View source for West Atlantic languages

{{Short description|Niger–Congo language subgroup of West Africa}}
{{Redirect|Atlantic languages|Theo Vennemann's Semitic superstratum theory|Atlantic (Semitic) languages|Segerer's pared-down family|Senegambian languages}}
{{Infobox language family
| name          = West Atlantic
| acceptance    = obsolete as a language family, geographic
| region        = Westernmost Africa
| familycolor   = Niger-Congo
| fam2          = [[Atlantic–Congo languages|Atlantic–Congo]]
| glotto        = none
| altname       = Atlantic
| map           = Atlantic languages map.svg
}}

The '''West Atlantic languages''' (also the '''Atlantic languages'''<ref group="note">"West Atlantic" is the traditional term, following [[Diedrich Hermann Westermann]]; "Atlantic" is more typical in recent work, particularly since Bendor-Samuel (1989), but is also used specifically for the northern branch of West Atlantic.</ref> or '''North Atlantic languages'''<ref name="Merrill"/>) of [[West Africa]] are a major subgroup of the [[Niger–Congo languages]].

The Atlantic languages are spoken along the [[Atlantic]] coast from [[Senegal]] to [[Liberia]], though [[transhumant]] [[Fula language|Fula]] speakers have spread eastward and are found in large numbers across the [[Sahel]], from Senegal to [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]] and [[Sudan]]. [[Wolof language|Wolof]] of Senegal and several of the Fula languages are the most populous Atlantic languages, with several million speakers each. Other significant members include [[Serer language|Serer]] and the [[Jola languages|Jola]] dialect cluster of Senegal. [[Temne language|Temne]], a major language of [[Sierra Leone]], was included in the Atlantic subgroup in earlier classifications but in modern proposals, it is no longer grouped within Atlantic.

Most Atlantic languages exhibit [[consonant mutation]]  and have noun-class systems similar to those of the distantly related [[Bantu languages]]. Some languages are [[tone (linguistics)|tonal]], while others such as Wolof have [[pitch-accent]] systems. The basic [[word order]] tends to be [[subject–verb–object|SVO]].

==Classification and scope==
===Traditional classification===
The Atlantic family was first identified by [[Sigismund Koelle]] in 1854. In the early 20th century, [[Carl Meinhof]] claimed that Fula was a [[Hamitic]] language, but August von Klingenhaben and [[Joseph Greenberg]]'s work established Fula's close relationship with Wolof and Serer. W. A. A. Wilson notes that the validity of the family as a whole rests on much weaker evidence, though it is clear that the languages are part of the [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] family, based on evidence such as a shared noun-class system. However, [[comparative method|comparative]] work on Niger–Congo is in its infancy. Classifications of Niger–Congo, usually based on [[lexicostatistics]], generally propose that the various Atlantic languages are rather divergent, but less so than [[Mande languages|Mande]] and other languages that lack noun classes.

[[J. David Sapir|David Sapir]] (1971) proposed a classification of Atlantic into three branches, a northern group, a southern group, and the divergent [[Bijago language]] of the [[Bissagos Islands]] off the coast of [[Guinea-Bissau]]:{{sfnp|Sapir|1971|pp=48–49}}

{{tree list}}
*'''Atlantic'''
**[[Senegambian languages|Northern]]
***Sénégal languages: [[Fula language|Fula]]–[[Serer language|Serer]]; [[Wolof language|Wolof]]
***[[Cangin languages]]
***[[Bak languages]] (not including [[Bijago language|Bijago]])
***Eastern Sénégal–Portuguese Guinea languages
****[[Tenda languages]]
****[[Biafada language|Biafada]]–[[Pajade language|Pajade]]
****[[Kobiana language|Kobiana]]–[[Kasanga language|Kasanga]]–[[Banyum language|Banhum]]
****[[Nalu language|Nalu]]–[[Mbulungish language|Mbulungish]]–[[Baga Mboteni language|Baga Mboteni]]
**[[Bijago language|Bijago]]
**Southern
***[[Sua language|Sua]]
***[[Mel languages]] (including Gola)
***[[Limba language|Limba]]
{{tree list/end}}

Sapir's classification is widely cited in handbooks on African linguistics (e.g. Bender 1989, Williamson & Blench 2000), and is also used in the [[Ethnologue]] (22nd ed., 2019).

===Recent proposals===
The unity of the Atlantic languages—as traditionally defined—has long been questioned, e.g. Dalby (1965), who argued for the Mel languages as a primary branch of Niger–Congo. At the current state of research, the wide concept of Atlantic (i.e. including the Southern languages) within the Niger–Congo family is no longer held up.{{sfnp|Güldemann|2018|pp=180–183}}

Segerer (2010, 2016<ref>{{cite conference |last=Segerer |first=Guillaume |url=http://www.guillaumesegerer.fr/Ling/Documents/Pub/Segerer-ACAL47-final.ppsx |title=A new, innovation-based classification of Atlantic languages |conference=ACAL 47 |location=Berkeley |date=Mar 23–26, 2016}}</ref>) and Pozdniakov & Segerer (2017) propose a [[Senegambian languages|narrowed-down version]] of the Atlantic languages by excluding all languages of the southern branch, which they treat as four primary branches (viz. Sua, Limba, Gola, and the Mel languages) within the Niger–Congo family. The Bak languages are split from the northern languages as a coordinate subbranch within Atlantic (in the narrow sense). Bijago is assigned to the Bak languages.

