View source for White Star Line

{{Short description|British shipping company (1845–1934)}}
{{Redirect-distinguish|Oceanic Steam Navigation Company|Ocean Steam Navigation Company}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox company
| name = The White Star Line
| logo = Whitestarline.svg
| type = Partnership
| foundation = {{start date and age|1845}} in [[Liverpool]], England
| fate = Merged with [[Cunard Line]]
| defunct = {{End date and age|1934}}
| area_served = Transatlantic, Australia and New Zealand
| industry = Shipping, transport
| products = 
| revenue = 
| operating_income = 
| net_income = 
| num_employees = 
| successor = [[Cunard-White Star Line|Cunard White Star Line]]
| parent = Ismay, Imrie and Co.
| subsid = 
| homepage = 
| footnotes = [[File:House flag of White Star Line.svg|150px]]<br>House flag
}}

The '''White Star Line''' was a British [[shipping line]]. Founded out of the remains of a defunct [[Packet trade|packet company]], it gradually grew to become one of the most prominent shipping companies in the world, providing passenger and cargo services between the [[British Empire]] and the United States. While many other shipping lines focused primarily on speed, White Star branded their services by focusing more on providing comfortable passages for both upper class travellers and immigrants.

White Star is remembered for its innovative vessel {{RMS|Oceanic|1870|2}} and for the losses of some of its best passenger liners, including the wrecking of {{SS|Atlantic|1870|2}} in 1873, the sinking of {{RMS|Republic||2}} in 1909, [[Sinking of the Titanic|the loss]] of {{RMS|Titanic||2}} in 1912, and the wartime sinking of {{HMHS|Britannic||2}} in 1916. Despite its casualties, the company retained a prominent hold on shipping markets around the globe before falling into decline during the [[Great Depression]]. White Star merged in 1934 with its chief rival, the [[Cunard Line]], operating as [[Cunard-White Star Line]] until Cunard purchased White Star's share in the [[Joint venture|joint company]] in 1950. Cunard then operated as a single company until 2005 and is now part of [[Carnival Corporation & plc]]. As a lasting reminder of the White Star Line, modern Cunard ships use the term ''White Star Service'' to describe the level of customer service expected of the company.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thecunarders.co.uk/cunard%20white%20star%20service.html |title=The Legendary Cunard White Star Service |website=The Cunarders |access-date=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117120152/http://www.thecunarders.co.uk/cunard%20white%20star%20service.html |archive-date=17 January 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Early history (1845–1868) ==
[[File:Tayleur.jpg|thumb|The sinking of the ''Tayleur'' was the first experienced by the company]]
The first company bearing the name ''White Star Line'' was founded in [[Liverpool]], England, by John Pilkington and Henry Wilson in 1845.<ref name=Ferulli>{{harvnb|Ferruli|2004|p=65}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=2}}</ref> It focused on the UK–Australia trade, which increased following the [[Australian gold rushes|discovery of gold]] in Australia in 1851. Because of this, many wished to emigrate to Australia, and the population of Australia increased from 430,000 to 1.7 million inhabitants in three years. From this time on, Pilkington and Wilson emphasized the safety of their ships when addressing the press. In order to make the crossings more pleasant aboard these austere wooden sailboats, musician groups were hired to allow the passengers to dance to popular tunes.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=3}}.</ref> In this trade, speed and size became important assets. The fleet initially consisted of the chartered sailing ships {{RMS|Tayleur}}, {{ship||Blue Jacket|clipper|2}}, ''White Star'', {{ship||Red Jacket|clipper|2}}, ''Ellen'', ''Ben Nevis'', ''Emma'', ''Mermaid'' and ''Iowa''. ''Tayleur'', the largest ship of its day, was the one on which high hope was placed.<ref>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=9}}</ref> These hopes were quickly dashed. Departing on its maiden voyage on 19 January 1854, ''Tayleur'' proved difficult to handle, and its crew was inexperienced.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|pp=8–9}}</ref> When it struck rocks in very rough seas at [[Lambay Island]], near Ireland, on 21 January, the ship sank, with only 290 of the 650 people on board surviving. Subsequent inquiry placed the blame on its owners, Charles Moore & Co., who did not take the necessary safety precautions when the ship was put into service. This exonerated the White Star Line and the ship's captain of any blame.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bourke |first=Edward J. |title=Bound for Australia |year=2003 |page=18 |publisher=Edward Bourke |isbn=0-9523027-3-X}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|pp=10–11}}</ref>

In order to compensate for the loss of ''Tayleur'', the company ordered several clippers of its own, the first of which was ''Red Jacket''. The ship proved to be sufficiently efficient on the Australian route to ensure a certain success for the company, which could thus own new, faster ships such as ''Shalimar'', ''Sultana'', ''Emma'' and ''White Star''.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=16}}</ref> In addition, the company also ran voyages from Liverpool to [[Victoria, British Columbia]], which it promoted in Welsh newspapers<ref>{{cite news |url=https://newspapers.library.wales/view/4351712/4351713/1/ |via=newspapers.library.wales |work=The Welshman |title=Australia, New Zealand, and British Columbia |date=4 July 1862 |volume=31 |number=1682 |access-date=21 April 2021}}</ref> as being the gateway to the [[Klondike Gold Rush]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://newspapers.library.wales/view/4511187/4511190/24/Silistria |via=newspapers.library.wales |title=The Gold Fields of British Columbia |work=The North Wales Chronicle and Advertiser for the Principality |date=7 June 1862 |access-date=21 April 2021}}</ref> One of the ships on this route was ''Silistria''. Travelling around [[Cape Horn]] and stopping in [[Valparaiso]] and [[San Francisco]], she reached Victoria after a voyage lasting four months.

In 1856, however, the company lost postal contracts, while Wilson persisted in wanting ever larger ships to keep the public's attention. Pilkington, becoming disillusioned, then left the company.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=29}}</ref> Wilson replaced him with his brother-in-law, James Chambers,<ref name=DK10>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=10}}</ref> and the company continued its activities, betting everything on sailing ships while its most direct rivals, the [[James Baines & Co.|Black Ball Line]] and the Eagle Line merged in 1858 after the difficulties engendered by the establishment of their service using [[steamship]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=31}}</ref> During these years, Wilson paid attention to migration flows, directing his services to Canada or New Zealand according to trends.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=33}}</ref> In 1863, the company acquired its first steamship, ''[[SS Royal Standard|Royal Standard]]''.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.tynebuiltships.co.uk/R-Ships/royalstandard1863.html |title=Royal Standard 1863 |work=tynebuiltships.co.uk |access-date=21 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Eaton|Haas|1989|p=9}}</ref>

The original White Star Line merged with two other small lines in 1864, its competitors the Black Ball Line and the Eagle Line, to form a conglomerate: the Liverpool, Melbourne and Oriental Steam Navigation Company Limited.<ref name="gracesguide.co.uk">{{cite web |url=https://www.gracesguide.co.uk/White_Star_Line |title=White Star Line |website=Gracesguide.co.uk |access-date=17 August 2018}}</ref> Meanwhile, under Wilson's leadership, the company continued to borrow large amounts of money to finance new construction, including its second steamer, ''Sirius''. Worried, Chambers left the company and was replaced by John Cunningham, but business did not improve. ''Sirius'' had to be sold before it could enter service.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|pp=37–38}}</ref> The merger did not prosper and White Star broke away to concentrate on Liverpool to [[New York City]] services. Heavy investment in new ships was financed by borrowing, but the company's bank, the Royal Bank of Liverpool, failed in October 1867. White Star was left with an incredible debt of £527,000 (approximately {{Inflation|UK-GDP|572000|1867|fmt=eq|r=-3|cursign=£}}),{{Inflation-fn|UK-GDP|df=y}} and was forced into bankruptcy.<ref name="gracesguide.co.uk" /><ref>{{harvnb|Eaton|Haas|1989|p=12}}</ref>

=== The Oceanic Steam Navigation Company ===
[[File:Thomas Henry Ismay.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Thomas Henry Ismay|Thomas Ismay]]]]
On 18 January 1868, [[Thomas Henry Ismay|Thomas Ismay]], a director of the [[National Line]], purchased the house flag, trade name and goodwill of the bankrupt company for £1,000 (approximately {{Inflation|UK-GDP|1000|1868|fmt=eq|r=-2|cursign=£}}),{{Inflation-fn|UK-GDP|df=y}}<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=39}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=8}}</ref> with the intention of operating large steamships on the North Atlantic service between Liverpool and New York.<ref>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|pp=10–11}}</ref> Ismay established the company's headquarters at [[Albion House, Liverpool]]. Ismay was approached by [[Gustav Christian Schwabe]], a prominent Liverpool merchant, and his nephew, the shipbuilder [[Gustav Wilhelm Wolff]], during a game of [[billiards]]. Schwabe offered to finance the new line if Ismay had his ships built by Wolff's company, [[Harland and Wolff]].<ref name="Titanic">{{cite book |title=Titanic: A Night Remembered |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lBQWD4fhCN4C&q=Gustav+Schwabe+game+of+billiards&pg=PA213 |access-date=27 March 2008 |last=Barczewski |first=Stephanie |year=2006 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |isbn=1-85285-500-2 |page=213}}</ref> Ismay agreed, and a partnership with Harland and Wolff was established. The shipbuilders received their first orders on 30 July 1869. The agreement was that Harland and Wolff would build the ships at cost plus a fixed percentage and would not build any ships for White Star's rivals.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=42}}</ref> In 1870, [[William Imrie]] joined the company.<ref name=ra42>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|pp=42–43}}</ref>

As the first ship was being ordered, Ismay formed the White Star Line, with a capital of £400,000, divided into shares of £1,000.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=9}}</ref> The company was managed by a new firm: Ismay, Imrie and Company. Despite this complex organization, the shipping company was known publicly throughout its existence as the White Star Line.<ref name=ra42 /> A debate reigned as to which route Ismay expected to compete on when the company was launched. In 1870, four companies were firmly established on the route between Liverpool and New York: the [[Cunard Line]], the [[Guion Line]], the [[Inman Line]] and the more modest National Line, in which Ismay once had shares. The characteristics of the ships ordered from Harland and Wolff, however, hinted that Ismay aimed at the North Atlantic from the outset.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=43}}</ref>

