical for embedding sustainability into the product from the outset. Designers can select materials that have lower environmental impacts and create products that require less energy and resources to produce.<ref name="OECD2023">OECD. (2023). *Policies for a circular economy: The case of product design*. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/environment/waste/policies-for-a-circular-economy-the-case-of-product-design.pdf</ref>


Manufacturing offers another crucial point for reducing waste and conserving resources. Innovations in production processes can lead to more efficient use of materials and energy, while also minimizing the generation of by-products and emissions. Adopting cleaner production techniques and improving manufacturing efficiency can significantly reduce the environmental footprint of a product.

Distribution involves the logistics of getting the product from the manufacturer to the consumer. Optimizing this stage can involve reducing packaging, choosing more sustainable transportation methods, and improving supply chain efficiencies to lower the overall environmental impact. Efficient logistics planning can also help in reducing fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions associated with the transport of goods.

The primary use phase of a product's lifecycle is where consumers interact with the product. Policies and practices that encourage responsible use, regular maintenance, and the proper functioning of products can extend their lifespan, thus reducing the need for frequent replacements and decreasing overall waste.

Once the product reaches the end of its primary use, it enters the waste hierarchy's stages. The first stage, reduction, involves efforts to decrease the volume and toxicity of waste generated. This can be achieved by encouraging consumers to buy less, use products more efficiently, and choose items with minimal packaging.

The reuse stage encourages finding alternative uses for products, whether through donation, resale, or repurposing. Reuse extends the life of products and delays their entry into the waste stream.

Recycling, the final preferred stage, involves processing materials to create new products, thus closing the loop in the material lifecycle. Effective recycling programs can significantly reduce the need for virgin materials and the environmental impacts associated with extracting and processing those materials.<ref name="EPA2023">United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2023). *Sustainable Materials Management: Non-Hazardous Materials and Waste Management Hierarchy*. EPA.gov. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/smm/sustainable-materials-management-non-hazardous-materials-and-waste-management-hierarchy</ref>


Product life-cycle analysis (LCA) is a comprehensive method for evaluating the environmental impacts associated with all stages of a product's life. By systematically assessing these impacts, LCA helps identify opportunities to improve environmental performance and resource efficiency. Through optimizing product designs, manufacturing processes, and end-of-life management, LCA aims to maximize the use of the world's limited resources and minimize the unnecessary generation of waste.

In summary, the product lifecycle framework underscores the importance of a holistic approach to product design, use, and disposal. By considering each stage of the lifecycle and implementing policies and practices that promote sustainability, it is possible to significantly reduce the environmental impact of products and contribute to a more sustainable future.

===Resource efficiency===
{{Main|resource efficiency}}
[[Resource efficiency]] reflects the understanding that global economic growth and development can not be sustained at current production and consumption patterns. Globally, humanity extracts more resources to produce goods than the planet can replenish. Resource efficiency is the reduction of the environmental impact from the production and consumption of these goods, from final raw material extraction to the last use and disposal.

===Polluter-pays principle===
The [[polluter-pays principle]] mandates that the polluting parties pay for the impact on the environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the requirement for a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable materials.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/faqs/what-is-the-polluter-pays-principle/|title=What is the polluter pays principle?|website=LSE|access-date=7 February 2020|date=11 May 2018|archive-date=6 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206155404/http://www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/faqs/what-is-the-polluter-pays-principle/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of waste management}}
Throughout most of history, the amount of [[waste]] generated by humans was insignificant due to low levels of [[population density]] and [[exploitation of natural resources]]. Common waste produced during pre-modern times was mainly ashes and human [[biodegradable waste]], and these were released back into the ground locally, with minimum [[environmental degradation|environmental impact]]. Tools made out of [[wood]] or [[metal]] were generally reused or passed down through the generations.

However, some civilizations have been more profligate in their waste output than others. In particular, the [[Maya civilization|Maya]] of [[Central America]] had a fixed monthly ritual, in which the people of the village would gather together and burn their rubbish in large dumps.<ref>{{cite web|last=Barbalace |first=Roberta Crowell |url=http://environmentalchemistry.com/yogi/environmental/wastehistory.html |title=The History of Waste |publisher=EnvironmentalChemistry.com |date=2003-08-01 |access-date=2013-12-09}}</ref>{{Irrelevant citation|reason=Citation is weakly researched and does not state this was a monthly ritual, rather an occasional accident.|date=June 2024}}

In the [[Ashanti Empire]] by the 19th century, there existed a Public Works Department that was responsible for sanitation in [[Kumasi]] and its suburbs. They kept the streets clean daily and commanded civilians to keep their compounds clean and weeded.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Maier| first=D. |title=Nineteenth-Century Asante Medical Practices| journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History| volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=63–81 |year=1979| jstor=178452| doi=10.1017/S0010417500012652 |pmid=11614369 |s2cid=19587869}}</ref>

===United Kingdom===
[[File:SirEdwinChadwick.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Edwin Chadwick]]'s 1842 report ''The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population'' was influential in securing the passage of the first legislation aimed at waste clearance and disposal.]]
Following the onset of the [[Industrial Revolution]], industrialisation, and the sustained urban growth of large population centres in [[England]], the buildup of waste in the cities caused a rapid deterioration in levels of [[sanitation]] and the general quality of urban life. The streets became choked with filth due to the lack of waste clearance regulations.<ref>Florence Nightingale, ''[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/nightingale-rural.asp Selected Writings of Florence Nightingale] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101065517/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/nightingale-rural.asp |date=1 November 2014 }}'', ed. Lucy Ridgely Seymer (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1954), pp. 38287</ref> Calls for the establishment of municipal authority with waste removal powers occurred as early as 1751, when [[Corbyn Morris]] in London proposed that "... as the preservation of the health of the people is of great importance, it is proposed that the cleaning of this city, should be put under one uniform public management, and all the filth be...conveyed by the [[Thames]] to proper distance in the country".<ref name="Lewis">{{cite web|title=Centenary History of Waste and Waste Managers in London and South East England|first=Lewis|last=Herbert|publisher=[[Chartered Institution of Wastes Management]]|year=2007|url=http://ciwm.activedition.com/nmsruntime/saveasdialog.aspx?lID=1094&sID=469}}{{Dead link|date=March 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

However, it was not until the mid-19th century, spurred by increasingly devastating [[cholera]] outbreaks and the emergence of a public health debate that the first legislation on the issue emerged. Highly influential in this new focus was the report ''The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population'' in 1842<ref>{{cite book |title=Report...from the Poor Law Commissioners on an Inquiry into the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population of Great Britain |location=London |year=1842 |pages=369–372 |url=http://www.victorianweb.org/history/chadwick2.html |last=Chadwick |first=Edwin |access-date=13 January 2015 |archive-date=30 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190530075021/http://victorianweb.org/history/chadwick2.html |url-status=live |via=The Victorian Web}}</ref> of the [[social reform]]er, [[Edwin Chadwick]], in which he argued for the importance of adequate waste removal and management facilities to improve the health and wellbeing of the city's population.

In the UK, the Nuisance Removal and Disease Prevention Act of 1846 began what was to be a steadily evolving process of the provision of regulated waste management in London.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hamlin |first1=Christopher |last2=Sheard |first2=Sally |date=1998-08-29 |title=Revolutions in public health: 1848, and 1998? |journal=BMJ: British Medical Journal |volume=317 |issue=7158 |pages=587–591 |doi=10.1136/bmj.317.7158.587 |issn=0959-8138 |pmc=1113797 |pmid=9721121}}</ref> The [[Metropolitan Board of Works]] was the first citywide authority that centralized sanitation regulation for the rapidly expanding city, and the [[Public Health Act 1875]] made it compulsory for every household to deposit their weekly waste in "moveable receptacles" for disposal—the first concept for a [[dustbin]].<ref name="NWRA">{{cite web |title=History of Solid Waste Management |publisher=National Waste & Recycling Association |url=http://www.environmentalistseveryday.org/publications-solid-waste-industry-research/information/history-of-solid-waste-management/early-america-industrial-revolution.php |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=2013-12-09 |archive-date=24 October 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20131024012358/http://www.environmentalistseveryday.org/publications-solid-waste-industry-research/information/history-of-solid-waste-management/early-america-industrial-revolution.php |url-status=live }}</ref> 

[[File:Manlove, Alliott furnace.jpg|thumb|left|[[Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd.]] 1894 destructor furnace. The use of [[incinerator]]s for waste disposal became popular in the late 19th century.]]
The dramatic increase in waste for disposal led to the creation of the first [[incineration]] plants, or, as they were then called, "destructors". In 1874, the first incinerator was built in [[Nottingham]] by [[Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd.]] to the design of Alfred Fryer.<ref name="Lewis"/> However, these were met with opposition on account of the large amounts of ash they produced and which wafted over the neighbouring areas.<ref>{{cite book|title=Recycling and the Politics of Urban Waste |author=Gandy, Matthew |year=1994 |publisher=Earthscan |isbn=978-1-85383-168-3 }}</ref>

Similar municipal systems of waste disposal sprung up at the turn of the 20th century in other large cities of Europe and North America.

Early [[garbage truck|garbage removal trucks]] were simply open-bodied [[dump truck]]s pulled by a team of horses. They became motorized in the early part of the 20th century and the first closed-body trucks to eliminate odours with a dumping lever mechanism were introduced in the 1920s in Britain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hardrawgathering.co.uk/covered-bodies/|archive-url=https://archive.today/20150106135610/http://www.hardrawgathering.co.uk/covered-bodies/|archive-date=2015-01-06|title=Covered Bodies}}</ref> These were soon equipped with 'hopper mechanisms' where the scooper was loaded at floor level and then hoisted mechanically to deposit the waste in the truck. The [[Garwood Load Packer]] was the first truck in 1938, to incorporate a hydraulic compactor.

