View source for Whistled language

{{Short description|Emulation of speech by whistling}}
[[File:Hand whistle 3.jpg|alt=Man places both hands to his lips in a folded fashion in order to modify the sound of his labial whistle.|thumb|Those who are able to speak using whistled language often use their hands or fingers to modify the sound produced.]]
{{listen
| filename     = Sfiria_Antia.wav
| title        = Sfyria
| description  = A conversation in the [[Sfyria]] whistled language
}}

'''Whistled speech''' is a form of [[speech surrogacy]] in which [[whistling]] is used to mimic speech. Speakers of more than 80 languages have been found to practice various degrees of whistled speech, most of them in rugged topography or dense forests, where movement to carry messages is challenging, and whistling expands the distance of communication.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Magazine |first=Smithsonian |title=More Than 80 Cultures Still Speak in Whistles |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/studying-whistled-languages-180978484/ |access-date=2024-07-04 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref>  The practice is generally threatened by increased modernization and faster roads, but successful [[Language preservation|conservation]] efforts are recorded.<ref name=":1" />

== Definition ==
A whistled language is a system of whistled communication which allows fluent whistlers to transmit and comprehend a potentially unlimited number of messages over long distances. Whistled languages are different in this respect from free associative whistling, which may be done to simulate music, to attract attention, or, in the case of herders or animal trainers, to transmit simple messages or instructions to animal companions. Generally, whistled languages emulate the [[Tone (linguistics)|tones]] or vowel [[formant]]s of a natural spoken language, as well as aspects of its [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] and [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]], so that trained listeners who speak that language can understand the encoded message.

Whistled language is rare compared to spoken language, but it is found in cultures around the world.<ref>{{cite web |date=30 November 2018 |title=History of Whistled Languages |url=https://blog.pimsleur.com/2018/11/30/whistled-languages-ultimate-guide-long-distance-conversations |website=Pimsleur.com}}</ref> It is especially common in [[tone languages]] where the whistled tones transmit the tones of the syllables (tone melodies of the words). This might be because in tone languages the tone melody carries more of the [[functional load]] of communication while non-tonal phonology carries proportionally less. The genesis of a whistled language has never been recorded in either case and has not yet received much productive study.

== History ==
Because whistled language is so much rarer than standard vocal language or non-verbal physical language such as sign language, historical research on whistled speech is sparse.

In early China, the technique of [[transcendental whistling]], or ''xiao'', was a kind of nonverbal language with affinities to the spiritual aspects of [[Daoist meditation]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |title=The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=1996 |page=429}}</ref> The development of xiao as a practice and art form can be traced through the works of the [[Western Zhou]] dynasty, and it was initially used to convey a sense of grief, or to invoke the spirits of dearly departed loved ones. By the time of the [[Six Dynasties]] in Han China, xiao had become a widely used complement to spoken language, irrespective of social class.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=董 |first=就雄 |date=2021-12-01 |title=試論梁佩蘭"自成面目"詩論體系之價值及其與嶺南文化傳統之關係 |journal=人文中國學報 |pages=131–178 |doi=10.24112/sinohumanitas.331977 |issn=1562-2754|doi-access=free }}</ref> Due to the shrill tones employed while whistling, xiao was often used to punctuate intense feelings or reactions, such as joy, displeasure, and surprise.

In the Melpomene, the fourth book of his ''Histories'', [[Herodotus]] makes a passing reference to an Ethiopian tribe who "spoke like bats".<ref>{{Citation |last=Meyer |first=Julien |title=Historical Sketch |date=2015 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-45837-2_2 |work=Whistled Languages: A Worldwide Inquiry on Human Whistled Speech |pages=11–27 |editor-last=Meyer |editor-first=Julien |access-date=2023-05-25 |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-45837-2_2 |isbn=978-3-662-45837-2|url-access=subscription }}</ref> While travelling through the territory of an ancient tribe on the southern Black Sea coast in 400 B.C.E, Xenophon wrote in the [[Anabasis (Xenophon)|Anabasis]] that the [[Mossynoeci]] inhabitants could hear one another at great distances across the valleys. The same area encompasses the Turkish village of [[Kuşköy]] where whistled speech (kuş dili) is practiced today.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brennan |first1=Shane |title=Did the Mossynoikoi whistle? A consideration of the distance between poleis in the Black Sea mountains given at Anabasis 5.4.31 |journal=Greece and Rome |date=April 2016 |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=91–105 |doi=10.1017/S0017383515000261 |s2cid=163478579}}</ref> [[Claudius Aelianus|Aelian]] later wrote in ''De Natura Animalium'' of the Kinoprosipi people of North Africa, who made use of "acute whistling," who later historians believe were likely a tribe of the [[Anuak people|Anuak]] in South Sudan.