Güldemann (2018) goes even further, and also treats [[Nalu language|Nalu]] and [[Mbulungish language|Mbulungish]]–[[Baga Mboteni language|Baga Mboteni]] ("[[Rio Nunez languages|Rio Nunez]]") as unclassified first-order branches of Niger–Congo.{{sfnp|Güldemann|2018|p=188}}

====Vossen & Dimmendaal (2020)====
Revised classification of the Atlantic languages (Vossen & Dimmendaal 2020:166,<ref name="Vossen">{{cite book |editor-last1=Vossen |editor-first1=Rainer |editor-last2=Dimmendaal |editor-first2=Gerrit J. |year=2020 |title=The Oxford Handbook of African Languages |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199609895.001.0001|isbn=978-0199609895 }}</ref> from Pozdniakov & Segerer<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pozdniakov |first1=K. |last2=Segerer |first2=G. |chapter=A genealogical classification of Atlantic languages |editor-last=Lüpke |editor-first=F. |title=The Oxford Guide to the Atlantic Languages of West Africa |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>):

{{tree list}}
*'''Atlantic'''
**North
***Wolof: Wolof, Lebu
***Nyun-Buy
****Nyun (Gunyaamolo, Gujaher, Gubëeher, etc.)
****Buy (Kasanga, Kobiana)
***Tenda-Jaad
****Tenda: Basari, Tanda, Bedik, Bapen; Konyagi
****Jaad: Biafada; Badiaranke
***Fula-Sereer
****Fula (Pular, Pulaar, Fulfulde, etc.)
****Sereer
***Cangin
****Palor, Ndut
****Noon, Laala, Saafi
***Nalu
****Nalu
****Bage Fore
****Baga Mboteni
**Bak
***Balant: Ganja, Kentohe, Fraase
***Joola-Manjaku
****Joola: Fogny, Banjal, Kasa, Kwaatay, Karon, Ejamat, Keeraak, etc.; Bayot ?
****Manjaku
****Bok, Cur, Bassarel
****Pepel
****Mankanya
***Bijogo: Kamona, Kagbaaga, Kajoko
{{tree list/end}}

====Merrill (2021)====
Merrill (2021) proposes that Atlantic (or North Atlantic) is not a valid subgroup of Niger-Congo, but rather considers each of the established Atlantic "branches" to all be primary branches of Niger-Congo. Furthermore, Merrill suggests that due to the divergence of the Atlantic languages, the homeland of Niger-Congo may lie in the northwest of sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="Merrill">{{cite conference |last=Merrill |first=Jack |url=https://www.iaaw.hu-berlin.de/de/region/afrika/veranstaltung/archiv/4-6-11-diedrich-westermann-workshop/4-6-11-diedrich-westermann-workshop-powerpoint-und-pdf/2021-11-westermann-berlin-3-4-merrill-atlantic-primary-families-bantu-cognates.pdf |title=Cognate noun class markers between Northern Atlantic groups and Benue-Congo| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230829151341/https://www.iaaw.hu-berlin.de/de/region/afrika/veranstaltung/archiv/4-6-11-diedrich-westermann-workshop/4-6-11-diedrich-westermann-workshop-powerpoint-und-pdf/2021-11-westermann-berlin-3-4-merrill-atlantic-primary-families-bantu-cognates.pdf |archive-date=2023-08-29 |conference-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230829193710/https://www.iaaw.hu-berlin.de/en/region/africa/events/archives/4-6-11-2021-diedrich-westermann-workshop |conference=Diedrich Westermann-Workshop |date=2021-11-06 |location=Humboldt University of Berlin}}</ref>

{{tree list}}
*'''North Atlantic geographical area'''
**Fula-Sereer (branch)
***Fula
***Sereer
**Cangin
**Wolof
**Bainunk-Kobiana-Kasanga (branch)
***Kobiana
***Gujaher
***Gubëeher
***Guñaamolo
**Biafada-Pajade (branch)
***Pajade
***Biafada
**Tenda (branch)
***Konyagi
***Bassari
***Bedik
**Bak (branch)
***Joola
***Manjak
***Balanta
**Bijogo (branch)
{{tree list/end}}

Merrill (2021) also notes that Tenda and Biafada-Pajade share similarities with each other, and may possibly form a [[linkage (linguistics)|linkage]].