== First transatlantic services (1868–1874) ==
=== The ''Oceanic'' class ===
{{main|Oceanic-class ocean liner}}
[[File:Oceanic 1871.jpg|thumb|{{RMS|Oceanic|1870|2}} of 1870 (3,707 GRT)]]
[[File:SS Republic.png|thumb|{{SS|Republic|1871|2}} of 1871 (3,708 GRT)]]
[[File:Adriatic (1871).jpg|thumb|{{SS|Adriatic|1871|2}} of 1871 (3,888 GRT)]]
White Star began its North Atlantic run between Liverpool and New York with six nearly identical ships, known as the ''Oceanic'' class: {{RMS|Oceanic|1870|2}}, {{RMS|Atlantic||2}}, {{SS|Baltic|1871|2}} and {{SS|Republic|1872|2}}, followed by the slightly larger {{SS|Celtic|1872|2}} and {{SS|Adriatic|1871|2}}.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=10}}</ref> It had long been customary for many shipping lines to have a common theme for the names of their ships, and White Star gave their ships names ending in ''-ic''. The line also adopted a buff-coloured [[Funnel (ship)|funnel]] with a black top as a distinguishing feature for their ships, as well as a distinctive [[Maritime flags|house flag]], a red [[broad pennant]] with a [[Swallowtail (flag)|swallowtail]] bearing a white five-pointed star. In the initial designs for this first fleet of liners, each ship was to measure {{cvt|420|ft}} in length, {{cvt|40|ft}} in width and approximately {{GRT|3,707|disp=long}}, equipped with compound expansion engines powering a single screw, and capable of speeds of up to {{convert|14|kn|lk=in}}. They were also identical in passenger accommodations based on a two-class system, providing accommodations for 166 [[First class travel|first class]] passengers amidships, which at the time was commonly referred to as 'Saloon Class' and 1,000 [[Economy class#Marine|steerage]] passengers.<ref name=ra44>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=44}}.</ref>

It was within the circles of the massive tides of immigrants flowing from Europe to North America that the White Star Line aimed to be revered by, as throughout the company's full history they regularly strived to provide passage for steerage passengers which greatly exceeded that seen with other shipping lines. With the ''Oceanic'' class, one of the most notable developments in steerage accommodations was the division of steerage at opposite ends of the vessels, with single men being berthed forward, and single women and families berthed aft, with later developments allowing married couples berths aft as well.<ref name=ra44 />

White Star's entry into the trans-Atlantic passenger market in the spring of 1871 got off to a rocky start. When ''Oceanic'' sailed on her maiden voyage on 2 March, she departed Liverpool with only 64 passengers aboard, from whence she was expected to make port at [[Cobh|Queenstown]] the following day to pick up more passengers before proceeding to New York. However, before she had cleared the Welsh coast her bearings overheated off [[Holyhead]] and she was forced to return for repairs. She resumed her crossing on 17 March and ended up not completing the crossing to New York until 28 March. However, upon her arrival in New York, she drew considerable attention, as by the time she departed on her return crossing to Liverpool on 15 April, some 50,000 spectators had looked her over. White Star's troubles with their first ship were short lived and ''Oceanic''{{'}}s second crossing to New York was more successful. She departed Liverpool on 11 May and arrived in New York on 23 May with 407 passengers aboard.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=12}}</ref>

In the eighteen months that followed, the five remaining ships were completed, and one by one, joined her on the North Atlantic run. ''Atlantic'' sailed on her maiden voyage from Liverpool on 8 June without incident. However, later that summer another problem surfaced which posed a threat to public opinion of the company. Of the six ships, the names originally selected for the third and sixth ships of the class had initially been ''Pacific'' and ''Arctic'', which when mentioned in the press appeared alongside references to two ships of the same names which had belonged to the now defunct [[Collins Line]], both of which were lost at sea with large losses of life. In the cases of those ships, both of which had been wooden-hulled [[paddle steamer]]s, {{SS|Arctic||2}} had foundered off the coast of [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] in September 1854 after colliding with another ship, resulting in the loss of over 300 lives, while {{SS|Pacific|1849|2}} vanished with 186 people on board in January 1856. As a result, White Star made arrangements to change the names of these two ships. The third ship, which had been launched as ''Pacific'' on 8 March 1871 was renamed ''Baltic'' prior to its completion and the [[keel]] of the sixth vessel, which had just been [[Keel laying|laid down]] at Harland & Wolff and dubbed ''Arctic'', was renamed ''Celtic'' prior to her [[Ceremonial ship launching|launch]].

The fourth vessel of the ''Oceanic'' class, ''Republic'', sailed on her maiden voyage on 1 February 1872, around which time modifications were being made to the last two ships still under construction. Alterations in their designs called for their [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]] to be extended in length by {{cvt|17|ft}}, which also increased their [[tonnage]]. ''Adriatic'' entered service on 11 April 1872, followed by ''Celtic'' six months later on 24 October. These ships began their careers with notable success. ''Adriatic'', after barely a month in service, became the first White Star ship to capture the [[Blue Riband]], having completed a record westbound crossing in 7 days, 23 hours and 17 minutes at an average speed of {{convert|14.53|kn}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=49}}</ref> In January 1873, ''Baltic'' became the first of the line to capture the Blue Riband for an eastbound crossing, having completed a return trip to Liverpool in 7 days, 20 hours and 9 minutes at an average speed of {{convert|15.09|kn}}.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|pp=17, 20, 22–23}}</ref>

=== Hesitation and disaster ===
[[File:Wreck of the Atlantic (cropped).jpg|thumb|The sinking of the {{RMS|Atlantic||2}} in 1873 was one of the deadliest of that period]]
The company did not focus only on the North Atlantic. In 1871, it purchased two ships while they were under construction, {{SS|Asiatic|1870|2}} and {{SS|Tropic|1871|2}}. They were initially placed on the route to India via the [[Suez Canal]], but this route proved to be unprofitable.<ref name=DH12>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=12}}</ref> Once the six ''Oceanic''-class ships were in service, and five sufficient for a weekly service, Ismay decided to move ''Republic'', accompanied by ''Asiatic'', ''Tropic'' and two recently purchased liners, {{SS|Gaelic|1872|2}} and {{SS|Belgic|1873|2}}, onto the route to South America, in order to compete with the [[Pacific Steam Navigation Company]]. Although ''Republic'' was successful in her only crossing on this route, she was quickly withdrawn, and her fellow liners gradually suffered the same fate.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=18}}</ref> The route remained however, serviced by the company's sailboats, whose management returned to William Imrie, and was quickly dedicated to a separate company, the North Western Shipping Company.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|pp=51–52}}</ref>

The first substantial loss for the company came only four years after its founding, with the sinking of the {{RMS|Atlantic}} and the loss of 535 lives near [[Halifax, Nova Scotia]] on 31 March 1873. While en route to New York from Liverpool amidst a vicious storm, ''Atlantic'' attempted to make port at Halifax when a concern arose that the ship would run out of coal before reaching New York.<ref>{{harvnb|Eaton|Haas|1989|p=20}}</ref> However, when attempting to enter Halifax, she ran aground on the rocks and sank in shallow waters. Despite being so close to shore, a majority of those onboard drowned, with 585 of the 952 onboard perishing.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=15}}.</ref> White Star found itself being accused of not having supplied enough coal to the ship, while the [[Sea captain|captain]] was sanctioned for having acted in an irresponsible manner. The crew were blamed for serious navigational errors by the Canadian Inquiry, although a British Board of Trade investigation cleared the company of all extreme wrongdoing.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=58}}</ref><ref name= GCBC>{{cite book |first1=Greg |last1=Cochkanoff |first2=Bob |last2=Chaulk |title=SS Atlantic: The White Star Line's First Disaster at Sea |publisher=Goose Lane Editions |place=Fredericton |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-86492-528-2}}</ref>{{rp|99}} Although ''Atlantic'' was quickly erased from the advertisements of the White Star Line, she was not forgotten. With a personal contribution from Ismay, the company financed the maintenance of the graves of the victims and, in 1915, it contributed to the construction of a monument dedicated to the victims.<ref>{{harvnb|Eaton|Haas|1989|p=31}}</ref> In order to preserve the financial health of the company, ''Asiatic'' and ''Tropic'' were immediately sold.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=20}}</ref>

== Records and diversification (1874–1899) ==
[[File:SS Britannic.jpg|thumb|{{SS|Britannic|1874|2}} of 1874]]
In the wake of the ''Atlantic'' disaster, the White Star Line continued to expand its fleet. ''Gaelic'' and ''Belgic'' joined the five ''Oceanic''-class liners, and the company's success continued to grow.<ref name=DH12 /> However, rival companies quickly caught up: Cunard placed ''Botnia'' and ''Scythia'' into service, while the Inman Line ordered {{SS|City of Brussels||2}} and ''Montana'' and ''Dakota'' entered service with the Guion Line. All were built in response to White Star's ground breaking liners and were thus larger.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|pp=59–60}}</ref>

In response, White Star ordered two new steamers from Harland & Wolff, both of which were designed as considerably larger, two-funnelled versions of the ''Oceanic''-class steamers. These two ships measured {{cvt|455|ft}} in length and {{cvt|45|ft}} in width, with a gross tonnage of roughly 5,000 tons and with engines of similar design as seen in the earlier ships, with the exception of greater [[horsepower]], capable of driving their single screws at speeds of up to {{convert|15|kn}}. Passenger capacity was also increased, with the two vessels able to carry 200 saloon passengers and 1,500 steerage passengers. The first of the pair, which had initially been named ''Hellenic'', was launched as {{SS|Britannic|1874|2}} on 3 February 1874 and departed on her maiden voyage to New York on 25 June. Her sister {{SS|Germanic|1874|3}} was launched on 15 July 1874, but due to complications in her construction, she did not enter service until 20 May 1875. With the introduction of these new ships, ''Oceanic'' was declared surplus and, in the spring of 1875, was [[Chartering (shipping)|chartered]] to one of White Star's subsidiaries, the Occidental & Oriental Shipping company, under which she operated their trans-Pacific route between San Francisco, Yokohama and Hong Kong until her retirement in 1895.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|pp=25–30}}</ref> The two new steamers proved immensely popular on the North Atlantic run, and both would end up capturing the Blue Riband on two eastbound and three westbound crossings within a two-year period. ''Germanic'' captured the westbound record in August 1875, then captured the eastbound record in February 1876, while ''Britannic'' captured both records within less than two months of each other, beating the westbound record in November and the eastbound record in December. ''Germanic'' captured the westbound record for the last time in April 1877.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=61}}</ref> During that same year, the company began sharing a postal agreement with the Cunard Line, allowing its ships' names to be prefixed with 'RMS' ('[[Royal Mail Ship]]').<ref name=DH13>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=13}}.</ref>