In 1982 in the [[Greece|Greek]] village of Antia on [[Euboea]] island, the entire population knew the local whistled speech called ''sfyria'',<ref name=":0">{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20170731-greeces-disappearing-whistled-language |title=Greece's disappearing whistled language |last1=Stein |first1=Eliot |date=1 August 2017 |work=[[BBC Travel]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801161637/http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20170731-greeces-disappearing-whistled-language |archive-date=1 August 2017 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref> but only a few whistlers remain now.<ref name=Meyer2005>{{cite thesis |last1=Meyer |first1=Julien |title=Description typologique et intelligibilité des langues sifflées, approche linguistique et bioacoustique |trans-title=Typology and intelligibility of whistled languages: approach in linguistics and bioacoustics |language=fr |year=2005 |url=http://www.lemondesiffle.free.fr/projet/science/TheseMeyer.pdf}}</ref>

== Causes of whistled language development ==

=== Ecology ===
Whistled languages have naturally developed in response to the necessity for humans to communicate in conditions of relative isolation, with possible causes being distance, noise levels, and night, as well as specific activities, such as social information, shepherding, hunting, fishing, courtship, or shamanism.<ref name="Asher, R. E. 1994"/> Because of this usage, they are mostly related to places with mountains or dense forests. Southern China, Papua New Guinea, the Amazon forest, Subsaharan Africa, Mexico, and Europe encompass most of these locations.

They have been more recently found in dense forests like the Amazon where they may replace spoken dialogue in the villages while hunting or fishing to overcome the pressure of the acoustic environment.<ref name=Meyer2005/><ref name=Meyer2008>{{cite journal |last1=Meyer |first1=Julien |title=Typology and acoustic strategies of whistled languages: Phonetic comparison and perceptual cues of whistled vowels |journal=[[Journal of the International Phonetic Association]] |date=2008 |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=69–94 |doi=10.1017/S0025100308003277 |id={{ProQuest|224991437}} |jstor=44526964 |s2cid=55852067}}</ref> The main advantage of whistling speech is that it allows the speaker to cover much larger distances (typically {{convert|1|-|2|km}} but up to {{convert|5|km|abbr=on}} in mountains and less in reverberating forests) than ordinary speech, without the strain (and lesser range) of shouting. More specifically, whistle speech can reach a loudness of 130&nbsp;dB, and the transmission range can reach up to 10&nbsp;km (as verified in La Gomera, Canary Island).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meyer |first1=Julien |title=Bioacoustics of human whistled languages: an alternative approach to the cognitive processes of language |journal=Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências |date=June 2004 |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=406–412 |doi=10.1590/s0001-37652004000200033 |pmid=15258658 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The long range of whistling is enhanced by the mountainous [[terrain]] found in areas where whistled languages are used. Many areas with such languages work hard to preserve their ancient traditions, in the face of rapidly advancing telecommunications systems in many areas.

=== Culture ===
In some cases (e.g. Chinantec) the whistled speech is an important and integral part of the language and culture; in others (e.g. Nahuatl) its role is much lesser. Whistled speech may be very central and highly valued in a culture. Shouting is very rare in [[Sochiapam Chinantec]]. Men in that culture are subject to being fined if they do not handle whistle-speech well enough to perform certain town jobs. They may whistle for fun in situations where spoken speech could easily be heard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sochiapam Chinantec Whistle Speech {{!}} SIL Mexico |url=https://mexico.sil.org/language_culture/chinantecan/sochiapam/sochiapam_whistle |access-date=2023-05-25 |website=mexico.sil.org}}</ref>

In [[Sochiapam]], [[Oaxaca]], and other places in Mexico, and reportedly in West and Southern Africa as well (specifically among the VhaVenda), whistled speech is men's language: although women may understand it, they do not use it.