==Reconstruction==
Proto-Atlantic [[Lexical Innovation|lexical innovations]] reconstructed by [[Konstantin Pozdniakov|Pozdniakov]] & Segerer (2017):{{sfnp|Pozdniakov|Segerer|2017}}

{| class="wikitable"
! Gloss !! Proto-Atlantic
|-
| star || *kʷʊʈ
|-
| to fly || *yiiʈ
|-
| to die || *keʈ
|-
| to rot || *pʊʈ
|-
| three || *taʈ
|-
| eye || *giʈ
|-
| liver || *heɲ
|-
| feather || *lung
|-
| hair || *wal
|-
| baobab || *bak ~ *ɓak
|-
| to see || *jok (?)
|-
| tree trunk || *dik
|-
| to give birth || *was / *bas
|}

Wilson (2007:36) also proposed the tentative Proto-Atlantic reconstructions:<ref name="Wilson">{{cite book |isbn=9780820498911 |title=Guinea Languages of the Atlantic Group: Description and Internal Classification |last1=Wilson |first1=André Auguier |date=2007 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! Gloss !! Proto-Atlantic
|-
| head || *kop
|-
| ear || *nop
|-
| eye || *kit
|-
| mouth || *tum
|}

Sample Atlantic cognate sets:{{sfnp|Pozdniakov|Segerer|2017}}

{| class="wikitable"
! ''Language'' !! ‘eye’ !! ‘liver’ !! ‘feather’ !! ‘hair’ !! ‘baobab’ !! ‘to see’ !! ‘tree trunk’ !! ‘to give birth’
|-
! Proto-Atlantic !! *giʈ !! *heɲ !! *lung !! *wal !! *b/ɓak !! *jok? !! *dik !! *w/bas
|-
| Tenda-Jaad || *gəɬ || *ceeɲ || *dɔ̰̀ngw || *mbal || ɓak || jeek? || || *bas
|-
| Fula-Sereer || *git || xeeɲ ||  || wiil || ɓaak/ɓok || jak || lek- || ɓas-il
|-
| Nyun-Buy || *giɬ || kɩɩɲ || lung ||  || bɔk || njug? || leex/rien || bɔs
|-
| Wolof || -ət ||  || dung || *-war ||  || jàkk ||  || wəs-in
|-
| Cangin || *ʔəɬ || *kɛɛɲ ||  ||  || ɓaʔ/ɓɔh ||  || *dik || ɓəs
|-
| Nalu || cet ||  ||  ||  || bɛɛk || yɛk || dik/lik || 
|-
| Joola || kiɬ || hɩɩɲ ||  || *wal || bak || jʊk || nʊk-an || βɔs
|-
| Manjak || *kiɬ || *-ɩɲ || lung || *wɛl || bak || jʊk ||  || bas
|-
| Balant || *kít/git || hɩ́ɩ́ɲɛ̰̀ ||  || wul/hul ||  ||  || ndíŋá/ndiik || 
|-
| Bijogo || ŋɛ ||  || runk- || wa ||  || joŋ || nik-an || -gbʸa
|}

Reconstructions for individual West Atlantic branches can be found in Merrill (2021).<ref name="Merrill"/>