=== Pacific and Indian Oceans ===
[[File:StateLibQld 1 126227 Coptic (ship).jpg|thumb|{{SS|Coptic|1881|2}} of 1881 (4,448 GRT)]]
[[File:Bovic 1892.jpg|thumb|{{SS|Bovic||2}} of 1892 (6,583 GRT)]]
The arrival of the two new liners created a surplus of ships on the North Atlantic route for the White Star Line. At the same time, George Bradbury, president of the [[Occidental and Oriental Steamship Company]], a company formed in 1874 to compete with the [[Pacific Mail Steamship Company]], enlisted the help of Thomas Ismay in setting up his new service. The White Star Line responded by lending the new company ''Oceanic'', which had become a surplus ship, as well as ''Gaelic'' and ''Belgic''.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|pp=66–67}}</ref> This charter initiative proved profitable, with ''Oceanic'' remaining on the [[San Francisco]] – [[Hong Kong]] route for twenty years.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=13}}</ref> New ships were gradually assigned to this contract in the 1880s, such as {{SS|Arabic|1881|2}} in 1881,<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=33}}</ref> and the new {{SS|Belgic|1885|3}} and {{RMS|Gaelic|1885|3}} in 1885.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=44}}</ref> The partnership continued until 1906, when White Star withdrew {{SS|Coptic|1881|2}} from the Pacific route. The Occidental and Oriental Steamship Company disappeared two years later in the face of competition from the new ships of the Pacific Mail Company.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=70}}</ref>

In 1882, the [[Shaw, Savill & Albion Line]] was founded, and it decided to open a route to New Zealand, but lacked experience. The White Star Line therefore proposed to provide a joint service, which started in 1884 with ''Coptic'', {{SS|Doric|1883|2}}, and {{SS|Ionic|1883|3}} supplied by White Star, with Shaw, Savill & Albion providing ''Arawa'' and ''Tainui''. The ships called at Australia on the outward journey, and through the [[Panama Canal]] on the return trip.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=34}}</ref> From 1902, more ships were added to this joint service: {{SS|Athenic||2}}, {{SS|Corinthic|1902|2}} and the second {{SS|Ionic|1902|3}}, which were operated until the 1930s.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=99}}</ref> The link between the two companies persisted even after the disappearance of the White Star Line, with the Shaw Savill & Albion Line continuing to use White Star's nomenclature and giving its ships names ending in ''-ic''.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=5}}</ref>

The diversification of the company's activities also required an update of its equipment. While the sailing ships gradually disappeared, the company acquired a new type of cargo ship, intended for the transport of live cattle.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|pp=73–74}}</ref> The first of these was {{SS|Cufic|1888|2}}, which entered service in 1888, followed a year later by [[SS Imo|''Runic'']].<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=41}}</ref> Others, notably the sister ships {{SS|Bovic||2}} and {{SS|Naronic||2}}, followed in the 1890s.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|pp=56–57}}</ref> The latter became famous when, less than a year after her maiden voyage, she mysteriously disappeared with everyone aboard.<ref>{{harvnb|Eaton|Haas|1989|p=54}}</ref> Two other cattle carriers, {{SS|Cevic|1893|2}} and {{SS|Georgic|1895|2}}, were built in 1894 and 1895 respectively, before the company abandoned this type of business.<ref name=DH14>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=14}}.</ref>

=== ''Teutonic'' and ''Majestic'' ===
[[File:Teutonic1890-1900.jpg|thumb|{{RMS|Teutonic||2}} of 1889 (9,984 GRT)]]
Over the next 12 years, White Star focused their attention on other matters of business, expanding their services with the introduction of several cargo and livestock carriers on the North Atlantic as well as establishing a small but lucrative passenger and cargo service to New Zealand. By 1887 however, ''Britannic'' and ''Germanic'' and the four remaining ''Oceanic''-class liners had aged significantly and were now being outpaced in speed and comfort by newer ships brought into service by White Star's competitors, in particular {{SS|City of New York|1888|2}} and {{SS|City of Paris|1888|2}}.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=47}}</ref> In an effort to outdo their competitors, White Star began making plans to put two new liners into service which would prove to be exceptionally innovative in design for the time, {{RMS|Teutonic||2}} and {{RMS|Majestic|1889|2}}. In order to build these new ships, Thomas Ismay made arrangements with the British Government under which in exchange for financial support from the British government, the two new ships would be designed not only as passenger liners, but also as [[armed merchant cruiser]]s which could be requisitioned by the [[Royal Navy]] in times of war.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=78}}</ref> Measuring {{cvt|565|ft}} in length and {{cvt|57|ft}} in width and with a gross tonnage of just under 10,000 tons, the new liners would be nearly twice the size of ''Britannic'' and ''Germanic''. Additionally, owing to the arrangement with the British Government,<ref>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=42}}</ref> Teutonic and Majestic were the first White Star liners to be built with twin screws, powered by [[triple expansion engine]]s capable of driving the ships at speeds of up to {{convert|19|kn}}.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=45}}</ref>

''Teutonic'' and ''Majestic'' were designed with accommodations for 1,490 passengers in three classes across four decks, titled 'Promenade', 'Upper', 'Saloon' and 'Main'; with 300 in First Class, 190 in Second Class and 1,000 in Third Class. Accommodations for passengers were based on the level of comfort on these sections of a ship. Those closer to the center axis of motion on a vessel felt little to no discomfort in rough seas. However those located near the bow and stern would experience every swell, wave and motion in addition to the noise of the engines in steerage. First Class accommodations were located amidships on all four decks, with Second Class located abaft of first on the three uppermost decks on ''Teutonic'' and all four decks on ''Majestic'', with Third Class located at the far forward and aft ends of the vessel on the Saloon and Main decks.<ref>{{harvnb|Masson|1998|p=15}}</ref>

One notable development associated with the introduction of these two new ships was that they were the first White Star liners to incorporate the three-class passenger system. Prior to this, White Star had made small attempts to enter the market for Second Class passengers on the North Atlantic by adding limited spaces for Second Class passengers on their older liners. Spaces for Second Class were added to ''Adriatic'' in 1884, ''Celtic'' in 1887 and ''Republic'' in 1888, often occupying one or two compartments formerly occupied by steerage berths.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|pp=19, 22, 24}}</ref>

In March 1887, the first keel plates of ''Teutonic'' were laid at Harland & Wolff, while construction on ''Majestic'' commenced the following September. Construction on the two liners progressed in roughly six-month intervals, with ''Teutonic'' being launched in January 1889 and sailing on her maiden voyage to New York the following August; while ''Majestic'' was launched in June 1889 and entered service in April 1890.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|pp=45, 51}}</ref> Prior to her entry into service, ''Teutonic'' made a rather noteworthy appearance at the 1889 Naval Review at [[Spithead]]. Although she could not take part in the actual review due to scheduling commitments, she briefly anchored amidst a line of merchant ships awaiting review, complete with four guns mounted, during which time she was toured by the [[Edward VII|Prince of Wales]] and [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Kaiser Wilhelm II]]. The Kaiser, impressed by what he saw, is rumored to have mentioned to others in his party that "We must have one of these!".<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=46}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|pp=78–79}}</ref> They would be White Star's last speed record breakers,<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=48}}</ref> as both ships would capture the Blue Riband in the summer of 1891 within two weeks of each other. ''Majestic'' beat the westbound record on 5 August 1891, arriving in New York in 5 days, 18 hours and 8 minutes after keeping an average speed of {{convert|20.1|kn}}. This record was beaten by ''Teutonic'', which arrived in New York on 19 August and beat the previous record by 1 hour and 37 minutes, maintaining an average speed of {{convert|20.35|kn}}.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=53}}</ref>

With the introduction of ''Teutonic'' and ''Majestic'', White Star disposed of some of their aging ships to make room for the new ships. Prior to the completion of the two new ships, ''Baltic'' and ''Republic'' were both sold to the [[Holland America Line]] and respectively renamed ''Veendam'' and ''Maasdam'', after which they were put into service on the company's main trans-Atlantic route between [[Rotterdam]] and New York. ''Veendam'' was lost at sea without loss of life after striking a submerged object in 1898, while ''Maasdam'' was again sold in 1902 to La Veloce Navigazione Italiana and renamed ''Citta di Napoli'', after which she was used as an emigrant ship for an additional eight years before being sold for scrap at [[Genoa]] in 1910.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|pp=17, 19}}</ref> In 1893, by which time ''Teutonic'' and ''Majestic'' had established themselves on the North Atlantic run, White Star sold ''Celtic'' to the Danish [[Thingvalla Line]], who renamed her ''Amerika'' and attempted to use her for their own emigrant service from [[Copenhagen]] to New York. This, however, failed to prove profitable for the line and she was sold for scrap at [[Brest, France|Brest]] in 1898.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=24}}</ref>

=== ''Cymric'' and the move from speed to comfort ===
[[File:RMS Cymric.jpg|thumb|{{SS|Cymric||2}} of 1897 (12,552 GRT)]]
Beginning in the late 1890s, White Star experienced an explosion of rapid growth and expansion of its services, highlighted by a dramatic shift in focus from building the fastest ships on the North Atlantic to building the most comfortable and luxurious. Their first step in this direction came in 1897 during the construction of a new ship, {{SS|Cymric||2}}. Initially designed as an enlarged version of the [[livestock carrier]] {{SS|Georgic|1895|2}}, which had entered service in 1895, ''Cymric'' had been planned as a combination passenger and livestock carrier, and thus was not designed with engines necessary to qualify her for the express service maintained by ''Britannic'', ''Germanic'', ''Teutonic'' and ''Majestic''. However, while she was under construction at Harland & Wolff, a decision was made to convert spaces aboard her designated for cattle into Third Class accommodations after it was deemed that carrying passengers and livestock aboard the same vessel would likely not prove a popular venture. Therefore, in addition to the accommodations planned for 258 First Class passengers, her designs were altered to include berthing for 1,160 Third Class passengers.<ref name="Richard de Kerbrech 2009 65">{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=65}}</ref>