Though whistled languages are not secret [[code (cryptography)|codes]] or [[language game|secret languages]] (with the exception of a whistled language used by [[ñañigos]] [[Insurgency|insurgencies]] in [[Cuba]] during [[History of Cuba#Conquest of Cuba|Spanish occupation]]),<ref name=Busnel1976/> they may be used for secretive communication among outsiders or others who do not know or understand the whistled language though they may understand its spoken origin. Stories are told of farmers in Aas during [[World War II]], or in La Gomera, who were able to hide evidence of such nefarious activities as milk-watering because they were warned in whistle-speech that the police were approaching.<ref name=Busnel1976/>

=== Documentation ===
Various documentation, conservation, and revitalization effort are ongoing. In France, the whistling of [[Whistled language of Aas|Aas]] is being systematically audio-recorded using [[Open-source software|open source]] [[Lingua Libre]]. Those recordings have been used to create an interactive maps of Occitan villages names.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lopez |first=Hugo Pierre |last2=Montagne |first2=Delphine |date=June 2024 |title=Adiu ! Quand l'union des communs fait la force du patrimoine immatériel |url=https://hal.science/hal-04628915 |journal=State of the Map France 2024 |location=Lyon, France |publisher=OpenStreetMap France}}</ref>

== Characteristics of whistled languages==

=== Tonal and non-tonal whistle languages ===

Whistled languages differ according to whether the spoken language is [[Tonal language|tonal]] or not, with the whistling being either tone or [[Manner of articulation|articulation]] based (or both). Most whistle languages, of which there are several hundred, are based on tonal languages.

A way in which true whistled languages differ from other types of whistled communication is that they encode auditory features of spoken languages by 'transposing' (i.e.carrying over into a whistled form) key components of speech sounds. There are two types of whistled languages: those based on non-tone languages, which transpose F<sup>2</sup> [[formants]] patterns, those based on tone languages which transpose tonal-melodies.<ref name=Rialland2005>{{cite journal |last1=Rialland |first1=Annie |title=Phonological and phonetic aspects of whistled languages |journal=[[Phonology (journal)|Phonology]] |date=August 2005 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=237–271 |doi=10.1017/S0952675705000552 |citeseerx=10.1.1.484.4384 |s2cid=18615779}}</ref> However, both types of whistle tones have a phonological structure that is related to the spoken language that they are transposing.

Tonal languages are often stripped of articulation, leaving only [[suprasegmental feature]]s such as duration and tone, and when whistled retain the spoken melodic line. Thus whistled tonal languages convey [[phoneme|phonemic]] information solely through [[pitch (music)|tone]], length, and, to a lesser extent, [[vocal stress|stress]], and most [[segment (linguistics)|segmental]] phonemic distinctions of the spoken language are lost.

In non-tonal languages, more of the articulatory features of speech are retained, and the normally [[timbral]] variations imparted by the movements of the [[tongue]] and [[soft palate]] are transformed into [[pitch (music)|pitch]] variations.<ref name=Busnel1976>{{cite book |last1=Busnel |first1=R.-G. |last2=Classe |first2=A. |year=1976 |title=Whistled Languages |location=New York |publisher=Springer-Verlag |isbn=0-387-07713-8}}{{page needed|date=November 2020}}</ref> Certain consonants can be pronounced while whistling, so as to modify the whistled sound, much as consonants in spoken language modify the vowel sounds adjacent to them.

Different whistling styles may be used in a single language. [[Sochiapam Chinantec]] has three different words for whistle-speech: '''sie<sup>3</sup>''' for whistling with the tongue against the alveolar ridge, '''jui̵<sup>32</sup>''' for bilabial whistling, and '''juo<sup>2</sup>''' for finger-in-the-mouth whistling. These are used for communication over varying distances. There is also a kind of loud falsetto ('''hóh<sup>32</sup>''') which functions in some ways like whistled speech.<ref>{{cite web |title=A whistled conversation in Sochiapam Chinantec |publisher=Summer Institute of Linguistics in Mexico |url=http://www-01.sil.org/mexico/chinanteca/sochiapam/13i-Conversacion-cso.htm |access-date=2014-09-04 |archive-date=2013-11-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112062156/http://www-01.sil.org/mexico/chinanteca/sochiapam/13i-Conversacion-cso.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Tonal whistle languages and types of tones ====

Only the tone of the speech is saved in the whistle, while aspects as articulation and phonation are eliminated. These are replaced by other features such as stress and rhythmical variations. However, some languages, like that of the [[Zezuru]] who speak a [[Shona language|Shona]]-derived dialect, include articulation so that consonants interrupt the flow of the whistle. A similar language is the [[Tsonga language|Tsonga]] whistle language used in the highlands in the Southern parts of [[Mozambique]]. This should not be confused with the [[whistled sibilant]]s of Shona.