===United States===
{{Further|Pollution|History of municipal treatment of drinking water|Environmental history of the United States|Urban resilience}}
Waste management in the United States dates back to colonial times, with New Amsterdam (now New York City) making it illegal to throw waste into the street as early as 1654. In the mid 1700s, [[Benjamin Franklin]] started the first waste collection and street-cleaning service in the [[History of Philadelphia]]. He wrote and distributed papers explaining the benefits of clean streets, convincing residents to pay a small fee for regular cleaning. His efforts led to the paving and cleaning of Philadelphia's streets, making them more accessible and reducing dust and debris. His advocacy contributed to the passage of a 1762 law regulating street maintenance.<ref> "From Benjamin Franklin to John Fothergill, [1757–1762]" ''Founders Online'' [https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-07-02-0136 online]</ref>

Historian Martin Melosi outlines the history of American urban sanitation through three distinct phases, each defined by evolving concerns about water supply, sewerage, and waste disposal:<ref> Martin V. Melosi, ''The Sanitary City: Urban Infrastructure in America from Colonial Times to the Present'' (2nd ed. U of Pittsburgh Press, 2008) pp.4–7 [https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Sanitary_City/NXnX4KkV00YC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA1&printsec=frontcover online] </ref>

* The Age of Miasmas (Colonial Era–1880): As cities rapidly expanded, particularly after 1830, sanitation became a pressing issue. Influenced by English beliefs, American officials mistakenly blamed epidemic diseases on "[[Miasma theory|miasmas]]"—unpleasant odors from accumulated filth. They focused on improving water supply and building mile after mile of sewers through residential neighborhoods to handle wastewater removal. No miasma supposedly meant no disease. Throughout the 1800s, cities typically relied on animals for organic waste disposal—even New York City used piggeries, with thousands of pigs roaming freely through the streets consuming city refuse.<ref>See the contemporary illustrations in Enrique Alonso,  and Ana Recarte,  "Pigs in New York City; a Study on 19th Century Urban 'Sanitation' " ''Case Study for the Friends of Thoreau Environmental Program'' (2008) [https://institutofranklin.net/sites/default/files/proyectos/files/CS%20Pigs%20in%20New%20York.pdf online]</ref><ref>Patricia Bixler Reber, "Free range pigs ... in New York City" ''Researching Food History'' (January 13, 2014) [https://researchingfoodhistory.blogspot.com/2014/01/free-range-pigs-in-new-york-city.html online] </ref>

*  The Bacteriological Revolution (1880–1945): Melosi finds that scientific breakthroughs in Europe revealed that germs, not miasmas, caused epidemics. This led to more effective disease prevention strategies and the development of comprehensive sanitation systems based on pure water supplies. Cities also began experimenting with solid waste disposal methods, particularly to manage the mountains of human and horse waste. However, they were late to deal with smoke pollution and they ignored industrial chemicals.  In 1895, New York City became the first American city with public-sector garbage management.<ref>Garrick E. Louis, "A historical context of municipal solid waste management in the United States." ''Waste management & research'' 22.4 (2004): 306-322. </ref> By the late 1880s the city government in Chicago hired 225 st teams, which gathered over 2,000 cubic yards of refuse daily. In Manhattan in New York City, individual scavengers carted away over 600 tons of garbage every day, and in the summer, over 1000 tons a day. The era of terrible epidemics such as [[cholera]] practically ended. (The worldwide "[[Spanish flu]]" epidemic  of 1919 was a major killer that was not caused by urban waste.<ref>Martin V. Melosi, "Hazardous Waste and Environmental Liability: An Historical Perspective" ''Houston Law Review''  25 (1988): 741–753 [https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/hulr25&div=35&id=&page= online]</ref>)

* The New Ecology (Since 1945): Continued urban expansion, Melosi argues, has strained sanitation infrastructure, requiring costly cleanup and repairs. Since the 1960s, growing environmental awareness has broadened concerns beyond biological pollutants to include industrial and chemical contaminants. In 1962 [[Rachel Carson]] reached a huge popular audience with ''[[Silent Spring]]''  that warned that pesticides especially [[DDT]] were greatly damaging the environment--spring was eerily quiet because DDT was killing the songbirds. Public opinion forced wave after wave of government interventions from the national level, such as the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]].<ref> Douglas Brinkley, ''Silent Spring Revolution: John F. Kennedy, Rachel Carson, Lyndon Johnson, Richard Nixon and the Great Environmental Awakening'' (2022),  pp. xiii to xxx.</ref>

==Waste handling and transport==
{{main|Waste collection vehicle|Waste collector|Waste sorting}}
[[File:Bin.JPG|right|thumb|upright|Moulded plastic, wheeled waste bin in [[Berkshire]], England]]

Waste collection methods vary widely among different countries and regions. Domestic waste collection services are often provided by local government authorities, or by private companies for industrial and commercial waste. Some areas, especially those in less developed countries, do not have formal waste-collection systems.

===Waste handling and transport===
[[Curbside collection]] is the most common method of disposal in most European countries, Canada, New Zealand, the United States, and many other parts of the developed world in which waste is collected at regular intervals by specialised trucks. This is often associated with curb-side waste segregation. In rural areas, waste may need to be taken to a transfer station. Waste collected is then transported to an appropriate disposal facility. 
In some areas, vacuum collection is used in which waste is transported from the home or commercial premises by vacuum along small bore tubes. Systems are in use in Europe and North America.
{{main|Automated vacuum collection}}
In some jurisdictions, unsegregated waste is collected at the curb-side or from waste transfer stations and then sorted into recyclables and unusable waste. Such systems are capable of sorting large volumes of solid waste, salvaging recyclables, and turning the rest into bio-gas and soil conditioners. 
In [[San Francisco]], the local government established its ''Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance'' in support of its goal of "Zero waste by 2020", requiring everyone in the city to keep recyclables and compostables out of the landfill. The three streams are collected with the curbside "Fantastic 3" bin system – blue for recyclables, green for compostables, and black for landfill-bound materials – provided to residents and businesses and serviced by San Francisco's sole refuse hauler, Recology. The city's "Pay-As-You-Throw" system charges customers by the volume of landfill-bound materials, which provides a financial incentive to separate recyclables and compostables from other discards. The city's Department of the Environment's Zero Waste Program has led the city to achieve 80% diversion, the highest diversion rate in North America.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.siemens.com/entry/cc/features/greencityindex_international/all/en/pdf/report_northamerica_en.pdf|title=Siemens|website=www.siemens.com|access-date=24 January 2021|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122065953/https://www.siemens.com/entry/cc/features/greencityindex_international/all/en/pdf/report_northamerica_en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Other businesses such as [[Waste Industries]] use a variety of colors to distinguish between trash and recycling cans. In addition, in some areas of the world the disposal of municipal solid waste can cause environmental strain due to official not having benchmarks that help measure the [[environmental sustainability]] of certain practices.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kaufman|first1=Scott M.|last2=Krishnan|first2=Nikhil|last3=Themelis|first3=Nickolas J.|date=2010-08-01|title=A Screening Life Cycle Metric to Benchmark the Environmental Sustainability of Waste Management Systems|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=44|issue=15|pages=5949–5955|doi=10.1021/es100505u|pmid=20666561|bibcode=2010EnST...44.5949K|issn=0013-936X}}</ref>

===Waste segregation===
{{Further|Waste separation}}[[File:Recycling point Gdansk University of Technology.jpg|thumb|Recycling point at the Gdańsk University of Technology]]
This is the separation of wet waste and dry waste. The purpose is to recycle dry waste easily and to use wet waste as compost. When segregating waste, the amount of waste that gets landfilled reduces considerably, resulting in lower levels of air and water pollution. Importantly, waste segregation should be based on the type of waste and the most appropriate treatment and disposal. This also makes it easier to apply different processes to the waste, like composting, recycling, and incineration. It is important to practice waste management and segregation as a community. One way to practice waste management is to ensure there is awareness. The process of waste segregation should be explained to the community.<ref>{{cite web|date=2019-02-02|title=Segregation of waste|url=https://nation.com.pk/03-Feb-2019/segregation-of-waste|access-date=2020-09-28|website=The Nation|language=en|archive-date=25 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925103353/https://nation.com.pk/03-Feb-2019/segregation-of-waste|url-status=live}}</ref>

Segregated waste is also often cheaper to dispose of because it does not require as much manual sorting as mixed waste. There are a number of important reasons why waste segregation is important such as legal obligations, cost savings, and protection of human health and the environment. Institutions should make it as easy as possible for their staff to correctly segregate their waste. This can include labelling, making sure there are enough accessible bins, and clearly indicating why segregation is so important.<ref>{{cite web|title=Why should I segregate my waste properly? {{!}} EMS|url=https://www.em-solutions.co.uk/insights/why-should-i-segregate-my-waste-properly/|access-date=2020-09-28|website=www.em-solutions.co.uk|date=10 August 2016 |archive-date=22 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922015301/https://www.em-solutions.co.uk/insights/why-should-i-segregate-my-waste-properly/|url-status=live}}</ref> Labeling is especially important when dealing with nuclear waste due to how much harm to human health the excess products of the nuclear cycle can cause.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Raj|first1=K.|last2=Prasad|first2=K. K.|last3=Bansal|first3=N. K.|date=2006-04-01|title=Radioactive waste management practices in India|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029549306000859|journal=Nuclear Engineering and Design|series=India's Reactors: Past, Present, Future|language=en|volume=236|issue=7|pages=914–930|doi=10.1016/j.nucengdes.2005.09.036|bibcode=2006NuEnD.236..914R |issn=0029-5493|access-date=4 December 2020|archive-date=12 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112234553/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029549306000859|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