[[SS Cymric|''Cymric'']] was an example of a new type of ocean liners that focused on a more luxurious experience. A typical ocean liner during this era was a microcosmic city. Inhabitants hailed from all levels and areas of various social spectra. Regardless of class or wealth, each passenger received the same core service: passage to the destination.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Coye |first=Ray W. |last2=Murphy |first2=Patrick J. |date=2007-01-01 |title=The golden age: service management on transatlantic ocean liners |url=https://doi.org/10.1108/17511340710735573 |journal=Journal of Management History |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=172–191 |doi=10.1108/17511340710735573 |issn=1751-1348|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Overall, her modest layout and design placed her between the elderly but well reputable ''Britannic'' and ''Germanic'' and the more modern ''Teutonic'' and ''Majestic''. Measuring just over 13,000 tons and with a length of {{cvt|585|ft}} and a beam of {{cvt|64|ft}}, she was to be the largest liner in the White Star fleet. Additionally, her more utilitarian appearance with a single funnel and four masts contrasted against her four running mates considerably. Due to this design, she was considered the first of White Star's 'intermediate' liners. However, as a result of this partial transition from livestock carrier to passenger liner, ''Cymric'' came to attain several noteworthy advantages which White Star would employ on several other liners. While her passenger accommodations had been modified, the specifications of her machinery and engines were left in place. Like ''Teutonic'' and ''Majestic'', ''Cymric'' was fitted with twin screws, but was instead powered by quadruple expansion engines capable of achieving a modest speed of {{convert|15|kn}} commonly seen in cargo and livestock carriers of that time. The major difference was that because these engines were designed for more modest speeds, they were considerably smaller and required only seven boilers, leaving more space within the hull for passenger and crew accommodations.<ref name="Chirnside Big">{{cite book |last=Chirnside |first=Mark |title=The 'Big Four' of the White Star Line Fleet: Celtic, Cedric, Baltic & Adriatic |place=Stroud, Gloucestershire |publisher=The History Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-7509-6597-2}}</ref>{{rp|9–10}} At the same time, this also meant she consumed much less coal than steamers designed with larger engines, making her more economical. ''Cymric'' was launched at Harland & Wolff in October 1897 and entered service in February 1898, and in time proved a popular and profitable addition to the fleet.<ref name="Richard de Kerbrech 2009 65" />

=== ''Oceanic'' and the death of Thomas Ismay ===
[[File:Colorful Oceanic.jpg|thumb|''Oceanic'' of 1899 (17,272 GRT)]]
In the early months of 1897, while ''Cymric'' was still under construction at Harland & Wolff, it became clear to Thomas Ismay and other company officials that a new addition to the North Atlantic fleet was needed, as White Star's fleet was starting to lag behind those of their competitors, such as Cunard and [[Norddeutscher Lloyd]]. By this point, the only remaining ship of the original ''Oceanic'' class of liners was ''Adriatic'', which had been in service for 25 years and was starting to show her age. ''Britannic'' and ''Germanic'' were equally outdated, and with advancements in shipbuilding during the 1890s, ''Teutonic'' and ''Majestic'' had been eclipsed by several newer vessels, most recently by Norddeutscher Lloyd's {{SS|Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse||2}}. In response, Ismay and his partners at Harland & Wolff set out to design two new liners for the North Atlantic run which would, in a fashion similar to how ''Teutonic'' and ''Majestic'' had done, go down in shipbuilding history.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=81}}</ref>

The new steamers, which were intended to be named {{RMS|Oceanic|1899|2}} and ''Olympic'', were designed to be both the largest and most luxurious the world had ever seen.<ref>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=15}}</ref> In March 1897, the first keel plates for ''Oceanic'' were laid at Harland & Wolff, but almost immediately problems arose. Due to the fact that a vessel of this size had never been built, work on the ship was delayed until an overhead gantry crane could be built. Her launch on 14 January 1899 drew an immense crowd of spectators numbering more than 50,000, as ''Oceanic'' would be the last British transatlantic liner to be launched in the 19th century, as well as the first to exceed the ''Great Eastern'' in length.<ref name=RA84>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=84}}</ref> She measured {{cvt|704|ft}} in length, with a beam of {{cvt|68|ft}} and had a gross register tonnage of 17,254, making her a full 42% larger than Norddeutscher Lloyd's ''Kaiser Wilhelm Der Grosse''. Like ''Teutonic'' and ''Majestic'', ''Oceanic'' was designed with capabilities to be converted to an armed merchant cruiser in time of war if needed, specifications for which caused her to be built with a double-plated hull and turrets on her upper decks which could be quickly mounted with guns.<ref name=TC-Oceanic>{{cite news |title=Oceanic |work=The Titanic Commutator |volume=II |number=23 |date=Fall 1979}}</ref>{{rp|4–5}} She was also built with triple expansion engines geared to twin screws capable of achieving a respectable, if not record breaking, service speed of {{convert|19|kn}}. Additionally, she had a considerably larger passenger capacity of just over 1,700, providing for 410 First Class, 300 Second Class and 1,000 Third Class passengers.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|pp=81–82}}</ref>

''Oceanic'' sailed on her maiden voyage from Liverpool on 6 September 1899, arriving in New York to much fanfare on the morning of 13 September with 1,456 passengers aboard, many of whom were satisfied with how the crossing had gone. Among those travelling aboard in First Class were Harland & Wolff's managing director, Lord Pirrie, and Thomas Andrews, who had designed ''Oceanic'' under Thomas Ismay's direction. At the same time ''Oceanic'' had departed from Liverpool, a [[Fireman (steam engine)|fireman's]] strike had been ensuing at the docks, which in turn meant she sailed with a boiler room crew consisting of fewer men than her specifications called for. Thus, during her maiden voyage, she maintained an average speed of just under {{convert|19|kn}}.<ref name=TC-Oceanic />{{rp|7, 9–10}}

Thomas Ismay was unable to enjoy the fruits of his labour. Just a few weeks after ''Oceanic'' was launched, he began complaining of pains in his chest, from whence his health steadily began to decline. In fact, his health began to deteriorate so rapidly that managers of both White Star and Harland & Wolff decided to cancel plans to construct ''Olympic''. The name was shelved, only to be [[RMS Olympic|reused 12 years later]]. His health improved for a brief time, allowing him to visit ''Oceanic'' upon her completion in Belfast that July. During his visit, Belfast officials awarded him with a key to the city, citing his contributions to the local economy and to British merchant shipping. Unfortunately, in late August he took a turn for the worse and he underwent two operations to alleviate his ailment, both of which proved unsuccessful, and he suffered a heart attack on 14 September. He lingered in worsening agony for another ten weeks until his death on 23 November 1899 at the age of 62. In the immediate aftermath, control of the company was passed to Thomas' son Bruce, who was named chairman of the line.<ref name=TC-Oceanic />{{rp|4–5}}

== International Mercantile Marine Co. (1899–1914) ==
=== The Boer War and the Big Four ===
{{Main|Big Four (White Star Line)}}
[[File:RMS Celtic (1901) postcard.jpg|thumb|{{RMS|Celtic|1901|2}} of 1901 (20,904 GRT)]]
With the death of Thomas Ismay, his eldest son, Bruce, took over.<ref>{{harvnb|Chirnside|2004|p=144}}</ref> He was joined at the helm of Ismay, Imrie & Co. by his friend Harold Sanderson in addition to the members already present, notably the now elderly William Imrie and his brother, James Ismay.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=88}}</ref> The company was quickly involved in the [[Second Boer War]], with several of its ships being requisitioned, starting with the cargo ship {{SS|Nomadic|1891|2}} in October 1899.<ref>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=45}}</ref> Several ships quickly followed, notably ''Britannic'', which had become surplus to requirements on the North Atlantic route. A total of ten ships were assisting in the war effort, six of them as part of their regular service. 17,000 men and 4,000 animals were transported to the conflict by White Star ships in just over two years.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|pp=88–89}}</ref>

Even before ''Oceanic'' had been completed, White Star had already started making plans for a considerably larger addition to their fleet. In September 1898, before his health began failing, Thomas Ismay negotiated the terms for the orders for the last passenger liner he would ever order for the line he had built. This time, plans were essentially the same as they had been with ''Oceanic'', only taking considerably more steps in innovation. While staying with the trend in focusing more on comfort than speed as had been set with ''Cymric'' and ''Oceanic'', Ismay's plans called for a new passenger liner of dimensions the world had never seen, and her chosen name was to be {{RMS|Celtic|1901|3}}, a name taken and reused from the original ''Oceanic'' class.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=94}}</ref> The initial designs for ''Celtic'' had her at {{cvt|680|ft}} in length, slightly shorter than ''Oceanic'', but with a greater breadth of {{cvt|75|ft}}. Additionally, while ''Oceanic'' had set the record for length, ''Celtic'' would triumph in tonnage, measuring just over 20,000 tons.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gracesguide.co.uk/SS_Celtic |title=SS Celtic |website=gracesguide.co.uk |access-date=21 April 2021}}</ref>

==== Engines ====
One point of interest about this new ship was in regard to her engines. A comparison was made between the machinery installed aboard ''Cymric'' and that placed in ''Oceanic''. Due to ''Cymric'' initially being designed as a livestock carrier, she was built with smaller engines capable of modest speeds which both consumed less coal and occupied less space within the hull. As a result, there was an astonishing difference which gave ''Cymric'' a considerable advantage over ''Oceanic''. Although ''Cymric'' was only about two-thirds of the size of ''Oceanic'' in terms of gross tonnage (12,552 to 17,274), her net tonnage, a unit of measurement used to account for space aboard a ship usable for passengers and cargo was actually greater than that of the larger vessel (8,123 net tons aboard ''Cymric'' compared to only 6,996 with the ''Oceanic''). Builders and designers used this as a baseline for engine designs for ''Celtic''.<ref name="Chirnside Big" />{{rp|10–11, 13}} She was to be equipped with quadruple expansion engines geared to twin screws capable of modest speeds of just over {{convert|16|kn}}. As she was geared to lower service speeds, her coal consumption was far less at only 260 tons per day, which compared to the 400 tons per day needed to power ''Oceanic'', made her much more economical.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gardiner |first=Robin |title=History of the White Star Line |publisher=Ian Allan |year=2002 |isbn=0-7110-2809-5 |page=121}}</ref> At the same time, owing to her broad hull, she was designed with cargo holds capable of storing up to 18,500 tons of commercial cargo, a strategic placement in her design as that cargo was to serve as ballast, keeping her steady in even the roughest seas.<ref name="Chirnside Big" />{{rp|10–11, 13}}