There are two different types of whistle tones - [[Physics of whistles#Hole|hole tones]] and [[Physics of whistles#Edge tone|edge tones]]. A hole (or 'orifice') tone is produced by a fast-moving cylinder (or 'vena contracta') of air that interacts with the slow-moving anulus of air surrounding it.<ref name=Shosted2006>{{cite journal |last1=Shosted |first1=Ryan K. |title=Just Put Your Lips Together and Blow? The Whistled Fricatives of Southern Bantu |journal=UC Berkeley PhonLab Annual Report |date=2006 |volume=2 |issue=2 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3p19w08r}}</ref> Instability in the boundary layer leads to perturbations that increase in size until a feedback path is established whereby specific frequencies of the resonance chamber are emphasized.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shadle |first1=Christine H. |title=Experiments on the acoustics of whistling |journal=The Physics Teacher |date=March 1983 |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=148–154 |doi=10.1119/1.2341241 |bibcode=1983PhTea..21..148S}}</ref> An edge tone, on the other hand, is generated by a thin jet of air that strikes an obstacle. Vortices are shed near the point of disturbance in the flow, alternating on each side of the obstacle or 'wedge'.<ref name=Shosted2006/>

One of the best-studied whistled languages is a whistled language based on Spanish called [[Silbo Gomero language|Silbo]], whistled on the island of [[La Gomera]] in the [[Canary Islands]] ([[Annie Rialland|Rialland]] 2005). The number of distinctive sounds or phonemes in this language is a matter of disagreement, varying according to the researcher from two to five vowels and four to nine consonants. This variation may reflect differences in speakers' abilities as well as in the methods used to elicit contrasts. The work of Meyer<ref name=Meyer2005/><ref name=Meyer2008/> clarifies this debate by providing the first statistical analyses of production for various whistlers as well as psycholinguistic tests of vowel identification.

==== Non-tonal whistle languages ====

In a non-tonal language, segments may be differentiated as follows:

:Vowels are replaced by a set of relative pitch ranges generally tracking the f<sub>2</sub> [[formant]] of spoken language.

:Stress is expressed by higher pitch or increased length

:Consonants are produced by pitch transitions of different lengths and height, plus the presence or absence of [[Occlusive|occlusion]]. ("Labial [[stop consonant|stops]] are replaced by [[diaphragm (anatomy)|diaphragm]] or [[glottalization|glottal]] occlusions.")

=== Sound production techniques ===
{{ see also | Physics of whistles| Speech production | Place of articulation }}

Whistling techniques do not require the vibration of the [[vocal cords]]: they produce a shock effect of the compressed air stream inside the cavity of the mouth and/or of the hands. When the jaws are fixed by a finger, the size of the hole is stable. The air stream expelled makes vibrations at the edge of the mouth. The faster the air stream is expelled, the higher is the noise inside the cavities. If the hole (mouth) and the cavity (intra-oral volume) are well matched, the resonance is tuned, and the whistle is projected more loudly. The frequency of this [[Bioacoustics|bioacoustical]] phenomenon is modulated by the morphing of the resonating cavity that can be, to a certain extent, related to the [[Speech production#Places of articulation|articulation]] of the equivalent spoken form.<ref name="Asher, R. E. 1994"/> "Apart from the five vowel-phonemes [of Silbo Gomero]—and even these do not invariably have a fixed or steady pitch—all whistled speech-sound realizations are [[semivowel|glides]] which are interpreted in terms of range, contour, and steepness."<ref name=Busnel1976/>