==Numerals==
Comparison of numerals in individual languages:<ref name="ChanNumeralsNC">{{Cite web|url=https://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/channumerals/Niger-Congo.htm|title=The Niger-Congo Language Phylum|last=Chan|first=Eugene|publisher=Numeral Systems of the World's Languages|date=2019}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"  style="font-size: 85%"
! Classification !! Language !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10
|-
| Senegambian, Serer || [[ISO 639:srr|Sereer-Sine]] (1) || leŋ || ƭik || tadik || nahik || ƥetik || ɓetaa fo leŋ (5 + 1) || ɓetaa ƭak  (5 + 2) || ɓetaa tadak (5 + 3) || ɓetaa nahak (5 + 4) || xarɓaxaay
|-
| Senegambian, Serer || [[ISO 639:srr|Serer-Sine]] (2) || leŋ || ɗik || tadik || nahik || ɓedik || ɓetuː fa leŋ (5 + 1) || ɓetuː ɗik  (5 + 2) || ɓetuː tadik (5 + 3) || ɓetuː nahik (5 + 4) || xarɓaxay
|-
| Senegambian, Fula-Wolof || [[ISO 639:wol|Wolof]] || bɛn: || ɲaːr || ɲɛtː || ɲɛnt || dʒuroːm || dʒuroːm bɛn: (5 + 1) || dʒuroːm ɲaːr  (5 + 2) || dʒuroːm ɲɛtː  (5 + 3) || dʒuroːm ɲɛnt  (5 + 4) || fukː
|-
| Senegambian, Fula-Wolof || [[ISO 639:fuq|CE Niger Fulfulde]] || ɡɔ́ʔɔ̀ || ɗíɗi || tátì || náì || ɟóè || ɟóé ɡɔ̀l (5 + 1) || ɟóé ɗìɗi  (5 + 2) || ɟóé tátì (5 + 3) || ɟóé náì (5 + 4) || sáppò
|-
| Senegambian, Fula-Wolof || [[ISO 639:fuh|Western Niger Fulfulde]] || ɡoʔo || ɗiɗi || tati || naj || d͡ʒoj || d͡ʒeeɡom (5 + 1) || d͡ʒeɗɗi   (5 + 2) || d͡ʒeetati (5 + 3) || d͡ʒeenaj (5 + 4) || sappo
|-
| Senegambian, Fula-Wolof || [[ISO 639:fub|Adamawa Fulfulde]] || ɡoʔo || ɗiɗi || tati || naj || d͡ʒowi || d͡ʒoweːɡo  (5 + 1) || d͡ʒoweːɗiɗi  (5 + 2) || d͡ʒoweːtati (5 + 3) || d͡ʒoweːnaj (5 + 4) || sappo
|-
| Senegambian, Fula-Wolof || [[ISO 639:ffm|Fulfulde Maasina]] || ɡoʔo || ɗiɗi || tati || naj || d͡ʒoj || d͡ʒeːɡom  (5 + 1) || d͡ʒeɗ:i   (5 + 2) || d͡ʒet:i    (5 + 3) || d͡ʒeːnaj (5 + 4) || sap:o
|-
| Senegambian, Fula-Wolof || [[ISO 639:fuf|Pular]] || ɡooto / ɡoo || ɗiɗi || tati || naj || d͡ʒowi || d͡ʒeeɡo  (5 + 1) || d͡ʒeeɗiɗi  (5 + 2) || d͡ʒeetati (5 + 3) || d͡ʒeenaj (5 + 4) || sappo
|-
| Senegambian, Fula-Wolof || [[ISO 639:fuc|Pulaar]] || ɡoo || ɗiɗi || tati || naj || d͡ʒoj || d͡ʒeeɡom  (5 + 1) || d͡ʒeeɗiɗi  (5 + 2) || d͡ʒeetati (5 + 3) || d͡ʒeenaj (5 + 4) || sappo
|-
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Banyun || [[ISO 639:bcz|Baïnounk Gubëeher]] || -nduk || -na:k || -lal: || -rendek || cilax (lit: ''hand'') || cilax aŋɡa -nduk || cilax aŋɡa -na:k || cilax aŋɡa -lal: || cilax aŋɡa -rɛndɛk || ha:lax (litː ''feet'')
|-
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Banyun || [[ISO 639:bcz|Gunyaamolo Banyun]] (1) || uŋɡonduk || hanakk || halall || harɛnɛk || hɐməkila || hɐməkila iŋɡi uŋɡonduk || hɐməkila iŋɡi hanakk || hɐməkila iŋɡi halall || hɐməkila iŋɡi harɛnɛk || haala (litː hands)
|-
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Banyun || [[ISO 639:bcz|Gunyaamolo Banyun]] (2) || -duk || -nak || -lall || -rɛnɛk || -məkila || -məkila iŋɡi -duk (5 + 1) || -məkila iŋɡi -nak (5 + 2) || -məkila iŋɡi -lall (5 + 3) || -məkila iŋɡi -rɛnɛk (5 + 4) || ha-lah (litː hands)
|-
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Nun || [[ISO 639:ccj|Kasanga (Cassanga)]] || -tɛɛna || -naandiid || -taar || -sannaʔ || jurooɡ || jurooɡ -tɛɛna    (5 + 1) || jurooɡ -naandiid (5 + 2) || ɡasansanna (cf. 'four') || jurooɡ -sannaʔ  (5 + 4) || ŋaarooɡ (litː 'fives')