==== Capacities ====
[[File:RMS Baltic.jpg|thumb|{{RMS|Baltic|1903|2}} of 1904 (23,876 GRT)]]
Additionally, ''Celtic'' was to be designed with far greater capacities for both passengers and cargo. Her plans called for accommodations for a staggering 2,859 passengers: 347 in First Class, 160 in Second Class, and a total of 2,352 in Third Class, the latter being the largest capacity seen on any liner on the North Atlantic at the time. Passenger accommodations were spread across six decks, titled from top to bottom: Boat Deck (A Deck), Upper Promenade (B Deck), Promenade (C Deck), Saloon (D Deck), Upper (E Deck) and Lower (F Deck). First Class accommodations were located amidships on the uppermost four decks and included a lounge and smoke room on the Boat Deck, as well as a grand and spacious dining room on the Saloon Deck. Second Class accommodations were allocated to the starboard sides of the Saloon and Upper Decks. As seen aboard ''Teutonic'', ''Majestic'', and ''Oceanic'', Second Class passengers were provided with their own smoke room and library, housed within a separate deckhouse situated just aft of the main superstructure, directly above their dining room on the Saloon deck.<ref name="Chirnside Big" />{{rp|13, 20}}

What made ''Celtic'' rather exceptional was her Third Class accommodations, which in addition to ample open deck space on the Promenade Deck, were located on the Saloon, Upper and Lower Decks at both the forward and aft ends of the vessel, with a vast majority being located aft. The pattern followed that seen on all White Star vessels on the North Atlantic, with single men berthed forward and single women, married couples and families berthed aft. On the Saloon Deck, in addition to baths and lavatories both forward and aft, were two large dining rooms at the far after end of the deck, situated side by side, which when not in use functioned as smoke and general rooms. An additional, fairly larger dining room was located directly beneath these on the Upper Deck, while a fourth dining room was located forward where single men were to be berthed, for which this dining room was equipped with a service bar. Aside from this, the biggest change brought by ''Celtic'' for Third Class passengers was in sleeping quarters. Open berths were still fairly common on the North Atlantic, which White Star had from the start gradually shied away from. Aboard the ''Oceanic''-class liners, ''Britannic'' and ''Germanic'', steerage passengers had been provided with large rooms which generally slept around 20 people, while aboard ''Teutonic'' and ''Majestic'' the usage of two and four berth cabins had been introduced, but only for married couples and families with children, a policy which also held with ''Cymric'' and ''Oceanic''. ''Celtic'' broke that mould. At the forward end of the vessel, located in two compartments on the Lower Deck were accommodations of the older style of sleeping arrangements, each compartment providing for 300 single men. The remaining 1,752 berths were located aft, all of which consisted of two, four and six berth cabins.<ref name="Chirnside Big" />{{rp|13, 20}}

==== Construction ====
[[File:RMS Adriatic (1907).jpg|thumb|{{RMS|Adriatic|1906|2}} of 1906 (24,679 GRT)]]
On 22 March 1899, just two months after ''Oceanic'' was launched, the first keel plates of ''Celtic'' were laid at Harland & Wolff. Construction progressed rapidly, and as White Star had planned, the new fleet of liners would be constructed in overlapping succession. In October 1900, while ''Celtic''{{'}}s hull was nearing completion, construction began on the second ship, {{RMS|Cedric||2}}. When ''Celtic'' was launched in April 1901, there was much fanfare, as she was the largest ship in the world in terms of tonnage, as well as being the first to exceed the tonnage of the infamous ''Great Eastern''. She took a mere four additional months for fitting out before sailing on her maiden voyage from Liverpool on 26 July of that year.<ref name="Chirnside Big" />{{rp|10, 15–20}} Upon her entry into service, one of her most attractive features was her seaworthiness. It was noted that she was "as steady as the Rock of Gibraltar."<ref name= TC-Big>{{cite news |title=The Big Four of the White Star, Part 1 |work=The Titanic Commutator |volume=VII |number=2 |date=Summer 1983}}</ref>{{rp|7}}

Meanwhile, construction on ''Cedric'' had proceeded as planned and she was launched on 21 August 1902. Although she was of exactly the same dimensions as ''Celtic'' in length and width, she outweighed her twin by a mere 155 tons, making her the largest ship in the world. Despite their similarities, the two had distinct differences. First Class accommodations aboard ''Cedric'' included more private bathrooms, as well as more suites consisting of interconnecting cabins provided with sitting rooms.<ref name="Chirnside Big" />{{rp|33}} She had accommodations for a total of 2,600 passengers, with a slightly increased number of First Class passengers at 350, her Second Class capacity was increased to 250 and Third Class was scaled back to approximately 2,000. ''Cedric'' entered service later that winter, departing Liverpool on her maiden voyage on 11 February 1903.<ref name= TC-Big />{{rp|9}}

The keel of the third ship, {{RMS|Baltic|1903|2}}, had been laid down at Harland & Wolff in June 1902, while construction on ''Cedric'' was still underway. One notable instance in her construction was once her keel was fitted in place, White Star gave orders for her length to be extended by {{cvt|28|ft}}. This change in plans required builders to cut her keel in two to install the added length. The reason for this addition was likely to provide more space for passenger accommodations, which added up to 2,850 passengers. Although ''Baltic'' was designed with the same layout for Third Class passengers as ''Cedric'', with a capacity of 2,000, her First and Second Class capacities were significantly greater. First Class was increased to a capacity of 425 passengers, while capacity for Second Class was extended to 450 passengers, almost twice that of ''Cedric'' and three times that of ''Celtic''. Simultaneously, the added length also increased her gross tonnage to 23,884, making her the largest ship in the world. ''Baltic'' was launched on 12 November 1903, subsequently fitted out and delivered to White Star on 23 June 1904, sailing on her maiden voyage on 29 June.<ref name= TC-Big />{{rp|13–15}}

While the first three members of the highly regarded quartet of liners were built and put into service with little problem, the fourth and final ship, {{RMS|Adriatic|1906|2}}, experienced a considerable delay in her construction. Initially, her construction had commenced in November 1902 while ''Baltic'' was still being built, but a series of delays slowed her construction to a snail's pace compared to that of her sisters. ''Baltic'' was launched after roughly 17 months, but by the time ''Adriatic'' was finally launched in September 1906, she had been under construction for almost 46 months, more than twice the time needed to construct her sisters.<ref name="Chirnside Big" />{{rp|54}} Her passenger accommodations followed the same trend as seen with ''Baltic'', with added focus on the upper two classes while still maintaining the high standard for Third Class. Her overall passenger capacity was also identical to that of ''Baltic'' at 2,850, but with differences in capacities for each class, with First Class increased to 450, Second Class increased to 500 and Third Class scaled back to 1,900. Unlike her sisters however, she was unable to attain the title of world's largest ship at the time of her completion, as her 24,451 gross register tonnage was just barely outmatched by Hamburg Amerika's ''Kaiserin Auguste Victoria'', which measured 24,581 tons and entered service four months prior to the launch of ''Adriatic''. She would, however, rank briefly as the largest British-built ship until Cunard's {{RMS|Lusitania||2}} entered service the following year.<ref name= TC-Big />{{rp|16–17}} She sailed on her maiden voyage to New York on 8 May 1907, and not long afterwards gained a considerable reputation for her interiors, enough for the British tabloid ''The Bystander'' to dub her 'The Liner Luxurious'. One of her most notable innovations was that she was the first liner to have an onboard [[Victorian Turkish baths|Victorian Turkish bath]] and swimming pool.<ref name="Chirnside Big" />{{rp|61}}

=== Integration into the trust of J.P. Morgan ===
[[File:J. Bruce Ismay.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[J. Bruce Ismay]]]]
As White Star gradually brought the 'Big Four' into service,<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=107}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=90}}</ref> they also acquired several smaller 'intermediate' liners in preparation for a considerable expansion of their passenger services on the North Atlantic. In 1903 alone they came to obtain five new liners, beginning with {{SS|Arabic|1902|2}}. Originally laid down as ''Minnewaska'' for the Atlantic Transport Line,<ref name=rk111>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=111}}</ref> she was transferred to White Star prior to completion and was launched under her new name on 18 December 1902.<ref>{{harvnb|Eaton|Haas|1989|p=186}}</ref> Similar in size and appearance to ''Cymric'' with a single funnel and four masts, she measured {{cvt|600|ft}} in length with a beam of {{cvt|65|ft}}, assessed at 15,801 gross register tons with quadruple expansion engines geared to twin screws capable of a service speed of {{convert|16|kn}}.<ref name=DH61>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=61}}</ref> She was fitted with fairly modest accommodations for 1,400 passengers: 200 in First Class, 200 in Second Class and 1,000 in Third Class. She sailed on her maiden voyage from Liverpool to New York on 26 June 1903.<ref name=rk111 />

In 1902, White Star Line was bought by the [[International Mercantile Marine Co.]] (IMM), owned by the American banker [[John Pierpont Morgan]]. He hoped to obtain a monopoly of the North Atlantic route by buying several shipping companies, and by entering into agreements with others such as the German [[HAPAG]] and the [[Norddeutscher Lloyd]]. The acquisition of the White Star Line was one of its major takeovers.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=97}}</ref> In order to close the deal, Morgan offered the shareholders of the company ten times the value of the profits generated in 1900, which was a very good year for the company.<ref name=DH16>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=16}}</ref> The Ismay family were initially reluctant to accept, knowing that Thomas Ismay would have radically opposed the idea if he were still alive. However, J. Bruce Ismay ultimately agreed with the shareholders. His brother, as well as two of the five other directors of Ismay, Imrie & Company left the company at this time, and Ismay and Harold Sanderson were quickly joined by [[William James Pirrie]], the director of Harland & Wolff. Pirrie and Ismay were also among the thirteen directors of IMM.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=77}}</ref>

Despite the good fortunes of its main subsidiary, the IMM was experiencing great difficulties and was struggling in particular to repay its debts to shipyards. Much effort was needed to get IMM on its feet, efforts that its aging president, [[Clement Griscom]], did not believe he could do. In 1904, it was proposed that Ismay replace him, which he reluctantly accepted on condition of having Morgan's full support.<ref name=DH17>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=17}}</ref>