==== Bilabial and labiodental techniques ====

There are a few different techniques of how to produce whistle speech, the choice of which is dependent on practical concerns. [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]] and [[Labiodental consonant|labiodental]] techniques are common for short and medium distance discussions (in a market, in the noise of a room, or for hunting); whereas the [[Retroflex consonant#Features|tongue retroflexed]], one or two fingers introduced in the mouth, a blow concentrated at the junction between two fingers or the lower lip pulled while breathing in air are techniques used to reach high levels of power for long distance speaking.<ref name="Asher, R. E. 1994">{{cite book |last1=Asher |first1=R. E. |first2=J. M. Y. |last2=Simpson |chapter=Whistled Speech and Whistled Language |title=The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics |location=Oxford |publisher=Pergamon |year=1994 |pages=573–576 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00034-1 |isbn=9780080448541}}</ref> Each place has its favorite trend that depends on the most common use of the village and on the personal preferences of each whistler. Whistling with a leaf or a flute is often related to courtship or poetic expression (reported in the Kickapoo language in Mexico<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ritzenthaler |first1=Robert E. |last2=Peterson |first2=Frederick A. |title=Courtship Whistling of the Mexican Kickapoo Indians |journal=American Anthropologist |date=December 1954 |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=1088–1089 |doi=10.1525/aa.1954.56.6.02a00110 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and in the Hmong<ref name=a2>{{cite journal |last1=G |first1=Busnel R. |last2=Alcuri |first2=G. |last3=Gautheron |first3=B. |last4=Rialland |first4=A. |title=Sur quelques aspects physiques de la langue à ton sifflée du peuple H'mong |trans-title=On some physical aspects of the hissed language of the H'mong people |language=fr |journal=Cahiers de l'Asie du Sud-Est |date=1989 |volume=26 |pages=39–52 |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00184975}}</ref> and Akha<ref name=a1>Meyer J & Dentel L (2003). 'The world whistles: scientific expedition and international network of cultural collaborations on the theme of whistled languages and talking musical instruments.'{{verify source|date=November 2020}}</ref> cultures in Asia).

==== Physics ====
"All whistled languages share one basic characteristic: they function by varying the [[frequency]] of a simple [[waveform|wave-form]] as a [[Function (mathematics)|function]] of time, generally with minimal [[Dynamics (music)|dynamic variations]], which is readily understandable since in most cases their only purpose is long-distance communication."<ref name=Busnel1976/> A whistled tone is essentially a simple oscillation (or [[sine wave]]), and thus [[Timbre|timbral]] variations are impossible. Normal articulation during an ordinary lip-whistle is relatively easy though the lips move little causing a constant of [[labialization]] and making [[labial consonant|labial]] and [[labiodental consonant]]s (p, b, m, f, etc.) problematical.<ref name=Busnel1976/>

=== Comparison with spoken languages ===

==== Limited expressivity ====
The expressivity of whistled speech is likely to be somewhat limited compared to spoken speech (although not inherently so), but such a conclusion should not be taken as absolute, as it depends heavily on various factors including the [[phonology]] of the language. For example, in some tonal languages with few tones, whistled messages typically consist of stereotyped or otherwise standardized expressions, are elaborately descriptive, and often have to be repeated. However, in heavily tonal languages such as [[Mazatecan languages|Mazatec]] and [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]], a large amount of information is conveyed through pitch even when spoken, and therefore extensive conversations may be whistled. In any case, even for non-tonal languages, measurements indicate that high intelligibility can be achieved with whistled speech (90%) of intelligibility of non-standardized sentences for Greek<ref name=Meyer2005/> and the equivalent for Turkish.<ref name=Busnel1970>{{cite journal |last1=Busnel |first1=R. G. |year=1970 |title=Recherches experimentales sur la langue sifflee de Kuskoy |trans-title=Experimental Research on the Whistling Language of Kuskoy |language=fr |journal=Revue de Phonétique Appliquée |volume=14-15 |pages=41–75, 70 |id={{ERIC|EJ041036}} |s2cid=193025497}}</ref>

==== Lack of comprehension ====
The [[Language comprehension|lack of understanding]] can be seen with a [[confusion matrix]]. It was tested using two speakers of Silbo (Jampolsky 1999). The study revealed that generally, the vowels were relatively easy to understand, and the consonants a bit more difficult.<ref name=Rialland2005/>

; Confusion matrix of the vowels in the perception test. 'Produced' vowels are displayed horizontally and 'perceived' vowels vertically (Numbers in bold correspond to correct identifications).

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! {{diagonal split header|<br />Produced|&nbsp; Perceived}}
! style="width:2em;"|i
! style="width:2em;"|e
! style="width:2em;"|a
! style="width:2em;"|o
! style="width:2em;"|u
|-
! i
| '''15''' ||  || 1 ||  || 
|-
! e
| 1 ||  || 1 ||  || 
|-
! a
| ||  || '''79''' || 5 || 
|-
! o
| ||  || 4 || '''15''' || 3
|-
! u
| ||  ||  || 2 || '''2'''
|}

; Confusion matrix of the consonants in the perception test. 'Produced' consonants are displayed horizontally and 'perceived' consonants vertically. (Numbers in bold correspond to correct identifications).