|-
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Nun || [[ISO 639:kcj|Kobiana]] || -tee(na) || -naŋ || -teeh || -sannaŋ || jurooɡ || jurooɡ -tee(na) (5 + 1) || jurooɡ -tee(na) + ? (5 + 1 + x) || sannaŋ sannaŋ  (4 + 4) || sannaŋ sannaŋ + ? (4 + 4 + x) || ntaajã
|-
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda || [[ISO 639:pbp|Badyara]] || painɛ / pakkã  || maae || mat͡ʃaw || manne || kobəda || kobəda ŋka-inɛ     (5 + 1) || kobəda ŋka maae  (5 + 2) || kobəda ŋka mat͡ʃaw (5 + 3) || kobəda ŋka manne  (5 + 4) || pappo
|-
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda || [[ISO 639:bsc|Oniyan (Bassari)]] || imɐt || ɓəki || ɓətɐs || ɓənɐx || ɓəɲɟɔ || ɓəɲɟɔŋɡimɐt  (5 + 1) || ɓəɲɟɔŋɡəɓəki (5 + 2) || ɓəɲɟɔŋɡəɓətɐs  (5 + 3) || ɓəɲɟɔŋɡəɓənɐx (5 + 4) || ɛpəxw
|-
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda || [[ISO 639:bif|Biafada]] (1) || nəmma || bihe || biɟo || bini || ɡəbəda || mpaaɟi || mpaaɟi ŋɡa ɲi (6 + ɲi) || wase || leberebo || bapo
|-
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda || [[ISO 639:bif|Biafada]] (2) || -nnəmma || -ke || -jo || -nnihi || ɡəbəda || mpaaji || mpaaji nyi (6 + nyi) || wose || liberebo || ba-ppo
|-
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda || [[ISO 639:tnr|Budik (Tenda)]] || riye, diye, iye || xi, ki || sas, tas || maxala, maxana || co(nje) || co nɡə iye (5 + 1) || co nɡə xi (5 + 2) || co nɡə sas (5 + 3) || co nɡə maxala (5 + 4) || ipox
|-
| Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda || [[ISO 639:cou|Wamey (Konyagi)]] || rjɐmpɔ || wɐhi || wɐrɐr || wɐr̃ɐh || mbəɗ || mbəɗ ɡə rjɐw̃  (5 + 1) || mbəɗ ɡə wɐhi (5 + 2) || mbəɗ ɡə wɐrɐr  (5 + 3) || mbəɗ ɡə wɐnɐh (5 + 4) || pəhw
|-
| Bijago || [[ISO 639:bjg|Bijago (Bijogo)]] || nɔɔd || n-som || ɲ-ɲɔɔkɔ || ya-aɡɛnɛk || n-deɔkɔ || (n-deɔkɔ) na nɔɔd (5 + 1) || (n-deɔkɔ) ni n-som (5 + 2) || (n-deɔkɔ) ni ɲ-ɲɔɔkɔ (5 + 3) || (n-deɔkɔ) na ya-aɡɛnɛk (5 + 4) || n-ruakɔ
|-
| Bak, Balant-Ganja || [[ISO 639:bjt|Balanta-Ganja]] || -woda || -sibi || -aabí || -tahla || -jíif || faaj || faajinɡooda (6 + 1) ? || taataala     (2 x 4) ? || -jíntahla    (5 + 4) ? || -jímmin
|-
| Bak, Balant-Ganja || [[ISO 639:ble|Balanta-Kentohe]] || fho:dn / ho:dn || ksibm || khobm || ktahli || t͡ʃɪf (litː ''hand'') || t͡ʃɪf kə fhdon (5 + 1) || t͡ʃɪf kə ksibm  (5 + 2) || t͡ʃɪf kə khobm (5 + 3) || t͡ʃɪf kə ktalhi   (5 + 4) || t͡ʃɪːfmɛn (litː ''whole hands'')
|-
| Bak, Jola, Bayot || [[ISO 639:bda|Bayot]] || ɛndon || tɪɡˑɡa || fɜzɪ || iβɛɪ || oɾɔ  (litː 'one hand') || oɾɔ-nenˑdon ('one hand plus one') || oɾɔ-niɾɪɡˑɡa  ('one hand plus two') || oɾɔ-nifɛzɪ   ('one hand plus three') || oɾɔ-niβɛɪ    ('one hand plus four') || ɡʊtˑtɪɛ ('two hands' )
|-
| Bak, Jola, Bayot || [[ISO 639:bda|Senegal Bayot]] || ɛndon || ɪɾɪɡːə || i'feɟi || ɪ'βɛj || ɔɾɔ  (litː 'one hand') || ɔɾɔ nɪ 'ɛndon ('one hand plus one') || ɔɾɔ nɪ 'ɪɾiɡːə  ('one hand plus two') || ɔɾɔ nɪ i'feɟi    ('one hand plus three') || ɔɾɔ nɪ ɪ'βɛj ('one hand plus four') || ʊ'sɛβɔkɔ  ('two hands' )
|-
| Bak, Jola, Jola Proper || [[ISO 639:bqj|Bandial]] || jɐnʊɾ || suːβɐ || si'fʰəʝi || sɪ'bɐɣɪɾ || fʊ'tɔx || fʊ'tɔx nɪ 'jɐnʊɾ  (5 + 1) || fʊ'tɔx nɪ 'suːβɐ  (5 + 2) || fʊ'tɔx nɪ si'fʰəʝi (5 + 3) || fʊ'tɔx nɪ sɪ'bɐɣɪɾ  (5 + 4) || ɣʊ'ɲɛn  (litː ''hands'')