== Hazards of waste management ==
There are multiple facets of waste management that all come with hazards, both for those around the disposal site and those who work within waste management. Exposure to waste of any kind can be detrimental to the health of the individual, primary conditions that worsen with exposure to waste are [[asthma]] and [[tuberculosis]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tomita |first1=Andrew |last2=Cuadros |first2=Diego F |last3=Burns |first3=Jonathan K |last4=Tanser |first4=Frank |last5=Slotow |first5=Rob |date=2020-06-16 |title=Exposure to waste sites and their impact on health: a panel and geospatial analysis of nationally representative data from South Africa, 2008–2015 |journal=The Lancet. Planetary Health |volume=4 |issue=6 |pages=e223–e234 |doi=10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30101-7 |issn=2542-5196 |pmc=7302423 |pmid=32559439}}</ref> The exposure to waste on an average individual is highly dependent on the conditions around them, those in less developed or lower income areas are more susceptible to the effects of waste product, especially through chemical waste.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-12 |title=Why is poverty linked with exposure to toxic chemicals? |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/how-and-why-are-the-poorest-people-most-likely-to-have-exposure-to-toxins |access-date=2023-11-06 |website=www.medicalnewstoday.com |language=en}}</ref> The range of hazards due to waste is extremely large and covers every type of waste, not only chemical. There are many different guidelines to follow for disposing different types of waste.<ref>{{Cite web |date= 10 November 2014|title=Regulatory and Guidance Information by Topic: Waste |url=https://www.epa.gov/regulatory-information-topic/regulatory-and-guidance-information-topic-waste |website=Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref>
[[File:Hazards_of_Incineration.jpg|thumb|Diagram showing the multiple ways that incineration is hazardous to the population]]
The hazards of [[incineration]] are a large risk to many variable communities, including underdeveloped countries and countries or cities with little space for landfills or alternatives. Burning waste is an easily accessible option for many people around the globe, it has even been encouraged by the [[World Health Organization]] when there is no other option.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Overview of technologies for the treatment of infectious and sharp waste from health care facilities |url=https://www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/9789241516228 |access-date=2023-11-07 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> Because burning waste is rarely paid attention to, its effects go unnoticed. The release of hazardous materials and CO<sub>2</sub> when waste is burned is the largest hazard with incineration.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Velis |first1=Costas |last2=Conversation |first2=The |title=Health crisis: Up to a billion tons of waste potentially burned in the open every year |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-01-health-crisis-billion-tons-potentially.html |access-date=2023-11-07 |website=phys.org |language=en}}</ref>

==Financial models==
In most developed countries, domestic waste disposal is funded from a national or local tax which may be related to income, or property values. Commercial and industrial waste disposal is typically charged for as a commercial service, often as an integrated charge which includes disposal costs. This practice may encourage disposal contractors to opt for the cheapest disposal option such as landfill rather than the environmentally best solution such as re-use and recycling.

Financing solid waste management projects can be overwhelming for the city government, especially if the government see it as an important service they should render to the citizen. Donors and grants are a funding mechanism that is dependent on the interest of the donor organization. As much as it is a good way to develop a city's waste management infrastructure, attracting and utilizing grants is solely reliant on what the donor considers important. Therefore, it may be a challenge for a city government to dictate how the funds should be distributed among the various aspect of waste management.<ref>{{cite web|date=2019-09-28|title=Financing of Solid Waste Management Projects {{!}} BioEnergy Consult|url=https://www.bioenergyconsult.com/financing-solid-waste-management/|access-date=2020-09-28|language=en-US|archive-date=23 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023032840/https://www.bioenergyconsult.com/financing-solid-waste-management/|url-status=live}}</ref>

An example of a country that enforces a waste tax is [[Italy]]. The tax is based on two rates: fixed and variable. The fixed rate is based on the size of the house while the variable is determined by the number of people living in the house.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=4182310 | title=The Waste Tax in Italy | date=5 August 2022 | last1=Ergun | first1=Merve | doi=10.2139/ssrn.4182310 | s2cid=251685226 | url-access=subscription | doi-access=free }}</ref>

The World Bank finances and advises on solid waste management projects using a diverse suite of products and services, including traditional loans, results-based financing, development policy financing, and technical advisory. World Bank-financed waste management projects usually address the entire lifecycle of waste right from the point of generation to collection and transportation, and finally treatment and disposal.<ref name="wb1"/>

==Disposal methods==

===Landfill===
{{Excerpt|landfill}}[[File:Landfill compactor.jpg|thumb|A [[Waste compaction|landfill compaction vehicle]] in action.]]

===Incineration===
{{main|Incineration}}
[[File:Tarastenjärven jätteenpolttolaitos.jpg|thumb|Tarastejärvi Incineration Plant in [[Tampere]], Finland]]
[[File:Spittelau (Wien) - Müllverbrennungsanlage (1).JPG|thumb|Spittelau incineration plant in [[Vienna]]]]
Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are subjected to combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseous products. This method is useful for the disposal of both [[municipal solid waste]] and solid residue from wastewater treatment. This process reduces the volume of solid waste by 80 to 95 percent.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.mit.edu/urbanupgrading/urbanenvironment/resources/references/pdfs/DecisionMakers.pdf |title=01-DMG |website=web.mit.edu |access-date=2021-01-24 |archive-date=19 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619013523/http://web.mit.edu/urbanupgrading/urbanenvironment/resources/references/pdfs/DecisionMakers.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Incineration and other high-temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as "[[thermal treatment]]". Incinerators convert waste materials into [[heat]], [[gas]], [[steam]], and [[Incineration#Solid outputs|ash]].

Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid, and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certain [[hazardous waste]] materials (such as biological [[medical waste]]). Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues such as the emission of gaseous [[pollutants]] including substantial quantities of [[carbon dioxide]].

Incineration is common in countries such as [[Japan]] where land is more scarce, as the facilities generally do not require as much area as landfills. [[Waste-to-energy]] (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam, or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and there have been concerns about pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focused on some very persistent [[organic compound]]s such as [[Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins|dioxins]], [[Polychlorinated dibenzofurans|furans]], and [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon|PAH]]s, which may be created and which may have serious environmental consequences and some heavy metals such as [[mercury (element)|mercury]]<ref>{{cite journal|title=Mercury Emissions from a Hazardous Waste Incinerator Equipped with a State-of-the-Art WetScrubber|journal=Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association|date = 5 March 2012|doi=10.1080/10473289.1995.10467401|last1=Carroll|first1=Gregory J.|last2=Thurnau|first2=Robert C.|last3=Fournier|first3=Donald J.|volume=45|issue=9|pages=730–736|doi-access=free}}</ref> and [[lead]] which can be volatilised in the combustion process.

==Recycling==
{{main|Recycling}}
[[File:Steel recycling bales.jpg|thumb|Steel crushed and baled for recycling]]
Recycling is a [[resource recovery]] practice that refers to the collection and reuse of waste materials such as empty beverage containers. This process involves breaking down and reusing materials that would otherwise be gotten rid of as trash. There are numerous benefits of recycling, and with so many new technologies making even more materials recyclable, it is possible to clean up the Earth.<ref>{{cite web|title=Energies|url=http://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies|access-date=2020-10-16|website=www.mdpi.com|language=en|archive-date=11 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011025330/https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies|url-status=live}}</ref> Recycling not only benefits the environment but also positively affects the economy. The materials from which the items are made can be made into new products.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=28 September 2020|title=what is recycling|url=https://recycling-important.phpwww.conserve-energy-future.com/why-is-|journal=What is Recycling|via=conserve energy future}}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Materials for recycling may be collected separately from general waste using dedicated bins and collection vehicles, a procedure called [[kerbside collection]]. In some communities, the owner of the waste is required to separate the materials into different bins (e.g. for paper, plastics, metals) prior to its collection. In other communities, all recyclable materials are placed in a single bin for collection, and the sorting is handled later at a central facility. The latter method is known as "[[single-stream recycling]]".<ref>City of Chicago, Illinois. Department of Streets and Sanitation. [http://www.cityofchicago.org/city/en/depts/streets/supp_info/recycling1/what_is_single_streamrecycling.html "What is Single Stream Recycling."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223184927/http://www.cityofchicago.org/city/en/depts/streets/supp_info/recycling1/what_is_single_streamrecycling.html |date=23 February 2014 }} Accessed 2013-12-09.</ref><ref>Montgomery County, Maryland. Division of Solid Waste Services. [http://www6.montgomerycountymd.gov/apps/dep/solidwaste/collectionservices/curbside.asp "Curbside Collection."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217223514/http://www6.montgomerycountymd.gov/apps/dep/solidwaste/collectionservices/curbside.asp |date=17 December 2013 }} Accessed 2013-12-09.</ref>

[[File:Recycling point in Lappajärvi.jpg|thumb|A recycling point in [[Lappajärvi]], [[Finland]]]]
The most common consumer products recycled include [[aluminium]] such as beverage cans, [[copper]] such as wire, [[steel]] from food and aerosol cans, old steel furnishings or equipment, rubber [[tire|tyres]], [[HDPE|polyethylene]] and [[Recycling of PET Bottles|PET]] bottles, [[glass]] bottles and jars, [[paperboard]] [[carton]]s, [[newspapers]], magazines and light paper, and [[corrugated fiberboard]] boxes.

[[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]], [[LDPE]], [[Polypropylene|PP]], and [[Polystyrene|PS]] (see [[resin identification code]]) are also recyclable. These items are usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products. The recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is more difficult, due to the additional dismantling and separation required.