=== Intermediate liners and rapid expansion ===
[[File:SS Romanic old postcard.jpg|thumb|[[SS Scandinavian|''Romanic'']] of 1903 (11,394 GRT)]]
Meanwhile, as a result of the IMM takeover, White Star obtained four newly completed liners in the last months of 1903, ''Columbus'', ''Commonwealth'', ''New England'' and ''Mayflower''. These four liners had been owned and operated by the [[Dominion Line]] for their services between Liverpool and Boston as well as their Mediterranean cruising and emigrant route, which also connected to Boston. However, the Dominion Line was also absorbed into IMM and the four ships were transferred to White Star. In addition to the acquisition of these ships, White Star also acquired control of the routes as well. Upon their acquisition by White Star, the four liners were respectively renamed {{RMS|Republic|1903|2}}, {{SS|Cretic||2}}, [[SS Scandinavian|''Romanic'']] and {{SS|Canopic||2}}. These four ships were greatly similar in appearance to the ''Cymric'' and ''Arabic'', all with a single funnel with two or four masts, with engines geared to twin screws capable of service speeds between {{convert|14|and|16|kn}}. They all also fell within the same range in terms of dimensions, with lengths between {{cvt|550|and|582|ft}}, beams between {{cvt|59|and|67|ft}}, and similar gross tonnage. There was, however, considerable variances in passenger capacities. ''Republic'', which in time would come to obtain the nickname 'The Millionaires' Ship', had the largest capacity with accommodations for 2,400 passengers (200 First Class, 200 Second Class, 2,000 Third Class). The three remaining ships had considerably smaller capacities, with the ''Cretic'' designed with accommodations for 1,510 passengers (260 First Class, 250 Second Class, 1,000 Third Class), ''Romanic'' with accommodations for 1,200 passengers (200 First Class, 200 Second Class, 800 Third Class) and ''Canopic'' with accommodations for 1,277 passengers (275 First Class, 232 Second Class, 770 Third Class).<ref name=rk113>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|pp=113–118}}</ref>

Following the conclusion of their service under Dominion Line in late 1903, the four liners were briefly withdrawn from service. Their names were changed, their funnels were repainted into White Star colors, and they were made ready for their new services. ''Romanic'' was the first to enter service under White Star, sailing for Boston on 19 November, followed by ''Cretic'' on 26 November. In order to balance the schedule between the Liverpool and Mediterranean services to Boston, ''Cymric'' was transferred to the Liverpool-Boston route, departing Liverpool for her first trip to Boston on 10 December, while ''Republic'' entered service to Boston on 17 December. ''Canopic'' completed the service upon her departure from Liverpool on 14 January 1904. Upon their arrivals in Boston, ''Romanic'' and ''Canopic'' were both immediately transferred to the Mediterranean services formerly run by the Dominion Line. This route followed a line which first made port at [[Sao Miguel Island|Sao Miguel]] in the [[Azores]] before passing through the straits of Gibraltar and making port in Naples and Genoa. ''Republic'' was also put into service on the Mediterranean route following her first crossing to Boston, but only for the first half of the 1904 season, and was switched back to the Liverpool-Boston service until winter, a pattern she would follow for the remainder of her career. ''Cretic'' remained on the Liverpool-Boston service running opposite ''Cymric'' for a full year until November 1904, when alongside ''Republic'' she began sailing on the secondary service to the Mediterranean from New York.<ref name=rk113 />

In the early months of 1907, White Star began preparations for another extension of their services on the North Atlantic by establishing an 'express' service to New York. The new service would depart [[Southampton]] every Wednesday, first heading south across the [[English Channel]] to the French port of [[Cherbourg]] that evening, then sailing back across the channel to [[Cobh|Queenstown]] the following morning before proceeding to New York. On eastbound crossings, ships would forego calling at Queenstown and make port at [[Plymouth]], before proceeding to Cherbourg and Southampton. Due to its proximity to [[London]], Southampton had a clear advantage over Liverpool in reducing travelling time, while by creating a terminal at Cherbourg White Star had established a route which allowed passengers to embark or disembark at either a British or Continental port.<ref name="Chirnside Big" />{{rp|66}} Another subsidiary of IMM, the [[American Line]], had moved their operations to Southampton in 1893 and established an express service via Cherbourg which had proved very successful, thus prompting White Star to make a similar move.<ref>Flayhart, William H. "The American Line: 1871–1902". p. 139.</ref> ''Celtic'' embarked on two experimental crossings from Southampton to New York via Cherbourg and Queenstown, first on 20 April and then again on 18 May, which proved successful and set the way for the establishment of the route, which was to be maintained by ''Teutonic'', ''Majestic'', ''Oceanic'' and the newly completed ''Adriatic''. ''Celtic'' was returned to the Liverpool service after the second crossing, and her place taken on the new run by ''Adriatic'', which sailed from Southampton for the first time on 5 June, followed by ''Teutonic'' on 12 June, ''Oceanic'' on 19 June and ''Majestic'' on 26 June.

=== ''Olympic''-class ships ===
{{Main|Olympic-class ocean liner}}
[[File:RMS Olympic near Isle of Wight.jpg|thumb|{{RMS|Olympic||2}} of 1910 (45,324 GRT)]]
[[File:RMS Titanic 2.jpg|thumb|''Titanic'' with tugboats, undergoing sea trials]]
White Star moved their express service from Liverpool to Southampton in 1907, providing them with the advantage of a continental stopover in [[Cherbourg]] that allowed the vessel to take on more passengers. This service was initially provided by ''Teutonic'', ''Majestic'', ''Oceanic'' and ''Adriatic'', the latter being slower but able to carry many more passengers.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=128}}</ref> A ferry, the {{SS|Gallic|1894|2}}, was also purchased to help board passengers and luggage during the French stopover.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=127}}</ref> This solution was only temporary, however, and the company was already planning the arrival of much larger and faster vessels in order to establish a regular and more efficient service.

While Harland & Wolff started construction of the new {{sclass|Olympic|ocean liner|4}}, White Star continued to diversify its activities. Its establishment in Southampton led to a price war between companies, which drastically reduced its third-class fares. It was at this point that the North Atlantic Conference was created to regulate fares and crossings according to demand.<ref name=DH17 /> In 1909, White Star took over part of the activities of the [[Dominion Line]], another IMM company serving Canada. Two of this company's ships, then under construction, were transferred to White Star and became {{SS|Laurentic|1908|2}} and {{SS|Megantic||2}}, bringing the company into the Canadian route. These two ships also served as a testing ground for the propulsion method of the ''Olympic''-class liners.<ref>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=68}}</ref>

When she entered service in June 1911, {{RMS|Olympic||2}} was an immediate and highly satisfactory success,<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=143}}</ref> with White Star ordering a third ship, {{ship|HMHS|Britannic||2}}.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=169}}</ref> The initial success was quickly disrupted. On 20 September 1911, ''Olympic'' was damaged following a collision with the [[cruiser]] {{HMS|Hawke|1891|6}}, which led to her return to the shipyard for lengthy repairs and the postponement of the entry into service of ''Titanic''.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=109}}</ref>

''Titanic'' eventually entered service in April 1912, but her career would be short-lived. She was [[Sinking of the Titanic|lost after striking an iceberg on her maiden voyage]], leading to the deaths of around 1,500 people. The impact on public opinion was considerable.

The sinking of ''Titanic'' caused a small loss of confidence in large liners, which had to be equipped with additional lifeboats. ''Olympic'' suffered a mutiny shortly after the sinking, when some of her [[Stoker (occupation)|stokers]] expressed concern about the seaworthiness of her hastily installed collapsible [[Lifeboat (shipboard)|lifeboats]] and refused to work. The ship was withdrawn from service in October 1912 and was extensively refitted to improve her safety in light of ''Titanic''′s sinking. She returned to service in March 1913.<ref>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=72}}</ref> Construction of ''Britannic'' was postponed in order to allow the lessons learned from the sinking of her sister to be implemented into her design.<ref>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=75}}</ref>

== War and reparations (1914–1926) ==
=== World War I ===
When [[World War I]] broke out, the White Star fleet became involved in the war. At the time, it controlled 35 ships, and all served in the war effort, either by being directly commissioned by the Royal Navy, or within the framework of the Liner Requisition Act. In these conditions, the losses were numerous.<ref>{{harvnb|Eaton|Haas|1989|p=183}}</ref> The route from Southampton was stopped in order to avoid losses, and only ''Baltic'' and ''Adriatic'' remained on the route from Liverpool to New York, quickly joined by ships loaned from the [[Red Star Line]]: {{SS|Lapland||2}}, {{SS|Zeeland|1900|2}}, and {{SS|Vaderland|1900|2}}.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=168}}</ref>

''Oceanic'', ''Teutonic'', ''Celtic'' and ''Cedric'' were quickly converted into [[armed merchant cruiser|auxiliary cruisers]], and joined the 10th Squadron of the Royal Navy. ''Majestic'' escaped the fighting, its scrapping having begun a few weeks before the start of the conflict.<ref name=ra124>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=124}}</ref> The company's first wartime loss was ''[[RMS Oceanic (1899)|Oceanic]]'', which ran aground and was lost on 8 September 1914.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=85}}</ref>

The first White Star ship lost to enemy action was ''[[SS Arabic (1902)|Arabic]]'', which was torpedoed off the Irish coast in August 1915 with the loss of 44 lives.<ref>{{harvnb|Eaton|Haas|1989|pp=186–187}}</ref> November 1916 would see the loss of {{ship|HMHS|Britannic||2}}, the third and final ''Olympic''-class vessel, which sank near the Greek island of [[Kea (island)|Kea]] after striking a [[naval mine]] while in service as a [[hospital ship]]. ''Britannic'' was the largest loss for the company, and also the [[List of the largest ships hit by U-boats in World War I|largest ship sunk]] during the conflict. 1916 also saw the loss of {{SS|Cymric||2}}, which was torpedoed off the Irish coast in May,<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=126}}</ref> and also of the cargo ship {{SS|Georgic|1895|2}}, which was scuttled in December with its cargo of 1,200 horses still on board after being intercepted in the Atlantic by the German [[merchant raider]] {{SMS|Möwe|1914|6}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Eaton|Haas|1989|pp=189–192}}</ref>

1917 saw the loss of {{SS|Laurentic|1908|2}} in January, which struck a mine off the Irish coast and sank with the loss of 354 lives and 3,211 [[gold ingot]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Chirnside|2004|p=240}}</ref> The following month the liner {{SS|Afric||2}} was sunk by a torpedo in the English Channel, as was {{SS|Delphic|1897|2}} in August.<ref>{{harvnb|Eaton|Haas|1989|pp=189–192}}.</ref> Another large loss came in 1918, when {{SS|Justicia||2}}, a 32,120 GRT liner requisitioned from [[Holland America Line]] and operated by White Star, was torpedoed and sunk.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=176}}</ref>