|-
| Bak, Jola, Jola Proper || [[ISO 639:gsl|Gusilay]] || janɷr ɷ = ʊ || suuβa || sifːəɟi || sɪbːaɣɪr || fɷtɔx || fɷtɔx nɪ janɷr (5 + 1) || fɷtɔx nɪ suuβa (5 + 2) || fɷtɔx nɪ sifːəɟi   (5 + 3) || fɷtɔx nɪ sɪbːaɣɪr (5 + 4) || ɡɷɲɛn  (litː ''hands'')
|-
| Bak, Jola, Jola Proper || [[ISO 639:dyo|Jola-Fonyi (Dyola)]] (1) || jəkon || siɡaba || sifeeɡiir || sibaakiir || futɔk || futɔk di jəkon  (5 + 1) || futɔk di siɡaba (5 + 2) || futɔk di sifeeɡiir (5 + 3) || futɔk di sibaakiir (5 + 4) || uɲɛn
|-
| Bak, Jola, Jola Proper || [[ISO 639:dyo|Jola-Fonyi (Dyola)]] (2) || jəkon || siɡaba || sifeeɡiir || sibaakiir || futɔk || futɔk di jəkon  (5 + 1) || futɔk di siɡaba (5 + 2) || futɔk di sifeeɡiir (5 + 3) || futɔk di sibaakiir (5 + 4) || uɲɛn
|-
| Bak, Jola, Jola Proper || [[ISO 639:csk|Jola-Kaasa]] || jɐnɔ || sil̥uβə || si'həːɟi || sɪ'bɐkɪː || hʊ'tɔk || hʊ'tɔk lɪ 'jɐnɔ  (5 + 1) || hʊ'tɔk lɪ 'sil̥uβə  (5 + 2) || hʊ'tɔk lɪ si'həːɟi  (5 + 3) || hʊ'tɔk lɪ sɪ'bɐkɪː  (5 + 4) || kʊ'ŋɛn  (litː ''hands'')
|-
| Bak, Jola, Jola Proper || [[ISO 639:krx|Karon]] || yɔːnɔːl || susupək || sihəːciːl || sɪpɐːkɪːl || ɪsɐk || ɪsɐk nɪ yɔːnɔːl    (5 + 1) || ɪsɐk nɪŋ susupək  (5 + 2) || ɪsɐk nɪŋ sihəːciːl (5 + 3) || ɪsɐk nɪŋ sɪpɐːkɪːl (5 + 4) || ŋɐːsʊwɐn susupək
|-
| Bak, Jola, Jola Proper || [[ISO 639:cwt|Kwatay (Kwaataay)]] || hifeeneŋ || kúsuba || kíhaaji || kibaakir || hutok || hutok ni hifeeneŋ  (5 + 1) || hutok nu kúsuba (5 + 2) || hutok ni kíhaaji  (5 + 3) || hutok ni  kibaakir (5 + 4) || sumoŋu
|-
| Bak, Manjaku-Papel || [[ISO 639:knf|Mankanya]] || ulolɛ̂n || ŋɨ́tɛp || ŋɨ̀wàdʒɛ̀nt || ŋɨbakɨr || kaɲɛn || padʒɨ || nawuloŋ || bakɾɛ̂ŋ || kaɲɛ́ŋkalɔŋ || iɲɛ̂n  (litː hands)
|-
| Bak, Manjaku-Papel || [[ISO 639:pbo|Papel]] || o-loŋ || ŋ-puɡus || ŋ-ɟenʂ || ŋ-uakr || k-ɲene || paaɟ || ɟand || bakari || k-ɲeŋ k-loŋ  (< 10 - 1 ?) || o-diseɲene
|-
| Cangin || [[ISO 639:cae|Laalaa (Lehar)]] || wi̘ːno̘ː || kɐnɐk || kɐːhɐj || niːkiːs || jə̘tu̘ːs || jitnɛːnɔː    (5 + 1) || jitnɐkɐnɐk  (5 + 2) || jitnɐkɐːhɐj  (5 + 3) || jitnɐniːkiːs (5 + 4) || dɐːŋkɛh
|-
| Cangin || [[ISO 639:ndv|Ndut]] || yinë [jinə] || ana [ʔana] || éeyë [ʔéeyə] || iniil [ʔiniːl] || iip [ʔiːp] || pëenë [ˈpəːnə]  (5 + 1) || paana [ˈpaːna] (5 + 2) || peeye [ˈpeːjɛ] (5 + 3) || payniil [ˈpainiːl] (5 + 4) || sabboo [ˈsabɔː]
|-
| Cangin || [[ISO 639:snf|Noon]] || ˈwiːnɔ: / ˈwitnɔː  || ˈkanak || ˈkaːhaj || ˈnɪkɪːs || ˈjətu̘ːs || jɪtˈnɪːnɔː    (5 + 1) || jɪtnaˈkanak  (5 + 2) || jɪtnaˈkaːhaj (5 + 3) || jɪtnaˈnɪkɪːs (5 + 4) || ˈdaːŋkah
|-
| Cangin || [[ISO 639:fap|Palor (Falor)]] || yino || ana || eye || iniil || iip || poyno  (5 + 1) || paana  (5 + 2) || peeye  (5 + 3) || payniil (5 + 4) || saɓo
|-
| Cangin || [[ISO 639:sav|Saafi-Saafi (Safen)]] || ˈjiːnɔ || ˈkanak̚ || ˈkaːhay || ˈniːkis || jaːtus  (< 'hand jaːh') || ˌjiːs na ˈjiːno (5 + 1) || ˌjiːs na ˈkanak̚ (5 + 2) || ˌjiːs na ˈkaːhay (5 + 3) || ˌjiːs na ˈniːkis (5 + 4) || ˈndaŋkiaːh
|-
| Mbulungish-Nalu || [[ISO 639:mbv|Mbulungish (Baga-Foré)]] || kiben || ʃidi / tʃidi || ʃitɛt / tʃitɛt || ʃinɛŋ / tʃinɛŋ || susɑ || sɑkben (5 + 1) || sɑkdi (5 + 2) || sɑktɛt  (5 + 3) || sɑknɛŋ (5 + 4) || ɛtɛlɛ
|-