The type of material accepted for recycling varies by city and country. Each city and country has different recycling programs in place that can handle the various types of recyclable materials. However, certain variation in acceptance is reflected in the resale value of the material once it is reprocessed. Some of the types of recycling include waste paper and cardboard, [[plastic recycling]], [[metal recycling]], electronic devices, [[wood recycling]], [[glass recycling]], cloth and textile and so many more.<ref>{{cite web|title=Types of Recycling|url=https://ismwaste.co.uk/recycling-services/types-of-recycling|access-date=2020-09-28|website=ISM Waste & Recycling|language=en-GB|archive-date=6 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206142304/https://ismwaste.co.uk/recycling-services/types-of-recycling|url-status=live}}</ref> In July 2017, the Chinese government announced an import ban of 24 categories of recyclables and [[solid waste]], including [[plastic waste|plastic]], textiles and mixed paper, placing tremendous impact on developed countries globally, which exported directly or indirectly to China.<ref>Walker, T. R. (2018). China's ban on imported plastic waste could be a game changer. Nature, 553(7689), 405–405.</ref>

==Re-use==

===Biological reprocessing===
{{main|Composting|Home composting|Anaerobic digestion|Microbial fuel cell}}
[[File:Compost Heap.jpg|thumb|upright|An active [[compost]] heap]]
Recoverable materials that are organic in nature, such as [[Green waste|plant material]], food scraps, and paper products, can be recovered through [[composting]] and digestion processes to [[decompose]] the organic matter. The resulting organic material is then recycled as [[mulch]] or [[compost]] for agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas from the process (such as methane) can be captured and used for generating electricity and heat (CHP/cogeneration) maximising efficiencies. There are different types of composting and digestion methods and technologies. They vary in complexity from simple home compost heaps to large-scale industrial digestion of mixed domestic waste. The different methods of biological decomposition are classified as aerobic or anaerobic methods. Some methods use the hybrids of these two methods. The anaerobic digestion of the organic fraction of solid waste is more environmentally effective than landfill, or incineration.<ref>{{cite web|title=Waste Management – Biological Reprocessing|work=Waste Management |date=3 July 2010|url=https://www.wastemanagement.in/biological-reprocessing.html|access-date=2020-09-28|language=en-US|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930204404/https://www.wastemanagement.in/biological-reprocessing.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The intention of biological processing in waste management is to control and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of organic matter. (See [[resource recovery]]).

===Energy recovery===
{{main|Waste-to-energy}}
Energy recovery from waste is the conversion of non-recyclable waste materials into usable heat, electricity, or fuel through a variety of processes, including combustion, gasification, pyrolyzation, anaerobic digestion, and [[landfill gas]] recovery. This process is often called waste-to-energy. Energy recovery from waste is part of the non-hazardous waste management hierarchy. Using energy recovery to convert non-recyclable waste materials into electricity and heat, generates a renewable energy source and can reduce carbon emissions by offsetting the need for energy from fossil sources as well as reduce methane generation from landfills.<ref name=USEPA>{{cite web |publisher=USEPA |year=2014 |title=Energy Recovery from Waste |url=http://www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/municipal/wte/ |access-date=3 May 2014 |archive-date=7 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407081447/http://www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/municipal/wte/ }}</ref> Globally, waste-to-energy accounts for 16% of waste management.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=New Energy Corporation |year=2014 |title=Waste Hierarchy |url=http://www.newenergycorp.com.au/what-we-do/waste-hierarchy/ |access-date=3 May 2014 |archive-date=16 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140516094044/http://www.newenergycorp.com.au/what-we-do/waste-hierarchy |url-status=live }}</ref>

The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly by using them as a direct combustion fuel, or indirectly by processing them into another type of fuel. Thermal treatment ranges from using waste as a fuel source for cooking or heating and the use of the gas fuel (see above) to using it as a fuel for [[boilers]]. [[Pyrolysis]] and [[gasification]] are two related forms of thermal treatment where waste materials are heated to high temperatures with limited [[oxygen]] availability. The process usually occurs in a sealed vessel under high [[pressure]]. Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the material into solid, liquid, and gas products. The liquid and gas can be burnt to produce energy or refined into other chemical products (chemical refinery). The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products such as [[activated carbon]]. Gasification and advanced [[Plasma arc gasification]] are used to convert organic materials directly into a synthetic gas ([[syngas]]) composed of [[carbon monoxide]] and [[hydrogen]]. The gas is then burnt to produce electricity and [[steam]].
An alternative to pyrolysis is [[supercritical fluid|supercritical]] water decomposition at a high-temperature and pressure (hydrothermal monophasic oxidation).

===Pyrolysis===
{{main|Pyrolysis}}
Pyrolysis is often used to convert many types of domestic and industrial residues into a recovered fuel. Different types of waste input (such as plant waste, food waste, tyres) placed in the pyrolysis process potentially yield an alternative to fossil fuels.<ref name=TSEP>{{cite journal |date=September 2017 |title= Potential of pyrolysis processes in the waste management sector | journal=Thermal Science and Engineering Progress |volume=3 | pages=171–197 |doi=10.1016/j.tsep.2017.06.003 | last1 = Czajczyńska | first1 = D. | last2 = Anguilano | first2 = L. | last3 = Ghazal | first3 = H. | last4 = Krzyżyńska | first4 = R. | last5 = Reynolds | first5 = A.J. | last6 = Spencer | first6 = N. | last7 = Jouhara | first7 = H.| doi-access = free |bibcode= 2017TSEP....3..171C }}</ref> Pyrolysis is a process of thermo-chemical decomposition of organic materials by heat in the absence of stoichiometric quantities of [[oxygen]]; the decomposition produces various hydrocarbon gases.<ref>Oxford Reference – Pyrolysis</ref> During pyrolysis, the molecules of an object vibrate at high frequencies to the extent that molecules start breaking down. The rate of pyrolysis increases with [[temperature]]. In industrial applications, temperatures are above 430&nbsp;°C (800&nbsp;°F).<ref>Encyclopedia Britannica</ref>

Slow pyrolysis produces gases and solid charcoal.<ref>By Prabir Basu: ''Biomass Gasification, Pyrolysis, and Torrefaction: Practical Design and Theory''</ref> Pyrolysis holds promise for conversion of [[waste biomass]] into useful liquid fuel. Pyrolysis of waste wood and plastics can potentially produce fuel. The solids left from pyrolysis contain metals, glass, sand, and pyrolysis coke which does not convert to gas. Compared to the process of incineration, certain types of pyrolysis processes release less harmful by-products that contain alkali metals, sulphur, and chlorine. However, pyrolysis of some waste yields gases which impact the environment such as HCl and SO<sub>2</sub>.<ref name="WMJ">{{cite journal |date=December 2014 |title= Pyrolysis technologies for municipal solid waste: A review| journal=Waste Management |volume=34 |issue=12 | pages=2466–2486 |doi=10.1016/j.wasman.2014.08.004 |pmid= 25256662| last1 = Chen | first1 = Dezhen | last2 = Yin | first2 = Lijie | last3 = Wang | first3 = Huan | last4 = He | first4 = Pinjing|bibcode= 2014WaMan..34.2466C}}</ref>

===Resource recovery===
{{main|Resource recovery}}
Resource recovery is the systematic diversion of waste, which was intended for disposal, for a specific next use.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=USEPA |year=2012 |title=Frequent Questions |url=http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/wastemin/minimize/faqs.htm |access-date=3 May 2014 |archive-date=7 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407084329/http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/wastemin/minimize/faqs.htm }}</ref> It is the processing of recyclables to extract or recover materials and resources, or convert to energy. These activities are performed at a resource recovery facility.<ref name=Montana>{{cite web |publisher=Government of Montana |year=2012 |title=Resource Recovery |url=http://deq.mt.gov/solidwaste/resourcerecovery.mcpx |access-date=3 April 2014 |archive-date=7 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407085052/http://deq.mt.gov/solidwaste/resourcerecovery.mcpx }}</ref> Resource recovery is not only environmentally important, but it is also cost-effective. It decreases the amount of waste for disposal, saves space in landfills, and conserves natural resources.<ref name=traverse>{{cite web |publisher=Grand Traverse County |year=2006 |title=What is Resource Recovery? |url=http://www.co.grand-traverse.mi.us/departments/resource_recovery/What_is_Resource_Recovery_.htm |access-date=3 April 2014 |archive-date=7 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407095910/http://www.co.grand-traverse.mi.us/departments/resource_recovery/What_is_Resource_Recovery_.htm }}</ref>

Resource recovery, an alternative approach to traditional waste management, utilizes life cycle analysis (LCA) to evaluate and optimize waste handling strategies. Comprehensive studies focusing on mixed municipal solid waste (MSW) have identified a preferred pathway for maximizing resource efficiency and minimizing environmental impact, including effective waste administration and management, source separation of waste materials, efficient collection systems, reuse and recycling of non-organic fractions, and processing of organic material through anaerobic digestion.

As an example of how resource recycling can be beneficial, many items thrown away contain metals that can be recycled to create a profit, such as the components in circuit boards. Wood chippings in [[Wood pallet|pallet]]s and other packaging materials can be recycled into useful products for [[horticulture]]. The recycled chips can cover paths, walkways, or arena surfaces.