Many White Star ships were requisitioned for various types of war service, most commonly for use as [[troop ship]]s. The most notable of these was ''Olympic'', which transported over 200,000 troops during the conflict.<ref name="Chirnside Big" />{{rp|142}}<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|pp=148–149}}</ref> Some ships, still under construction when the war broke out, were sent into military service unfinished and were not completed until after the war. This was the case with [[SS Belgenland (1914)|''Belgic'']] and {{SS|Vedic||2}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=87}}</ref> The company lost ten ships over the course of the conflict, but its fleet carried nearly 550,000 soldiers and four million tons of cargo, and nearly 325 officers, engineers, marshals and medics were decorated during the war. With the end of hostilities, their surviving ships were decommissioned to resume their commercial service.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=128}}</ref>

=== War reparations ===
[[File:RMS Majestic, F. G. O. Stuart(cropped).jpg|thumb|[[RMS Majestic (1914)|''Majestic'']] of 1922 (56,551 GRT)]]
[[File:RMS Homeric.jpg|thumb|[[RMS Homeric (1913)|''Homeric'']] of 1922 (35,000 GRT)]]
After the war, the White Star Line found itself in a difficult situation. Of its three ''Olympic''-class giants, only the lead ship remained to resume commercial service. The losses on other routes were also far from negligible. After the end of hostilities in November 1918, the [[Big Four (White Star Line)|Big Four]] resumed service from Liverpool with the help of ''Lapland'', ''Belgic'' and the briefly chartered [[SS Cleveland|''Mobile'']]. In July 1919, ''Cretic'' and ''Canopic'' resumed their Mediterranean service.<ref name=RA135>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=135}}</ref> In September 1919, ''Lapland'' and ''Adriatic'' reopened the Southampton route.<ref>{{harvnb| Haws|1990|p=81}}</ref> In 1920, ''Olympic'' returned to service and displaced ''Lapland'' after undergoing an overhaul that included a conversion to oil burning, which was more economical than coal.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=150}}</ref>

After the ships that had survived the conflict returned to service, the company still had to compensate for its losses, which it decided to do by buying as many second-hand ships as possible, and sometimes by lending them to other shipping companies within the IMM.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=136}}</ref> The company bought two cargo ships built as part of the war effort, ''War Argus'' and ''War Priam'', which became {{SS|Gallic|1918|2}} and {{SS|Bardic||2}}.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=179}}</ref> They acquired {{SS|Haverford||2}} from the [[American Line]] in 1921,<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=186}}</ref> as well as ''Poland'' from the Red Star Line in 1922.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=194}}</ref>

In 1922, the White Star Line obtained three former German liners which had been ceded to Britain as [[World War I reparations|war reparations]] under the terms of the [[Treaty of Versailles]], ostensibly as replacements for the war losses of ''Britannic'', ''Oceanic'', ''Arabic'', ''Cymric'' and ''Laurentic''. These were the former SS ''Bismarck'', which was renamed {{RMS|Majestic|1914|2}}, the former SS ''Berlin'', renamed {{SS|Arabic|1920|2}}, and the former SS ''Columbus'', renamed {{RMS|Homeric|1913|2}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=88}}</ref> At 56,551 gross register tons, ''Majestic'' was then the world's largest liner and became the company's unofficial flagship. The two former German liners operated successfully alongside ''Olympic'' on the Southampton–New York route until the [[Great Depression]] reduced demand after 1930.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|pp=60–61}}</ref>

In the immediate post-war period there was a boom in transatlantic migration, from which White Star was able to benefit for a time.<ref name=RA139>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=139}}</ref> However, this trade was badly affected by the [[Immigration Act of 1924]], which introduced quotas for immigrants to the United States.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=161}}</ref> This lowered the profits of the shipping lines, for whom migration had been a source of profit for nearly a century. However, the growth in [[tourism]] was to some degree able to offset the decline of migration, and White Star made efforts to appeal to this new kind of travelers by gradually overhauling liners still in service and re-configuring Third Class accommodations as Tourist Class.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=2009}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=162}}</ref>

=== Exit from the IMM ===
[[File:SS Regina.jpg|thumb|[[SS Westernland|''Regina'']] of 1925 (16,231 GRT)]] [[File:Services and Fleet - White Star Line 1923.jpg|thumb|right|Services and fleet of the White Star Line, 1923]]
In the post-war period, when the situation of the International Mercantile Marine Co. was precarious, its president, Philip Franklin, saw the exclusion of British companies as a lifeline. Indeed, the presence of these British companies and their ships deprived the trust of American subsidies. At that time, [[William Pirrie, 1st Viscount Pirrie|Lord Pirrie]] and [[Owen Philipps, 1st Baron Kylsant|Owen Philipps]] (known from 1923 as Lord Kylsant) offered £27,000,000 to recover all British property from the trust. U.S. President [[Woodrow Wilson]], however, vetoed at the last minute. The IMM found itself in an all the more delicate position since the White Star Line signed an agreement with the British Board of Trade stipulating that it should not be considered as a foreign ownership. Under this agreement, all directors of the company were to be approved by the Board of Trade, which created a particularly complex situation.<ref name=RA135 />

It was under these conditions that the White Star Line pursued its resumption of activities. In 1923, ''Doric'' entered service, one of only two ships delivered to the company by Harland & Wolff during the decade. The liner was assigned to a joint service between White Star and the Dominion Line.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=205}}</ref> It was accompanied on this route by [[SS Westernland|''Regina'']], a ship of the IMM. Originally owned by the [[Leyland Line]], it was operated by the [[Dominion Line]] before switching to White Star. The ship ended its career under the colors of the [[Red Star Line]].<ref name=RA139 /> Also in 1923, White Star and its rival Cunard Line reached an agreement to alternate their departures during the winter, in order to use fewer ships during this less profitable season, which was conducive to refitting ships.<ref name=DH20>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=20}}</ref>

Although the transatlantic services of the White Star Line held up well in the 1920s, this was not the case for all services. The Australian route was experiencing more and more difficulties.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|pp=163–164}}</ref> Relations with IMM became increasingly difficult and, in 1925, the trust again announced that it wanted to separate from its non-American subsidiaries. The sale was initially offered for the price of £7,000,000, derisory compared to its original price, and an agreement seemed to have been reached in the spring with the British group [[Furness Withy]], but the deal ultimately failed.<ref name=RA165>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=165}}</ref>

== Lord Kylsant and the Great Depression (1927–1934) ==
[[File:Lord Kylsant.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Owen Philipps, 1st Baron Kylsant|Lord Kylsant]]]]
Shortly after, [[Owen Philipps, 1st Baron Kylsant|Lord Kylsant]] intervened in the situation with the IMM. As the head of Harland & Wolff since the death of Lord Pirrie in 1924, he was particularly interested in the White Star Line, to which Harland & Wolff had a close business relationship. In November 1926, Kylsant announced that he had bought back all the shares in the White Star Line from IMM for £7,907,661. The sale took effect on 1 January 1927, making Kylsant the owner of the largest fleet in the world thanks to his [[Royal Mail Steam Packet Company]] (RMSPC). The IMM continued to manage the American White Star agencies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.plimsoll.org/OnTheLine/ShippingLines/royalmail/default.asp#2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040220192522/http://www.plimsoll.org/OnTheLine/ShippingLines/royalmail/default.asp#2 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=20 February 2004 |title=Fact file – PortCities Southampton |website=Plimsoll.org |access-date=17 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.users.on.net/~snicol/story/index3.html |title=The Royal Mail Story: The Kylsant years |website=Users.on.net |access-date=17 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111208010107/http://www.users.on.net/~snicol/story/index3.html |archive-date=8 December 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=RA165 />

Despite everything, Kylsant's empire was not to succeed: its vast and aging fleet had to be replaced at a time when the company was experiencing great financial difficulties. This mainly involved repaying [[HM Treasury|Treasury]] loans that were approaching maturity.<ref name=DH21>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=21}}</ref> Kylsant nevertheless took advantage of his new acquisition to reorganize this fleet: he decided to give White Star the monopoly of the Southampton route within his group, and therefore reassigned two of the ships that the Royal Mail operated on this route, ''Ohio'' and ''Orca'', which became {{SS|Albertic||2}} and {{SS|Calgaric||2}} respectively, to the Canadian route alongside ''Laurentic''.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=212}}</ref> As the new chairman of the company, Kylsant was also trying to strengthen the company in its services to Australia. To do this, he bought back the shares of [[Sir John Ellerman, 1st Baronet|Sir John Ellerman]], a minority shareholder of [[Shaw, Savill & Albion Line]], for £994,000 in 1928. This action followed the buyout, for nearly two million pounds, of the [[Commonwealth Line]]. These purchases, made by the company White Star Line Ltd created by Kylsant, pushed the company into bankruptcy, even as the group was demanding delays in repaying the Treasury.<ref>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|pp=21–22}}</ref> The decision also turned out to be erroneous; the route to Australia was already suffering from a surplus of tonnage, and the hopes of Kylsant, who said he believed "in the future of Australia," turned out to be in vain.<ref>{{harvnb| Anderson|1964|p=167}}</ref> It was also in this context that Kylsant was launching a new construction program at the Harland & Wolff shipyard.

[[File:RMMV Oceanic by Eric Okanume.png|thumb|Artist's rendition of ''Oceanic'']]
In 1928, a new {{ship||Oceanic|unfinished ship|2}} was ordered and her keel was laid down that year at Harland and Wolff. The thousand foot long liner was to have been a [[motor ship]] propelled by the new diesel-electric propulsion system. However, while the construction of the keel was in progress, work was stopped during 1929, initially to study the new propulsion device. The construction never resumed. Its keel was dismantled and the steel used to construct other ships. The [[Great Depression]] of 1929 put an end to the project.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|pp=168–169}}</ref> Since Lord Kylsant took control of the company, he had been siphoning the revenues of the company for the benefit of the rest of the RMSPC pending an improvement in the financial situation. Also, the dividends declared by the company were constantly decreasing, prompting Harold Sanderson to leave the management.<ref name=RK210>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=210}}</ref> In addition, repeated requests from the Treasury to obtain reimbursement weakened Kylsant, who was eventually arrested in connection with the [[Royal Mail Case]] in 1931.<ref name=DH22>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=22}}</ref>

To survive the economic crisis, White Star Line limited its spending. The oldest ships were sold, and many crossings were canceled in order to counter the drop in the number of passengers. Passengers on the transatlantic route numbered 172,000 in 1928, and the number dropped to 157,930 the following year.<ref name=RK210 /> The liners, including the bigger ones like the ''Majestic'' and the ''Olympic'', were used for cruises during this period in order to bring in more income.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=198}}</ref> A new liner, the {{MV|Britannic|1929|2}} entered service in 1930. It adapted perfectly to the circumstances since it was slower and therefore more profitable than the transatlantic ships of the Southampton route. It immediately became the ship making the most money for the company, and a sister ship, the {{MV|Georgic|1931|2}} joined it in 1932.<ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=226}}</ref>