| Mbulungish-Nalu || [[ISO 639:naj|Nalu]] (1) || deːndɪk || bilɛ || paːt || biːnaːŋ || teːduŋ || teːduŋ ti ndeːndɪk (5 + 1) || teːduŋ ti bilɛ      (5 + 2) || teːduŋ ti paːt      (5 + 3) || teːduŋ ti biːnaːŋ  (5 + 4) || tɛːblɛ ~ tɛbɪlɛ
|-
| Mbulungish-Nalu || [[ISO 639:naj|Nalu]] (2) || deendek || bilɛ || paat || biinaaŋ || teedoŋ || teedoŋ ti mdeendek (5 + 1) || teedoŋ ti bilɛ (5 + 2) || teedoŋ ti paat (5 + 3) || teedoŋ ti biinaaŋ (5 + 4) || tɛɛblɛ
|-
| Limba || [[ISO 639:lia|West-Central Limba]] || hantʰe || kaaye || kataati || kanaŋ || kasɔhi || kasɔŋ hantʰe (5 + 1) || kasɔŋ kaaye (5 + 2) || kasɔŋ kataati (5 + 3) || kasɔŋ kanaŋ (5 + 4) || kɔɔhi
|-
| Limba || [[ISO 639:lma|East Limba]] || hantʰe || kale || katati || kanaŋ || kasɔhi || kasɔŋ hantʰe (5 + 1) || kasɔŋ kale (5 + 2) || kasɔŋ katati (5 + 3) || kasɔŋ kanaŋ (5 + 4) || kɔhi
|-
| Sua || [[ISO 639:msw|Mansoanka (Sua)]] || sɔn || cen || b-rar || b-nan || sɔŋɡun || sɔŋɡun də sɔnsɔn (5 + 1) || sɔŋɡun də mcen (5 + 2) || sɔŋɡun də mbrar (5 + 3) || sɔŋɡun də mnan (5 + 4) || tɛŋi
|-
| Mel, Bullom-Kissi || [[ISO 639:buy|Bullom So(Mani)]] || nìmbúl || nìncə́ŋ || nìnrá || nìŋnyɔ́l / -nyɔ́l || nìmán || mɛ̀m-búl (5 + 1) || mɛ̀ncə́ŋ (5 + 2) || mɛ̀nrá   (5 + 3) || mɛ̀nnyɔ́l  (5 + 4) || wàm
|-
| Mel, Bullom-Kissi || [[ISO 639:bun|Sherbro]] || bul || tɪŋ || ræ || hyo̠l   o̠ = French ''au'' in ''aube'' || mɛn || mɛn-buk (5 + 1) || mɛn-tɪŋ  (5 + 2) || mɛn-ra   (5 + 3) || mɛn-hyo̠l  (5 + 4) || wāŋ
|-
| Mel, Bullom-Kissi || [[ISO 639:kqs|Southern Kissi]] || pìlɛ̀ɛ́ || mùúŋ || ŋɡàá || hìɔ́ɔ́lú || ŋùɛ̀ɛ́nú || ŋǒmpûm   (5 + 1) || ŋǒmɛ́ú      (5 + 2) || ŋǒmáá      (5 + 3) || ŋǒmàhìɔ́ɔ́lú (5 + 4) || tɔ́
|-
| Mel, Gola || [[ISO 639:gol|Gola]] || ɡuùŋ || tìyèe || taai || tiinàŋ || nɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋ || nɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋ diè ɡuùŋ (5 + 1) || nɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋ leè tìyèe  (5 + 2) || nɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋ leè taai   (5 + 3) || nɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̀ŋ leè tiinàŋ  (5 + 4) || zììyà
|-
| Mel, Temne, Baga || [[ISO 639:bmd|Baga Mandori]] || piin || marəm || masaas || maaŋkəlɛɛŋ || kəcaamət || kəcaamtr tiin (5 + 1) || kəcaamtr marəm (5 + 2) || kəcaamtr masaas (5 + 3) || kəcaamtr maaŋkəlɛɛŋ (5 + 4) || ocoo
|-
| Mel, Temne, Baga || [[ISO 639:bsp|Baga Sitemu]] || pin || mɛrɨŋ || maːs / mãs || maŋkɨlɛ || kɨt͡ʃamɨt || t͡ʃamɨtin     (5 + 1) || t͡ʃamɨmɛrɨŋ (5 + 2) || t͡ʃamɨmaːs   (5 + 3) || t͡ʃamɨmaŋkɨlɛ (5 + 4) || wɨt͡ʃɔ
|-
| Mel, Temne, Baga || [[ISO 639:ldm|Landoma]] || tɛ̀n || mʌ̀rəŋ || mʌ̀sas || mànkᵊlɛ || kəcàmət || kəcʌ̀ntin (5 + 1) || kəcʌ̀ntᵊ mʌ̀rəŋ  (5 + 2) || kəcʌ̀ntᵊ̀ mʌ̀sas   (5 + 3) || kəcʌ̀ntᵊ mànkᵊlɛ (5 + 4) || pù
|-
| Mel, Temne, Temne-Banta || [[ISO 639:tem|Temne (Themne)]] (1) || pín || pɨrʌ́ŋ || pɨsas || panlɛ || tamát̪ || dukín  (5 + 1) || dɛrɨ́ŋ   (5 + 2) || dɛsas   (5 + 3) || dɛŋanlɛ (5 + 4) || tɔfɔ́t
|-
| Mel, Temne, Temne-Banta || [[ISO 639:tem|Temne (Themne)]] (2) || pìn || pə̀rə́ŋ || pə̀sàs || pànlɛ̀ || tàmàθ || dùkìn  (5 + 1) || dɛ̀rə̀ŋ  (5 + 2) || dɛ̀sàs   (5 + 3) || dɛ̀ŋànlɛ̀ (5 + 4) || tɔ̀fɔ̀t
|-
| Mel, Temne, Temne-Banta || [[ISO 639:tem|Temne (Themne)]] (3) || p-in || pə-rəŋ || pə-sas || p-aŋlɛ || tamath || tamath rukin (5 + 1) || tamath dɛrəŋ (5 + 2) || tamath rɛsasa (5 + 3) || tamath rɛŋaŋlɛ (5 + 4) || tɔfʌt
|}