Application of rational and consistent waste management practices can yield a range of benefits including:
# Economic – Improving economic efficiency through the means of resource use, treatment, and disposal and creating markets for recycles can lead to efficient practices in the production and consumption of products and materials resulting in valuable materials being recovered for reuse and the potential for new jobs and new business opportunities.
# Social – By reducing adverse impacts on health through proper waste management practices, the resulting consequences are more appealing to civic communities. Better social advantages can lead to new sources of employment and potentially lift communities out of poverty, especially in some of the developing poorer countries and cities.
# Environmental – Reducing or eliminating adverse impacts on the environment through reducing, reusing, recycling, and minimizing resource extraction can result in improved air and water quality and help in the reduction of [[greenhouse gas emissions]].
# Inter-generational Equity – Following effective waste management practices can provide subsequent generations a more robust economy, a fairer and more [[social inclusion|inclusive society]] and a cleaner environment.<ref name=UN/>{{page needed|date=November 2016}}

=== Waste valorization ===
{{Excerpt|waste valorization}}

==Liquid waste-management==
Liquid waste is an important category of waste management because it is so difficult to deal with. Unlike solid wastes, liquid wastes cannot be easily picked up and removed from an environment. Liquid wastes spread out, and easily pollute other sources of liquid if brought into contact. This type of waste also soaks into objects like soil and groundwater. This in turn carries over to pollute the plants, the animals in the ecosystem, as well as the humans within the area of the pollution.<ref>{{cite web|title=Liquid Waste {{!}} Waste Management|url=https://u.osu.edu/wastemanagement/liquidwaste-anthony-ulman/|access-date=2020-09-28|website=u.osu.edu}}</ref>

=== Industrial wastewater ===
{{Excerpt|Industrial wastewater treatment}}

===Sewage sludge treatment ===
{{Excerpt|Sewage sludge treatment}}

==Avoidance and reduction methods==
{{main|Waste minimization}}
An important method of waste management is the prevention of waste material being created, also known as [[waste reduction]]. Waste minimization is reducing the quantity of hazardous wastes achieved through a thorough application of innovative or alternative procedures.<ref>{{cite web|title=Waste Minimization|url=https://ehs.ucsc.edu/programs/waste-management/waste-minimization.html|access-date=2020-09-28|website=ehs.ucsc.edu|archive-date=21 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121140919/https://ehs.ucsc.edu/programs/waste-management/waste-minimization.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Methods of avoidance include reuse of second-hand products, repairing broken items instead of buying new ones, designing products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of plastic shopping bags), encouraging consumers to avoid using [[disposable products]] (such as disposable [[cutlery]]), removing any food/liquid remains from cans and packaging,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.recycling-guide.org.uk/etiquette.html |title=Removing food remains to reduce waste |publisher=Recycling Guide |date=2008-02-14 |access-date=2012-09-25 |archive-date=28 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100428084231/http://www.recycling-guide.org.uk/etiquette.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and designing products that use less material to achieve the same purpose (for example, lightweighting of beverage cans).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.psc.edu/science/ALCOA/ALCOA-light.html |title=Lightweighting |series=Projects in Scientific Computing |last1=Schneider |first1=Michael |last2=Johnson |first2=Liz |publisher=Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Pittsburgh |access-date=2012-09-25 |archive-date=25 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225000446/http://www.psc.edu/science/ALCOA/ALCOA-light.html }}</ref>

==International waste trade==
{{Excerpt|Global waste trade}}

==Challenges in developing countries==
Areas with developing economies often experience exhausted waste collection services and inadequately managed and uncontrolled dumpsites. The problems are worsening.<ref name=UN/>{{page needed|date=November 2016}}<ref>{{Citation|last1=Dao-Tuan|first1=Anh|title=Optimizing Vehicle Routing with Path and Carbon Dioxide Emission for Municipal Solid Waste Collection in Ha Giang, Vietnam|year=2018|work=Industrial Networks and Intelligent Systems|volume=221|pages=212–227|editor-last=Chen|editor-first=Yuanfang|publisher=Springer International Publishing|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-74176-5_19|isbn=978-3-319-74175-8|last2=Nguyen-Thi-Ngoc|first2=Anh|last3=Nguyen-Trong|first3=Khanh|last4=Bui-Tuan|first4=Anh|last5=Dinh-Thi-Hai|first5=Van|series=Lecture Notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering |editor2-last=Duong|editor2-first=Trung Q.}}</ref> Problems with governance complicate the situation. Waste management in these countries and cities is an ongoing challenge due to weak institutions, chronic under-resourcing, and rapid urbanization.<ref name=UN/>{{page needed|date=November 2016}} All of these challenges, along with the lack of understanding of different factors that contribute to the hierarchy of waste management, affect the treatment of waste.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2013 |journal=Waste Management|volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=220–232 |doi=10.1016/j.wasman.2012.09.008 |pmid=23098815 |title=Solid waste management challenges for cities in developing countries | last1 = Abarca Guerrero | first1 = Lilliana | last2 = Maas | first2 = Ger | last3 = Hogland | first3 = William|bibcode=2013WaMan..33..220G |s2cid=205673283 |url=https://academiaucentral.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/solid-management.pdf |s2cid-access=free |via=Academia Ucentral |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610115408/https://academiaucentral.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/solid-management.pdf |archive-date= Jun 10, 2024 }}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=November 2016|reason=Author? Title?}}

In developing countries, waste management activities are usually carried out by the poor, for their survival. It has been estimated that 2% of the population in Asia, Latin America, and Africa are dependent on waste for their livelihood. Family organized, or individual manual scavengers are often involved with waste management practices with very little supportive network and facilities with increased risk of health effects. Additionally, this practice prevents their children from further education. The participation level of most citizens in waste management is very low, residents in urban areas are not actively involved in the process of waste management.<ref>{{cite web|last=Zafar |first=Salman|date=2020-01-29|title=Waste Management Challenges in Developing Nations |website=BioEnergy Consult|url=https://www.bioenergyconsult.com/waste-management-challenges-in-developing-nations/|access-date=2020-09-28|language=en-US|archive-date=27 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927105718/https://www.bioenergyconsult.com/waste-management-challenges-in-developing-nations/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Technologies==
{{See also|Environmental monitoring|Border control|Materials recovery facility}}
Traditionally, the [[waste management industry]] has been a late adopter of new technologies such as [[Radio-frequency identification|RFID]] (Radio Frequency Identification) tags, GPS and integrated software packages which enable better quality data to be collected without the use of estimation or manual data entry.<ref>{{cite web |title=Air-Trak Brings Visibility to Waste Management |date=4 February 2014 |url=http://www.rfidjournal.com/articles/view?11406 |publisher=RFID Journal |author=Claire Swedberg |access-date=1 October 2015 |archive-date=2 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002111330/http://www.rfidjournal.com/articles/view?11406 }}</ref> This technology has been used widely by many organizations in some industrialized countries. Radiofrequency identification is a tagging system for automatic identification of recyclable components of municipal solid waste streams.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abdoli|first=S|date=28 September 2020|title=RFID Application in Municipal Solid Waste Management system|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27794462|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research|via=ResearchGate}}</ref>

Smart waste management has been implemented in several cities, including San Francisco, Varde or Madrid.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sensors Used in Waste Management |url=https://nordsense.com/cases/ |website=NORD SENSE |access-date=15 April 2024}}</ref> Waste containers are equipped with [[level sensor]]s. When the container is almost full, the sensor warns the pickup truck, which can thus trace its route servicing the fullest containers and skipping the emptiest ones.<ref>{{cite web |title=Madrid: Eliminating Overflowing Waste with Reliable and High-Quality Data |url=https://nordsense.com/cases-madrid/ |website=NORD SENSE |access-date=15 April 2024}}</ref>