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! {{diagonal split header|<br />Produced|&nbsp; Perceived}}
! style="width:2em;"|p
! style="width:2em;"|β
! style="width:2em;"|f
! style="width:2em;"|m
! style="width:2em;"|t
! style="width:2em;"|ð
! style="width:2em;"|n
! style="width:2em;"|s
! style="width:2em;"|t͡ʃ
! style="width:2em;"|l
! style="width:2em;"|r
! style="width:2em;"|rr
! style="width:2em;"|j
! style="width:2em;"|ɲ
! style="width:2em;"|k
! style="width:2em;"|ɣ
|-
! p
| '''7''' ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! β
|  || '''3''' || 1 || 1 ||  ||  ||  || ||  ||  ||  || 1 ||  ||  ||  || 4
|-
! f
|  || 1 ||  ||  || 1 ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! m
|  ||  ||  || '''3''' ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! t
| 1 ||  ||  ||  || '''11''' ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 1||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! ð
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''1''' ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! n
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''4''' ||  ||  || 1 ||  || 2 ||  || 1 ||  || 
|-
! s
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''2''' || 1 || 1 ||  ||  ||  ||  || || 
|-
! t͡ʃ
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! l
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! r
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! rr
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! j
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 1 ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''3''' ||  ||  || 1
|-
! ɲ
|  ||  ||  ||  || 1 ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
! k
| 1 ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''3''' || 
|-
! ɣ
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''2'''
|}

== List of whistled languages ==
[[File:Whistled_Languages.svg|thumb|Global distribution of whistled languages]]
{{anchor | List }}

More than 80 whistled languages have been found to date.<ref name=":1" /> The following list is of languages that exist or existed in a whistled form, or of [[ethnic group]]s that speak such languages.