==Notes==
<references group="note" />

==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite journal |last=Dalby |first=David |year=1965 |title=The Mel languages: a reclassification of southern 'West Atlantic' |journal=African Language Studies |issue=6 |pages=1–17}}
*{{Cite book |title=The Languages and Linguistics of Africa |last=Güldemann |first=Tom |editor-last=Güldemann |editor-first=Tom |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |chapter=Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa |year=2018 |isbn=978-3-11-042606-9 |doi=10.1515/9783110421668-002 |location=Berlin |pages=58–444 |series=The World of Linguistics |volume=11 |s2cid=133888593 }}
*{{cite book |last=Holst |first=Jan Henrik |title=Reconstructing the mutation system of Atlantic |publisher=Neuried |year=2008 |isbn=978-3-89391-172-1}}
*{{cite journal |last=Pozdniakov |first=Konstantin |author-link=Konstantin Pozdniakov |title=Etudes atlantiques comparatives: questions de méthodologie |journal=Mémoires de la Société linguistique de Paris |volume=15 |year=2007 |pages=93–119 |url=http://pozdniakov.free.fr/publications/2007_MSLP.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928035416/http://pozdniakov.free.fr/publications/2007_MSLP.pdf |archive-date=2022-09-28 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Pozdniakov |first=Konstantin |title=Niveaux linguistiques et problèmes de reconstruction dans les langues atlantiques |journal=Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika |lang=fr |volume=19 |year=2008 |isbn=978-3-89645-094-4 |editor-last=Ibriszimow |editor-first=Dymitr |issn=0170-5946}}
*{{cite book |last1=Pozdniakov |first1=Konstantin |last2=Segerer |first2=Guillame |chapter=Reconstruction des pronoms atlantiques et typologie des systèmes pronominaux |title=Systèmes de marques personnelles en Afrique |series=Afrique et Langage |volume=8 |year=2004 |pages=151–162}}
*{{cite book |last1=Pozdniakov |first1=Konstantin |last2=Segerer |first2=Guillaume |year=2017 |url=https://www.academia.edu/29220664 |chapter=A Genealogical classification of Atlantic languages (draft) |editor-last=Lüpke |editor-first=Friederike |title=The Oxford guide to the Atlantic languages of West Africa |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press }}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*{{cite video |last1=Segerer |first1=Guillaume |last2=Lionnet |first2=Florian |date=2010-12-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331180907/http://25images.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/player/player.php?id=72&id_sequence=431 |archive-date=2012-03-31 |url=http://25images.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/player/player.php?id=72&id_sequence=431 |title=Isolates' in 'Atlantic' |location=Language Isolates in Africa workshop, Lyon }}
*{{cite book |last=Sapir |first=J. David |editor-first1=Jack |editor-first2=Thomas Albert |editor-last1=Berry |editor-last2=Sebeok |year=1971 |chapter=West Atlantic: An inventory of the languages, their noun class systems and consonant alternations |title=Linguistics in Sub-Saharan Africa |series=Current Trends in Linguistics |volume=7 |pages=45–112 |doi=10.1515/9783111562520 |isbn= 9783111191485}}
*{{cite book |oclc=42810789 |author-last1=Williamson |author-first1=Kay |author-last2=Blench |author-first2=Roger |chapter=Niger-Congo |pages=11–42 |title=African Languages: An Introduction |editor-last1=Heine |editor-first1=Bernd |editor-last2=Nurse |editor-first2=Derek |isbn=9780521661782}}
*{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=W. A. A. |chapter=Atlantic |isbn=9780819173751 |title=The Niger-Congo Languages: A Classification and Description of Africa's Largest Language Family |editor-last1=Bendor-Samuel |editor-first1=John |editor-last2=Hartell |editor-first2=Rhonda L. |date=1989 |publisher=University Press of America}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
*[http://etext.virginia.edu/african/Kujamaat/ Linguisitic and folklore material from Kujamaat Joola]
*[http://www.humnet.ucla.edu/humnet/aflang/Wolof/wolofInfo.html UCLA page on Wolof]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110726212545/http://www.journalofwestafricanlanguages.org/Atlantic.aspx Journal of West African Languages: Atlantic languages]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130516064240/http://pozdniakov.free.fr/index_fichiers/Page853.htm#comparativ Konstantin Pozdniakov's personal site]

{{Atlantic languages}}
{{Niger-Congo branches}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Atlantic languages| ]]
[[Category:Atlantic–Congo languages]]