==Statistics and trends==
The "Global Waste Management Outlook 2024," supported by the Environment Fund - [[United Nations Environment Programme|UNEP]]'s core financial fund, and jointly published with the [[International Solid Waste Association]] (ISWA), provides a comprehensive update on the trajectory of global waste generation and the escalating costs of waste management since 2018. The report predicts municipal solid waste to rise from 2.3 billion tonnes in 2023 to 3.8 billion tonnes by 2050. The direct global cost of waste management was around USD 252 billion in 2020, which could soar to USD 640.3 billion annually by 2050 if current practices continue without reform. Incorporating life cycle assessments, the report contrasts scenarios from maintaining the [[status quo]] to fully adopting [[zero waste]] and [[circular economy]] principles. It indicates that effective waste prevention and management could cap annual costs at USD 270.2 billion by 2050, while a circular economy approach could transform the sector into a net positive, offering a potential annual gain of USD 108.5 billion. To prevent the direct outcomes, the report calls for immediate action across multiple sectors, including development banks, governments, municipalities, producers, retailers, and citizens, providing targeted strategies for waste reduction and improved management practices.<ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations Environment Programme |first=UN |title=Global Waste Management Outlook 2024 |url=https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/44939/global_waste_management_outlook_2024.pdf?sequence=3 |access-date=4 April 2024 |website=www.unep.org}}</ref>
{{table alignment}}
{| class="wikitable col1left sortable mw-collapsible" style="text-align:right;"
|+Waste generated by country, 2020<ref>{{Cite web |title=No time to waste: A sustainability challenge for cities |url=https://datatopics.worldbank.org/sdgatlas/goal-11-sustainable-cities-and-communities/?lang=en#c3s0 |access-date=2024-05-20 |website=Atlas of Sustainable Development Goals 2023 |language=en}}</ref><br />{{Fix|text=These countries need to be sorted into English alphabetical order.}}
!Country or<br />territory
!GDP (USD)
!Population
!Total waste<br />generated<br />(tonnes)
!Share of population<br />living in urban areas
!Waste generated<br />per capita<br />(kg)
|-
|{{flag|Afghanistan}} 
|2,057
|34,656,032
|5,628,525
|26%
|162
|-
|{{flag|Albania}}
|13,724
|2,854,191
|1,087,447
|62%
|381
|-
|{{flag|Algeria}}
|11,826
|40,606,052
|12,378,740
|74%
|305
|-
|{{flag|American Samoa}}
|11,113
|55,599
|18,989
|87%
|342
|-
|{{flag|Andorra}}
|43,712
|82,431
|43,000
|88%
|522
|-
|{{flag|Angola}}
|8,037
|25,096,150
|4,213,644
|67%
|168
|-
|{{flag|Antigua and Barbuda}}
|17,966
|96,777
|30,585
|24%
|316
|-
|{{flag|Argentina}}
|23,550
|42,981,516
|17,910,550
|92%
|417
|-
|{{flag|Armenia}}
|11,020
|2,906,220
|492,800
|63%
|170
|-
|{{flag|Aruba}} 
|35,563
|103,187
|88,132
|44%
|854
|-
|{{flag|Australia}}
|47,784
|23,789,338
|13,345,000
|86%
|561
|-
|{{flag|Austria}}
|56,030
|8,877,067
|5,219,716
|59%
|588
|-
|{{flag|Azerbaijan}}
|14,854
|9,649,341
|2,930,349
|56%
|304
|-
|{{flag|Bahamas}}
|35,400
|386,838
|264,000
|83%
|682
|-
|{{flag|Bahrain}}
|47,938
|1,425,171
|951,943
|90%
|668
|-
|{{flag|Bangladesh}}
|3,196
|155,727,056
|14,778,497
|38%
|95
|-
|{{flag|Barbados}}
|15,445
|280,601
|174,815
|31%
|623
|-
|{{flag|Belarus}}
|18,308
|9,489,616
|4,280,000
|79%
|451
|-
|{{flag|Belgium}}
|51,915
|11,484,055
|4,765,883
|98%
|415
|-
|{{flag|Belize}}
|7,259
|359,288
|101,379
|46%
|282
|-
|{{flag|Benin}}
|2,227
|5,521,763
|685,936
|48%
|124
|-
|{{flag|Bermuda}}
|80,982
|64,798
|82,000
|100%
|1,265
|-
|{{flag|Bhutan}}
|6,743
|686,958
|111,314
|42%
|162
|-
|{{flag|Bolivia}}
|7,984
|10,724,705
|2,219,052
|70%
|207
|-
|{{flag|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
|12,671
|3,535,961
|1,248,718
|49%
|353
|-
|{{flag|Botswana}}
|14,126
|2,014,866
|210,854
|71%
|105
|-
|{{flag|Brazil}}
|14,596
|208,494,896
|79,069,584
|87%
|379
|-
|{{flag|Brunei}}
|60,866
|423,196
|216,253
|78%
|511
|-
|{{flag|Bulgaria}}
|22,279
|7,025,037
|2,859,190
|76%
|407
|-
|{{flag|Burkina Faso}}
|1,925
|18,110,624
|2,575,251
|31%
|142
|-
|{{flag|Burundi}}
|840
|6,741,569
|1,872,016
|14%
|278
|-
|{{flag|Cambodia}}
|3,364
|15,270,790
|1,089,000
|24%
|71
|-
|{{flag|Cameroon}}
|3,263
|21,655,716
|3,270,617
|58%
|151
|-
|{{flag|Canada}}
|47,672
|35,544,564
|25,103,034
|82%
|706
|-
|{{flag|Cape Verde}}
|6,354
|513,979
|132,555
|67%
|258
|-
|{{flag|Cayman Islands}}
|66,207
|59,172
|60,000
|100%
|1,014
|-
|{{flag|Central African Republic}}
|823
|4,515,392
|1,105,983
|42%
|245
|-
|{{flag|Chad}}
|1,733
|11,887,202
|1,358,851
|24%
|114
|-
|{{flag|Channel Islands}}
|46,673
|164,541
|178,933
|31%
|1,087
|-
|{{flag|Chile}}
|20,362
|16,829,442
|6,517,000
|88%
|387
|-
|{{flag|China}}
|16,092
|1,400,050,048
|395,081,376
|61%
|282
|-
|{{flag|Colombia}}
|12,523
|46,406,648
|12,150,120
|81%
|262
|-
|{{flag|Comoros}}
|2,960
|777,424
|91,013
|29%
|117
|-
|{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
|1,056
|78,736,152
|14,385,226
|46%
|183
|-
|{{flag|Republic of the Congo}}
|4,900
|2,648,507
|451,200
|68%
|170
|-
|{{flag|Costa Rica}}
|18,169
|4,757,575
|1,460,000
|81%
|307
|-
|{{flag|Côte d'Ivoire}}
|3,661
|20,401,332
|4,440,814
|52%
|218
|-
|{{flag|Croatia}}
|28,829
|4,067,500
|1,810,038
|58%
|445
|-
|{{flag|Cuba}}
|12,985
|11,303,687
|2,692,692
|77%
|238
|-
|{{flag|Curaçao}}
|27,504
|153,822
|24,704
|89
|161
|-
|{{flag|Cyprus}}
|39,545
|1,198,575
|769,485
|67%
|642
|-
|{{flag|Denmark}}
|57,821
|5,818,553
|4,910,859
|88%
|844
|-
|{{flag|Djibouti}}
|6,597
|746,221
|114,997
|78%
|154
|-
|{{flag|Dominica}}
|11,709
|72,400
|13,176
|71%
|182
|-
|{{flag|Dominican Republic}}
|15,328
|10,528,394
|4,063,910
|83%
|386
|-
|{{flag|Ecuador}}
|11,896
|16,144,368
|5,297,211
|64%
|328
|-
|{{flag|Egypt}}
|10,301
|87,813,256
|21,000,000
|43%
|239
|-
|{{flag|El Salvador}}
|7,329
|6,164,626
|1,648,996
|73%
|267
|-
|{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}}
|24,827
|1,221,490
|198,443
|73%
|162
|-
|{{flag|Eritrea}}
|1,715
|4,474,690
|726,957
|41%
|162
|-
|{{flag|Estonia}}
|36,956
|1,326,590
|489,512
|69%
|369
|-
|{{flag|Eswatini}}
|8,321
|1,343,098
|218,199
|24%
|162
|-
|{{flag|Ethiopia}}
|1,779
|99,873,032
|6,532,787
|22%
|65
|-
|{{flag|Faroe Islands}}
|44,403
|48,842
|61,000
|42%
|1,249
|-
|{{flag|Fiji}}
|10,788
|867,086
|189,390
|57%
|218
|-
|{{flag|Finland}}
|48,814
|5,520,314
|3,124,498
|86%
|566
|-
|{{flag|France}}
|46,110
|67,059,888
|36,748,820
|81%
|548
|-
|{{flag|French Polynesia}}
|60,956
|273,528
|147,000
|62%
|537
|-
|{{flag|Gabon}}
|18,515
|1,086,137
|238,102
|90%
|219
|-
|{{flag|Gambia}}
|2,181
|1,311,349
|193,441
|63%
|148
|-
|{{flag|Georgia}}
|12,605
|3,717,100
|800,000
|59%
|215
|-
|{{flag|Germany}}
|53,785
|83,132,800
|50,627,876
|77%
|609
|-
|{{flag|Ghana}}
|3,093
|21,542,008
|3,538,275
|57%
|164
|-
|{{flag|Gibraltar}}
|43,712
|33,623
|16,954
|100%
|504
|-
|{{flag|Greece}}
|30,465
|10,716,322
|5,615,353
|80%
|524
|-
|{{flag|Greenland}}
|43,949
|56,905
|50,000
|87%
|879
|-
|{{flag|Grenada}}
|13,208
|105,481
|29,536
|37%
|280
|-
|{{flag|Guam}}
|59,075
|159,973
|141,500
|95%
|885
|-
|{{flag|Guatemala}}
|8,125
|16,252,429
|2,756,741
|52%
|170
|-
|{{flag|Guinea}}
|1,623
|8,132,552
|596,911
|37%
|73
|-
|{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}}
|1,800
|1,770,526
|289,514
|44%
|164
|-
|{{flag|Guyana}}
|9,812
|746,556
|179,252
|27%
|240
|-
|{{flag|Haiti}}
|2,953
|10,847,334
|2,309,852
|57%
|213
|-
|{{flag|Honduras}}
|5,396
|9,112,867
|2,162,028
|58%
|237
|-
|{{flag|Hong Kong}}
|57,216
|7,305,700
|5,679,816
|100%
|777
|-
|{{flag|Hungary}}
|32,643
|9,769,949
|3,780,970
|72%
|387
|-
|{{flag|Iceland}}
|55,274
|343,400
|225,270