* [[Africa]]
** [[Cameroon]]: [[Gbaya languages|Gbaya]], Doohwaayo, [[Mofu]]
** [[Ethiopia]]: [[Bench language|Bench]], [[Oyda language|Oyda]]<ref name= "Amha">{{cite journal |last1=Amha |first1=Azeb |last2=Slotta |first2=James |last3=Sarvasy |first3=Hannah S. |title= Singing the individual: name tunes in Oyda and Yopno |journal=[[Frontiers in Psychology]] |date=2021 |volume=12 |issue= |pages=406–412 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.667599 |pmid=34456788|pmc=8384959 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
** [[Ghana]]: [[Nchumbulu language|Nchumburu]]
** [[Mozambique]]: [[Shona language|Shona]]-derived dialect and similar [[Tsonga language]]
** [[Nigeria]]: [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Orie |first1=Ọlanikẹ Ọla |title=Yoruba and Yoruboid languages |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Linguistics |location=Hoboken |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2013 |pages=1200–1204 |oclc=1109207232 |isbn=9786610156009}}</ref><ref name=Busnel1970/>
** [[Morocco]]: [[Central Atlas Tamazight]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Meyer |first1=Julien |last2=Gautheron |first2=Bernard |last3=Ridouane |first3=Rachid |date=2015-08-10 |title=Whistled Moroccan Tamazight: phonetics and phonology |url=https://shs.hal.science/halshs-01287709 |journal=18th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences |language=en |via=[[HAL (open archive)|HAL]]}}</ref> [[Shilha language|Tashelhit]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Meyer |first1=Julien |last2=Dentel |first2=Laure |last3=Gerber |first3=Silvain |last4=Ridouane |first4=Rachid |title=Interspeech 2019 |date=2019-09-15 |chapter=A Perceptual Study of CV Syllables in Both Spoken and Whistled Speech: A Tashlhiyt Berber Perspective |chapter-url=https://www.isca-speech.org/archive/interspeech_2019/meyer19_interspeech.html |language=en |publisher=ISCA |pages=2295–2299 |doi=10.21437/Interspeech.2019-2251|s2cid=202894010 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02371794/file/IS192251.pdf }}</ref>
** [[South Africa]]: [[Southern Bantu languages|Southern Bantu]]<ref name=Shosted2006/>
** [[Spain]] ([[La Gomera]] and [[El Hierro]], [[Canary Islands]]): [[El Silbo]] ("[[Silbo Gomero language|Silbo Gomero]]")
** [[West Africa]]: [[Bafia]], [[Bape language|Bape]], Birifor, [[Bobo language|Bobo]], Burunsi, Daguri, [[Diola language|Diola]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moreau |first1=Marie-Louise |title=La communication sifflée chez les Diola (Casamance, Sénégal) |journal=DiversCité Langues |date=1997 |volume=2 |url=https://www.teluq.uquebec.ca/diverscite/entree.htm}}</ref> [[Ewe language|Ewe]], [[Fon language|Fongbe]], [[Marka language|Marka]], Ngwe, [[Twi]], [[Tshi]], [[Ule language|Ule]] (among others)<ref name="Meyer2015">{{cite book |last1=Meyer |first1=Julien |title=Whistled languages: a worldwide inquiry on human whistled speech |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin |isbn=978-3-662-50735-3 |pages=30}}</ref>
* [[Americas]]
** [[Bolivia]]: [[Siriono language|Sirionó]]
** [[Brazil]]: [[Múra-Pirahã language|Pirahã]]<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Colapinto |first=John |author-link=John Colapinto |date=2007 |url=http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/04/16/070416fa_fact_colapinto?currentPage=all |title=The Interpreter |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |access-date=16 April 2007}}</ref> 
** [[Colombia]]: [[Desano]]
** [[Mexico]]: [[Amuzgo]], [[Chinantec]], [[Ch'ol language|Ch'ol]], [[Whistled speech among Kickapoo Indians in Mexico|Kickapoo]], [[Mazatecan languages|Mazatec]], [[Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]], [[Otomi language|Otomi]], Sayula Popoluca, [[Tepehua languages|Tepehua]], [[Totonac]], [[Zapotec language|Zapotec]], whistled Spanish in [[Tlaxcala]]
** [[United States]]: [[Yupik languages|Yupik]] in [[Alaska]]<ref>{{cite episode |title=Whistling to Communicate in Alaska |series=All Things Considered |network=National Public Radio |airdate=21 June 2005 |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4713068}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Yupik sentence in spoken and whistled form (Alaska) |work=Video testimonies |publisher=The World Whistles Research Association |url=http://www.lemondesiffle.free.fr/presentation_eng/temoignages.htm}},</ref> [[Taos language|Taos]]
* [[Asia]]
** [[China]]: [[Akha people|Akha]] in [[Yunnan]],<ref name=a1/> [[Hmong people|Hmong]]<ref name=a2/> [[Bai language|Bai]]
** [[Burma]]: [[Chin languages|Chin]]
** [[India]]: [[Kongthong]]<!-- As per wikipedia guidelines, retain the redlink to encourage article creation. --> village of [[Meghalaya]].<ref name=m1>{{cite web |url=http://amazingindiablog.in/kongthong-a-village-in-meghalaya-where-people-whistle-to-communicate/ |title=Kongthong – A Village in Meghalaya where People Whistle to Communicate |website=amazingindiablog.in |date=10 August 2017 |access-date=14 August 2017}}</ref> 
** [[Laos]]: [[Akha people|Akha]],<ref name=a1/> and [[Hmong people|Hmong]]<ref name=a2/>
** [[Myanmar]]: [[Akha people|Akha]],<ref name=a1/> and [[Hmong people|Hmong]]<ref name=a2/>
** [[Nepal]]: [[Chepang language|Chepang]]
** [[St. Lawrence Island]]: for [[Siberian Yupik]] inhabitants, see Yupik, Alaska in America mentioned above.
** [[Thailand]]: [[Akha people|Akha]],<ref name=a1/> and [[Hmong people|Hmong]]<ref name=a2/>
** [[Turkey]]: [[Turkish bird language]] (village of [[Kuşköy]]<sup>[[:tr:Kuşköy, Çanakçı|(tr)]]</sup>)<ref>{{cite news |date=26 September 2015 |first=Peter |last=Kenyon |title=In A Turkish Village, A Conversation With Whistles, Not Words |work=[[NPR]] |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2015/09/26/443434027/in-a-turkish-village-a-conversation-with-whistles-not-words}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The Remote Village Where People 'Talk' in Intricate, Ear-Splitting Bird Whistles |last=Christie-Miller |first=Alexander |work=[[The Atlantic]] |date=July 16, 2012 |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/07/the-remote-village-where-people-talk-in-intricate-ear-splitting-bird-whistles/259900/}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Whistled Language of Northern Turkey |last=Nijhuis |first=Michelle |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |date=August 17, 2015 |url=http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/the-whistled-language-of-northern-turkey}}</ref>
** [[Vietnam]]: [[Hmong language|Hmong]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meyer |first1=Julien |title=Bioacoustics of human whistled languages: an alternative approach to the cognitive processes of language |journal=Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências |date=June 2004 |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=406–412 |doi=10.1590/S0001-37652004000200033 |pmid=15258658 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=a2/>
{{Listen
| filename     = LL-Q117707514 (oci-whistled)-Univòc64-Aas.wav
| title        = Aas
| description  = « Aas », the French village where Occitan is whistled, in Occitan whistle.
}}
* [[Europe]]
** [[Greece]] (village of Antia on the island of [[Euboea]]): Sfyria<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/ancient-whistling-language-grave-danger-dying |title=This ancient whistling language is in grave danger of dying out |work=[[PBS NewsHour]] |date=5 September 2017 |access-date=20 March 2018}}</ref>
** [[France]] (village of [[Aas, Pyrénées-Atlantiques|Aas]], [[Pyrenees]]): [[Whistled language of Aas]] (based on [[Béarnese dialect]])<ref>{{cite book |last1=Robb |first1=Graham |title=The Discovery of France: A Historical Geography from the Revolution to the First World War |location=New York |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |year=2007 |pages=60–61 |isbn=978-0393059731}}</ref> 
* [[Oceania]]
** [[New Guinea]]: [[Yopno language|Yopno]],<ref name="Amha" /> [[Gadsup language|Gadsup]], [[Binumarien language|Binumarien]], [[Abau]], Polopa, [[Telefol language|Telefol]], [[Bauzi language|Bauzi]], (possibly [[Tairora language|Tairora]] and [[Narak language|Narak]], in the latter reportedly linked with the spirits talking)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jlawler/ask/whistle.html |title=Whistling Languages |website=www-personal.umich.edu |access-date=20 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://linguistlist.org/issues/6/6-1319/ |title=LINGUIST List 6.1319: Whistled speech |website=linguistlist.org |date=27 September 1995 |access-date=20 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://linguistlist.org/issues/7/7-1166/ |title=LINGUIST List 7.1166: Whistled speech |website=linguistlist.org |date=18 August 1996 |access-date=20 March 2018}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Musical language]]
* [[Language of the birds]]
* [[Solresol]]
* [[Kickapoo whistled speech]]
* [[Sweep (puppet)]]
* [[Clangers]], stop motion animation characters using a whistled language.
* [[Whistled fricative]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin}}
* Foris, David Paul. 2000. ''A grammar of Sochiapam Chinantec''. ''Studies in Chinantec languages'' 6. Dallas: SIL International and UT Arlington.
* {{cite journal |last1=Rialland |first1=Annie |title=Phonological and Phonetic Aspects of Whistled Languages |journal=Phonology |date=2005 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=237–271 |doi=10.1017/S0952675705000552 |jstor=4615531 |citeseerx=10.1.1.484.4384 |s2cid=18615779}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Meyer |first1=Julien |title=Typology and acoustic strategies of whistled languages: Phonetic comparison and perceptual cues of whistled vowels |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |date=2008 |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=69–94 |doi=10.1017/S0025100308003277 |jstor=44526964 |s2cid=55852067}}
{{refend}}