|94%
|656
|-
|{{flag|India}}
|6,497
|1,352,617,344
|189,750,000
|35%
|140
|-
|{{flag|Indonesia}}
|10,531
|261,115,456
|65,200,000
|57%
|250
|-
|{{flag|Iran}}
|14,536
|80,277,424
|17,885,000
|76%
|223
|-
|{{flag|Iraq}}
|10,311
|36,115,648
|13,140,000
|71%
|364
|-
|{{flag|Ireland}}
|83,389
|4,867,316
|2,910,655
|64%
|598
|-
|{{flag|Isle of Man}}
|44,204
|80,759
|50,551
|53%
|626
|-
|{{flag|Israel}}
|37,688
|8,380,100
|5,400,000
|93%
|644
|-
|{{flag|Italy}}
|42,420
|60,297,396
|30,088,400
|71%
|499
|-
|{{flag|Jamaica}}
|9,551
|2,881,355
|1,051,695
|56%
|365
|-
|{{flag|Japan}}
|41,310
|126,529,104
|42,720,000
|92%
|338
|-
|{{flag|Jordan}}
|10,413
|8,413,464
|2,529,997
|91%
|301
|-
|{{flag|Kazakhstan}}
|22,703
|16,791,424
|4,659,740
|58%
|278
|-
|{{flag|Kenya}}
|3,330
|41,350,152
|5,595,099
|28%
|135
|-
|{{flag|Kiribati}}
|2,250
|114,395
|35,724
|56%
|312
|-
|{{flag|Kuwait}}
|58,810
|2,998,083
|1,750,000
|100%
|584
|-
|{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}
|4,805
|5,956,900
|1,113,300
|37%
|187
|-
|{{flag|Laos}}
|6,544
|6,663,967
|351,900
|36%
|53
|-
|{{flag|Latvia}}
|30,982
|1,912,789
|839,714
|68%
|439
|-
|{{flag|Lebanon}}
|16,967
|5,603,279
|2,040,000
|89%
|364
|-
|{{flag|Lesotho}}
|1,979
|1,965,662
|73,457
|29%
|37
|-
|{{flag|Liberia}}
|1,333
|3,512,932
|564,467
|52%
|161
|-
|{{flag|Libya}}
|8,480
|6,193,501
|2,147,596
|81%
|347
|-
|{{flag|Liechtenstein}}
|45,727
|36,545
|32,382
|14%
|886
|-
|{{flag|Lithuania}}
|37,278
|2,786,844
|1,315,390
|68%
|472
|-
|{{flag|Luxembourg}}
|114,323
|619,896
|490,338
|91%
|791
|-
|{{flag|Macau}}
|117,336
|612,167
|377,942
|100%
|617
|-
|{{flag|Madagascar}}
|1,566
|24,894,552
|3,768,759
|39%
|151
|-
|{{flag|Malawi}}
|999
|16,577,147
|1,297,844
|17%
|78
|-
|{{flag|Malaysia}}
|23,906
|30,228,016
|12,982,685
|77%
|429
|-
|{{flag|Maldives}}
|17,285
|409,163
|211,506
|41%
|517
|-
|{{flag|Mali}}
|2,008
|16,006,670
|1,937,354
|44%
|121
|-
|{{flag|Malta}}
|43,708
|502,653
|348,841
|95%
|694
|-
|{{flag|Marshall Islands}}
|3,629
|52,793
|8,614
|78%
|163
|-
|{{flag|Mauritania}}
|4,784
|3,506,288
|454,000
|55%
|129
|-
|{{flag|Mauritius}}
|20,647
|1,263,473
|438,000
|41%
|347
|-
|{{flag|Mexico}}
|19,332
|125,890,952
|53,100,000
|81%
|422
|-
|{{flag|Federated States of Micronesia}}
|3,440
|104,937
|26,040
|23%
|248
|-
|{{flag|Moldova}}
|10,361
|3,554,108
|3,981,200
|43%
|1,120
|-
|{{flag|Monaco}}
|43,712
|37,783
|46,000
|100%
|1,217
|-
|{{flag|Morocco}}
|6,915
|34,318,080
|6,852,000
|64%
|200
|-
|{{flag|Mongolia}}
|10,940
|3,027,398
|2,900,000
|69%
|958
|-
|{{flag|Montenegro}}
|20,753
|622,227
|329,780
|67%
|530
|-
|{{flag|Mozambique}}
|1,217
|27,212,382
|2,500,000
|37%
|92
|-
|{{flag|Myanmar}}
|1,094
|46,095,464
|4,677,307
|31%
|101
|-
|{{flag|Namibia}}
|6,153
|1,559,983
|256,729
|52%
|165
|-
|{{flag|Nauru}}
|11,167
|13,049
|6,192
|100%
|475
|-
|{{flag|Nepal}}
|2,902
|28,982,772
|1,768,977
|21%
|61
|-
|{{flag|Netherlands}}
|56,849
|17,332,850
|8,805,088
|92%
|508
|-
|{{flag|New Caledonia}}
|57,330
|278,000
|108,157
|72%
|389
|-
|{{flag|New Zealand}}
|41,857
|4,692,700
|3,405,000
|87%
|726
|-
|{{flag|Nicaragua}}
|4,612
|5,737,723
|1,528,816
|59%
|266
|-
|{{flag|Niger}}
|1,038
|8,842,415
|1,865,646
|17%
|211
|-
|{{flag|Nigeria}}
|4,690
|154,402,176
|27,614,830
|52%
|179
|-
|{{flag|North Macedonia}}
|16,148
|2,082,958
|626,970
|58%
|301
|-
|{{flag|Northern Mariana Islands}}
|60,956
|54,036
|32,761
|92%
|606
|-
|{{flag|Norway}}
|64,962
|5,347,896
|4,149,967
|83%
|776
|-
|{{flag|Oman}}
|30,536
|3,960,925
|1,734,885
|86%
|438
|-
|{{flag|Pakistan}}
|4,571
|193,203,472
|30,760,000
|37%
|159
|-
|{{flag|Palau}}
|18,275
|21,503
|9,427
|81%
|438
|-
|{{flag|Palestine}}
|5,986
|4,046,901
|1,387,000
|77%
|343
|-
|{{flag|Panama}}
|28,436
|3,969,249
|1,472,262
|68%
|371
|-
|{{flag|Papua New Guinea}}
|3,912
|7,755,785
|1,000,000
|13%
|129
|-
|{{flag|Paraguay}}
|11,810
|6,639,119
|1,818,501
|62%
|274
|-
|{{flag|Peru}}
|11,877
|30,973,354
|8,356,711
|78%
|270
|-
|{{flag|Philippines}}
|7,705
|103,320,224
|14,631,923
|47%
|142
|-
|{{flag|Poland}}
|33,222
|37,970,872
|12,758,213
|60%
|336
|-
|{{flag|Portugal}}
|34,962
|10,269,417
|5,268,211
|66%
|513
|-
|{{flag|Puerto Rico}}
|34,311
|3,473,181
|4,170,953
|94%
|1,201
|-
|{{flag|Qatar}}
|96,262
|2,109,568
|1,000,990
|99%
|475
|-
|{{flag|Romania}}
|29,984
|19,356,544
|5,419,833
|54%
|280
|-
|{{flag|Russia}}
|26,013
|143,201,680
|60,000,000
|75%
|419
|-
|{{flag|Rwanda}}
|1,951
|11,917,508
|4,384,969
|17%
|368
|-
|{{flag|Saint Kitts and Nevis}}
|25,569
|54,288
|32,892
|31%
|606
|-
|{{flag|Saint Lucia}}
|14,030
|177,206
|77,616
|19%
|438
|-
|{{flag|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}}
|11,972
|109,455
|31,561
|53%
|288
|-
|{{flag|Samoa}}
|6,211
|187,665
|27,399
|18%
|146
|-
|{{flag|San Marino}}
|58,806
|33,203
|17,175
|97%
|517
|-
|{{flag|São Tomé and Príncipe}}
|3,721
|191,266
|25,587
|74%
|134
|-
|{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|48,921
|31,557,144
|16,125,701
|84%
|511
|-
|{{flag|Senegal}}
|3,068
|15,411,614
|2,454,059
|48%
|159
|-
|{{flag|Serbia}}
|18,351
|6,944,975
|2,347,402
|56%
|338
|-
|{{flag|Seychelles}}
|23,303
|88,303
|48,000
|58%
|544
|-
|{{flag|Sierra Leone}}
|1,238
|5,439,695
|610,222
|43%
|112
|-
|{{flag|Singapore}}
|97,341
|5,703,600
|1,870,000
|100%
|328
|-
|{{flag|Slovakia}}
|31,966
|5,454,073
|2,296,165
|54%
|421
|-
|{{flag|Slovenia}}
|39,038
|2,087,946
|1,052,325
|55%
|504
|-
|{{flag|Solomon Islands}}
|2,596
|563,513
|179,972
|25%
|319
|-
|{{flag|Somalia}}
|1,863
|14,317,996
|2,326,099
|46%
|162
|-
|{{flag|South Africa}}
|12,667
|51,729,344
|18,457,232
|67%
|357
|-
|{{flag|South Korea}}
|42,105
|51,606,632
|20,452,776
|81%
|396
|-
|{{flag|South Sudan}}
|1,796
|11,177,490
|2,680,681
|20%
|240
|-
|{{flag|Spain}}
|40,986
|47,076,780
|22,408,548
|81%
|476
|-
|{{flag|Sri Lanka}}
|12,287
|21,203,000
|2,631,650
|19%
|124
|-
|{{flag|Sudan}}
|4,192
|38,647,804
|2,831,291
|35%
|73
|-
|{{flag|Suriname}}
|16,954
|526,103
|78,620
|66%
|149
|-
|{{flag|Sweden}}
|52,609
|10,285,453
|4,618,169
|88%
|449
|-
|{{flag|Switzerland}}
|68,394
|8,574,832
|6,079,556
|74%
|709
|-
|{{flag|Syria}}
|8,587
|20,824,892
|4,500,000
|55%
|216
|-
|{{flag|Tajikistan}}
|2,616
|8,177,809
|1,787,400
|28%
|219
|-
|{{flag|Tanzania}}
|2,129
|49,082,996
|9,276,995
|35%
|189
|-
|{{flag|Thailand}}
|16,302
|68,657,600
|26,853,366
|51%
|391
|-
|{{flag|Timor-Leste}}
|3,345
|1,268,671
|63,875
|31%
|50
|-
|{{flag|Togo}}
|1,404
|7,228,915
|1,109,030
|43%
|153
|-
|{{flag|Tonga}}
|5,636
|104,951
|17,238
|23%
|164
|-
|{{flag|Trinidad and Tobago}}
|28,911
|1,328,100
|727,874
|53%
|548
|-
|{{flag|Tunisia}}
|10,505
|11,143,908
|2,700,000
|70%
|242
|-
|{{flag|Turkey}}
|28,289
|83,429,616
|35,374,156
|76%
|424
|-
|{{flag|Turkmenistan}}
|11,471
|5,366,277
|500,000
|53%
|93
|-
|{{flag|Tuvalu}}
|3,793
|11,097
|3,989
|64%
|360
|-
|{{flag|Uganda}}
|1,972
|35,093,648
|7,045,050
|25%
|201
|-
|{{flag|Ukraine}}
|11,535
|45,004,644
|15,242,025
|70%
|339
|-
|{{flag|United Arab Emirates}}
|67,119
|9,770,529
|5,617,682
|87%
|575
|-
|{{flag|United Kingdom}}
|46,290
|66,460,344
|30,771,140
|84%
|463
|-
|{{flag|United States of America}}
|61,498
|326,687,488
|265,224,528
|83%
|812
|-
|{{flag|Uruguay}}
|20,588
|3,431,552
|1,260,140
|96%
|367
|-
|{{flag|Uzbekistan}}
|5,164
|29,774,500
|4,000,000
|50%
|134
|-
|{{flag|Vanuatu}}
|3,062
|270,402
|70,225
|26%
|260
|-
|{{flag|Venezuela}}
|14,270
|29,893,080
|9,779,093
|88%
|327
|-
|{{flag|Vietnam}}
|5,089
|86,932,496
|9,570,300
|37%
|110
|-
|{{flag|British Virgin Islands}}
|24,216
|20,645
|21,099
|49%
|1,022
|-
|{{flag|United States Virgin Islands}}
|30,437
|105,784
|146,500
|96%
|1,385
|-
|{{flag|Yemen}}
|8,270
|27,584,212
|4,836,820
|38%
|175
|-
|{{flag|Zambia}}
|3,201
|14,264,756
|2,608,268
|45%
|183
|-
|{{flag|Zimbabwe}}
|3,191
|12,500,525
|1,449,752
|32%
|116
|}

== Waste management by region ==

===China===
Municipal solid waste generation shows spatiotemporal variation. In spatial distribution, the point sources in eastern coastal regions are quite different. Guangdong, Shanghai and Tianjin produced municipal solid waste (MSW) of 30.35, 7.85 and 2.95 Mt, respectively. In temporal distribution, during 2009–2018, Fujian province showed a 123% increase in MSW generation while Liaoning province showed only 7% increase, whereas Shanghai special zone had a decline of −11% after 2013. MSW composition characteristics are complicated. The major components such as [[kitchen waste]], paper and rubber & plastics in different eastern coastal cities have fluctuation in the range of 52.8–65.3%, 3.5–11.9%, and 9.9–19.1%, respectively.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126144|title=A review of China's municipal solid waste (MSW) and comparison with international regions: Management and technologies in treatment and resource utilization|year=2021|last1=Ding|first1=Yin|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=293|article-number=126144|bibcode=2021JCPro.29326144D |s2cid=233579268}}</ref>
In 2021, China's recycling rate was about 20&nbsp;%.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhang |first=Ming |last2=Wei |first2=Junxiao |last3=Li |first3=Huan |last4=Chen |first4=Yang |last5=Liu |first5=Jianguo |date=2024-01-10 |title=Comparing and optimizing municipal solid waste (MSW) management focused on air pollution reduction from MSW incineration in China |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969723065798 |journal=Science of The Total Environment |volume=907 |article-number=167952 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167952 |issn=0048-9697}}</ref>

=== Hungary ===
Hungary's first waste prevention program was  their 2014-2020 national waste management plan. Their current program (2021-2027) is financed by [[European Union]] and international grants, domestic co-financing, product charges, and landfill taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021 |title=Hungary Waste Prevention Country Profile 2021 |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/waste/waste-prevention/countries/2021-waste-prevention-country-profiles/hungary-waste-prevention-country-profile-2021 |access-date=February 26, 2025 |website=Europa}}</ref>

===Morocco===
[[Morocco]] has seen benefits from implementing a $300 million sanitary [[landfill]] system. While it might appear to be a costly investment, the country's government predicts that it has saved them another $440 million in damages, or consequences of failing to dispose of waste properly.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2018/09/27/how-the-world-should-cope-with-its-growing-piles-of-rubbish|title=How the world should cope with its growing piles of rubbish|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=2018-10-03|archive-date=3 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003172317/https://www.economist.com/leaders/2018/09/27/how-the-world-should-cope-with-its-growing-piles-of-rubbish|url-status=live}}</ref>

===San Francisco===
[[San Francisco]] started to make changes to their waste management policies in 2009 with the expectation to be zero waste by 2030.<ref name="epa.gov">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2013-03-01 |title=Zero Waste Case Study: San Francisco |url=https://www.epa.gov/transforming-waste-tool/case-study-san-francisco |access-date=2023-08-03 |website=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref> Council made changes such as making recycling and composting a mandatory practice for businesses and individuals, banning [[Styrofoam]] and plastic bags, putting charges on paper bags, and increasing garbage collection rates.<ref name="epa.gov"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Brigham |first=Katie |date=2018-07-14 |title=How San Francisco sends less trash to the landfill than any other major U.S. city |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/07/13/how-san-francisco-became-a-global-leader-in-waste-management.html |access-date=2023-08-03 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref> Businesses are fiscally rewarded for correct disposal of recycling and composting and taxed for incorrect disposal. Besides these policies, the waste bins were manufactured in various sizes. The compost bin is the largest, the recycling bin is second, and the garbage bin is the smallest. This encourages individuals to sort their waste thoughtfully with respect to the sizes. These systems are working because they were able to divert 80% of waste from the landfill, which is the highest rate of any major U.S. city.<ref name="epa.gov" /> Despite all these changes, Debbie Raphael, director of the San Francisco Department of the Environment, states that zero waste is still not achievable until all products are designed differently to be able to be recycled or compostable.<ref name="epa.gov"/>

===Turkey===
{{Excerpt|waste management in Turkey}}

===United Kingdom===
{{see also|Food waste in the United Kingdom}}
Waste management policy in England is the responsibility of the [[Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs|Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs]] (DEFRA). In England, the "Waste Management Plan for England" presents a compilation of waste management policies.<ref>DEFRA, [https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/waste-management-plan-for-england Waste management plan for England] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125121037/https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/waste-management-plan-for-england |date=25 January 2021 }}, accessed 22 December 2020</ref> In the devolved regions such as [[Scotland]], waste management policy is a responsibility of their own respective departments.

===Zambia===
In [[Zambia]], ASAZA is a community-based organization whose principal purpose is to complement the efforts of the Government and cooperating partners to uplift the standard of living for disadvantaged communities. The project's main objective is to minimize the problem of indiscriminate littering which leads to [[land degradation]] and pollution of the environment. ASAZA is also at the same time helping alleviate the problems of unemployment and poverty through income generation and payment of participants, women, and unskilled youths.<ref>{{cite web|title=Project Detail|url=https://sgp.undp.org/spacial-itemid-projects-landing-page/spacial-itemid-project-search-results/spacial-itemid-project-detailpage.html?view=projectdetail&id=16617|access-date=2020-09-28|website=sgp.undp.org}}</ref>

== Scientific journals ==
{{See also|Category: Waste management journals}}
Related scientific journals in this area include:
* ''[[Environmental and Resource Economics]]''
* ''[[Environmental Monitoring and Assessment]]''
* ''[[Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy and Management]]''
* ''[[Journal of Environmental Economics and Management]]''

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* Agunwamba, J. C. "Analysis of scavengers' activities and recycling in some cities of Nigeria." ''Environmental management'' 32 (2003): 116-127. [https://www.academia.edu/download/75259427/s00267-002-2874-520211126-11317-4yvllj.pdf online]

* Anand, Subhash. ''Solid waste management'' (Mittal Publications, 2010) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=djHAA6CqOU4C&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=Solid+Waste+Management+&ots=VW8P8uEvXg&sig=PzWmq-NBQTc73N4agNG7x_8Qt2w online].

* Downs, Mary, and Martin Medina. "A short history of scavenging." ''Comparative Civilizations Review'' 42.42 (2000): 4+ [https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1476&context=ccr online].

* Guerrero, Lilliana Abarca, Ger Maas, and William Hogland. "Solid waste management challenges for cities in developing countries." ''Waste management'' 33.1 (2013): 220-232. 

* Guo, Wei, et al. "Solid waste management in China: Policy and driving factors in 2004–2019." ''Resources, Conservation and Recycling'' 173 (2021): 105727.

* Hoornweg, Daniel, and Perinaz Bhada-Tata. "What a waste: a global review of solid waste management." (2012). [https://www.sidalc.net/search/Record/dig-okr-1098617388/Description online]

* {{cite book |editor-last1=Letcher |editor-first1=Trevor M. |editor-last2=Vallero |editor-first2=Daniel A. |title=Waste: A Handbook for Management |date=2011 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |location=Burlington |isbn=978-0-12-381475-3}}

* Ludwig, Christian, Stefanie Hellweg, and Samuel Stucki, eds. ''Municipal solid waste management: strategies and technologies for sustainable solutions'' (Springer Science & Business Media, 2012) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=iI7cBQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT19&dq=+%27%27Scavengers,+Recyclers+and+Solutions+for+Solid+&ots=SoqdmaaODM&sig=3afeWxfpDBlWkZdiS1IEX4rhkUo online].
* Melosi, Martin V.  ''The Sanitary City: Urban Infrastructure in America from Colonial Times to the Present'' (2nd ed. U of Pittsburgh Press, 2008) [https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Sanitary_City/NXnX4KkV00YC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA1&printsec=frontcover online]
* Nanda, Sonil, and Franco Berruti. "Municipal solid waste management and landfilling technologies: a review."  ''Environmental Chemistry Letters'' 19.2 (2021): 1433-1456.
* Reber, Patricia Bixler. "Free range pigs . . . in New York City" ''Researching Food History'' (January 13, 2014) [https://researchingfoodhistory.blogspot.com/2014/01/free-range-pigs-in-new-york-city.html online] 

* Reno, Joshua. "Waste and waste management." ''Annual Review of Anthropology'' 44.1 (2015): 557-572. [https://orb.binghamton.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=anthropology_fac online]
* Reno, Joshua. "Motivated Markets: Instruments and Ideologies of Clean Energy in the United Kingdom,"  ''Cultural Anthropology'' 2011  26(3): 391-415
* Shove E. ''Comfort, Cleanliness and Convenience: the Social Organisation of Normality'' (Bloomsbury, 2004).

* Strasser, Susan. ''Waste and want: A social history of trash'' (Macmillan, 2000).

* Watson, Robert P., and Noah Zerbe. "Scavengers, Recyclers, and Solutions for Solid Waste Management in Indonesia." (1996): 268-271. {{JSTOR|45197669}}

* Weghmann, Vera. "Waste management in Europe." (2023). [http://gala.gre.ac.uk/id/eprint/41777/7/41777-Weghman-Waste-management-in-Europe.pdf online]

* Wilson, David C., et al. "Comparative analysis of solid waste management in 20 cities." ''Waste management & research'' 30.3 (2012): 237-254. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Costas-Velis/publication/221693686_Comparative_analysis_of_solid_waste_management_in_20_cities/links/00b4951c45c3dc1268000000/Comparative-analysis-of-solid-waste-management-in-20-cities.pdf online]

* Zimring C. ''Cash for Your Trash: Scrap Recycling in America.'' (Rutgers University Press, 2005).

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Waste management}}

{{Waste}}
{{Recycling}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Waste management| ]]
[[Category:Management by type]]