{{Commons category|Whistled languages}}

== External links ==
* [https://vimeo.com/57291304# Whistles in the Mist: Whistled Speech in Oaxaca, Mexico] "In the Americas with David Yetman" documentary in which Georgetown University linguist Mark Sicoli conducts fieldwork with speaker/whistlers of Sochiápam Chinantec
* [http://www.lemondesiffle.free.fr The World Whistles Network] An international network of research and defense on whistled languages
* [http://www.sil.org/mexico/chinanteca/sochiapam/13i-Conversacion-cso.htm A whistled conversation in Sochiapam Chinantec (SIL-Mexico)]
* [https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4713068 Whistling to Communicate in Alaska from NPR]
* [https://elar.soas.ac.uk/Collection/MPI483785 Link to ELAR documentation of Antia Whistling language]
* [https://voa-audio.voanews.eu/VLE/2018/01/12/ffc53ca8-3780-47f3-95d6-91d57345f85f_hq.mp3 MP3 File of a Voice of America Broadcast - UN: Technology Threatens Whistled Language in Turkey - January 12, 2018]

{{Whistles}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Whistled Language}}
[[Category:Whistled languages| ]]
[[Category:History of telecommunications]]
[[Category:Language varieties and styles]]

[[de:Pfeifen#Gepfiffene Sprachen]]