[[File:MVGeorgicoldpostcard.jpg|thumb|[[MV Georgic (1931)|''Georgic'']] of 1931 (27,759 GRT)]]
However, the situation was not favorable for the company, which in 1930, recorded the first deficit in its history, a deficit which continued in the following years.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=176}}</ref> Kylsant's departure in 1931 left his business empire in a state of disrepair. Its liquidation was then envisaged, with the banks then having the role of keeping the various fleets alive as much as possible based on their values. The operation began in 1932, the most complex then being to untangle the web of links uniting the various companies.<ref name=DH22 /> Another hard blow then struck White Star: the Australian government demanded reimbursement of a million pounds still owed following the purchases of Kylsant. The company was unable to repay its debt, and its ships serving on the Australian route were sold to a new company, the [[Aberdeen Line|Aberdeen and Commonwealth Line Ltd]], in 1933.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=177}}</ref>

In the same year, when the company appeared to be bankrupt, discussions began to take place to consider a merger with the Cunard Line, which was also in financial difficulty.<ref name=DH23>{{harvnb|Haws|1990|p=23}}</ref> Joseph Bruce Ismay tried, twenty years after his ouster, to participate in the rescue of the company by proposing to create, with the agreement of the government a new company which would operate and would build other ships similar to the ''Britannic'' and the ''Georgic'' in order to become profitable. The idea did not come to fruition and Ismay died in 1937 without having been able to do more.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=178}}</ref> Meanwhile, other aging ships were being scrapped without being replaced, notably the Big Four with the exception of the ''Adriatic''.<ref name=DH23 />

== Cunard merger ==
[[File:Cunard White Star Line Logo.JPG|thumb|upright|left|''Cunard-White Star'' Logo]]
In 1933, White Star and Cunard were both in serious financial difficulties due to the [[Great Depression]], plummeting passenger numbers, and the advanced age of their fleets. Work was halted on Cunard's new giant, Hull 534, later {{RMS|Queen Mary||2}}, in 1931 to save money. In 1933, the British government agreed to provide assistance to the two competitors on the condition that they merge their North Atlantic operations.<ref>{{harvnb|Chirnside|2004|p=123}}</ref> The agreement was completed on 30 December 1933. The merger took place on 10 May 1934, creating [[Cunard-White Star Limited]]. White Star contributed ten ships to the new company while Cunard contributed fifteen. Due to this arrangement, and since Hull 534 was Cunard's ship, 62% of the company was owned by Cunard's shareholders and 38% of the company was owned for the benefit of White Star's creditors. White Star's Australia and New Zealand services were not involved in the merger, but were separately disposed of to the [[Shaw, Savill & Albion Line]] later in 1934. A year later, ''Olympic'' was withdrawn from service and scrapped in 1937.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=179}}</ref>

In 1947, Cunard acquired the remaining 38% of Cunard White Star.<ref name=DH23 /> On 31 December 1949, they acquired Cunard-White Star's assets and operations, and reverted to using the name "Cunard" on 1 January 1950. From the time of the 1934 merger, the house flags of both lines had been flown on all their ships, with each ship flying the flag of its original owner above the other, but from 1950, even {{MV|Georgic|1931|2}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.chriscunard.com/history-fleet/cunard-white-star/fleet-details/georgic/ |title=Georgic |work=Chris' Cunard Page |access-date=17 February 2010}}</ref> and {{MV|Britannic|1929|2|}},<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.chriscunard.com/history-fleet/cunard-white-star/fleet-details/britannic/ |title=Britannic |work=Chris' Cunard Page |access-date=17 February 2010}}</ref> the last surviving White Star liners, flew the Cunard house flag above the White Star burgee until they were each withdrawn from service in 1956 and 1961 respectively. Just as the retiring of Cunard's {{RMS|Aquitania||2}} in 1950 marked the end of the pre-World War I 'floating palaces', the retirement of ''Britannic'' a decade later marked the end of White Star Line.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=181}}</ref> All Cunard vessels flew both the Cunard and White Star Line house flags on their masts until late 1968. This was most likely because ''[[SS Nomadic (1911)|Nomadic]]'' remained in service with Cunard until 4 November 1968, and was sent to the breakers' yard, only to be bought for use as a floating restaurant. After this, the White Star flag was no longer flown, the White Star name was removed from Cunard operations and all remnants of both White Star Line and Cunard-White Star Line were retired.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=183}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=229}}</ref>

{{clear}}

== The Australia Run ==
{{more references| section|date=October 2021}}
[[File:SS Medic HQ.png|thumb|''Medic'' of 1898 (11,948 GRT), the second of the original trio of the {{sclass2|Jubilee|ocean liner|4}} and the ship which inaugurated White Star's new Australian service.]]
[[File:SS Suevic (high def).jpg|thumb|''Suevic'', launched in 1900 (12,531 GRT), was the last of the class and one of the modified ships with greater passenger capacity]]
[[File:PERSIC on left and CERAMIC on right, both of the White Star Line. (3307507923).jpg|thumb|''Persic'' (left) and ''Ceramic'' (right) loading at [[Sydney]] in the 1920s]]
White Star had begun as a line serving traffic to and from Australia, especially during the [[Gold rush#Australia|gold rushes of the 1850s]], but following the line's collapse and its purchase by Thomas Ismay in 1868, the company was rebuilt as a trans-Atlantic line. However, in the late 1890s White Star decided to reinstate a service to Australia, partly because of the discovery of further gold deposits in [[Western Australia]] leading to another series of gold rushes and an increase in emigrants to Australia, as well as an increasing trade in minerals, agricultural produce, wool and meat in the other direction. The latter had become a major source of revenue for shipping lines already on the route after the advent of effective mechanical [[refrigeration]] systems in the late 1880s, allowing large quantities of cattle carcasses to be preserved on the long voyage back to the [[British Isles]].

Thomas Ismay decided to re-enter the Australian run in 1897 with a monthly service between Liverpool, [[Cape Town]] and [[Sydney]]. A stop at [[Tenerife]] was included in the schedule both outbound and inbound. Outbound ships would call at [[Adelaide]] and [[Melbourne]] and the return trip would call at [[Plymouth]] before ending at Liverpool. With the journey taking six weeks, five ships would be needed to maintain the service in both directions. The specification for the new ships was drawn up and the order placed with Harland & Wolff in the summer of 1897, coinciding with the [[Queen Victoria#Diamond Jubilee|Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria]], thus they became known as the {{sclass2|Jubilee|ocean liner|4}}.<ref name=rk78>{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|pp=78–89}}</ref>{{rp|78–89}} In keeping with White Star's new philosophy on the Atlantic of size over speed, the Jubilee class were to be the largest ships ever put on the Australia run, at {{cvt|550|ft|m}} in length and nearly 12,000 gross register tons. They were single-funnel, twin-screw ships designed as mixed cargo/passenger vessels, essentially being enlarged versions of White Star's earlier [[SS Naronic|''Naronic'' class]].<ref name="Haws">{{harvnb|Haws|1990|pages=50–54}}</ref> With a service speed of {{convert|14|kn}}, the Jubilee class were significantly slower than the smaller mailships run by the [[Orient Line]] and [[P&O (company)|P&O]] and their size meant they could not transit the [[Suez Canal]], so they would have to take the long route via South Africa and would not attract first-class passengers. Instead they were intended for the emigrant/seasonal worker traffic, carrying 320 passengers solely in what was described as third-class accommodation. However, following White Star's long tradition of improving standards for third-class passengers, these facilities were considerably ahead of the equivalent on other lines, being broadly in line with second-class facilities on other ships. Although all of the same class, prices for berths on the Jubilee class varied, allowing passengers the choice of two- or four-berth cabins for a premium or open dormitories. Passengers had use of facilities such as a large dining room, a library and a smoking room, as well as free run of nearly all the ship's deck space during the voyage. The ships could carry 15,000 tons of cargo in seven holds, including capacity for 100,000 meat carcasses.<ref name="NQR">{{cite news |url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article81645587 |title=A Mammoth Steamship. The New White Star Liner. Arrival of the Medic |newspaper=[[The North Queensland Register]] |volume=IX |issue=43 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=2 October 1899 |access-date=10 September 2018 |page=25 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref>

The first Jubilee-class ship, {{SS|Afric||2}}, was launched in November 1898, but her maiden voyage in February 1899 was to New York as a [[shakedown cruise]] and to test the new ship on a shorter route – small improvements were made to ''Afric'' and her sister ships as a result of this trip.<ref name=rk78 /> The Australian service was actually inaugurated by the second ship, {{SS|Medic||2}}, which left Liverpool in August 1899 and arrived in Sydney in October.<ref name="NQR" /> The third ship, {{SS|Persic||2}}, began her maiden voyage in December 1899 but was delayed for several weeks in Cape Town after her rudder broke due to faulty metalwork. The final pair of ships for the Australia run were built to a modified design following the experiences with the original trio. The Australian run proved to be more popular with passengers than expected, so these two ships, {{SS|Runic|1900|2}} and {{SS|Suevic||2}}, had their bridges moved forward and their poop decks extended.<ref name=rk78 /><ref name="Haws" /> As well as slightly increasing their gross register tonnage, this gave them capacity for a further 50 passengers, bringing the total to 400. ''Suevic'' made her maiden voyage in May 1901, bringing White Star's new Australian service to full strength. By now the return voyage also included a stop at [[London]] – most passengers from Australia disembarked at Plymouth to go to their final destination by rail, while much of the cargo was bound for London. The ship would then steam back through the [[English Channel]] to offload the last of her cargo and passengers at Liverpool before preparing for the next voyage.
The Australian run was successful and profitable for White Star, and largely uneventful for the ships. In the earliest days of the route the initial three ships were heavily used to transport men, soldiers and supplies to South Africa during the [[Second Boer War|Boer War]], while ''Suevic'' [[SS Suevic#Shipwreck|ran aground]] off [[Lizard Point, Cornwall]] in 1907. There were no casualties and, despite the ship being broken in two as part of an ambitious salvage operation, she was repaired and re-entered service in January 1908.<ref name="Haws" /> The success of the new Australian service in terms of freight led to White Star transferring an older cargo-only ship of a similar size to the Jubilee class, {{SS|Cevic|1893|2}}, from the New York service to the Australia Run. In 1910 ''Cevic'' was used to experiment with routing ships to Australia via the [[Suez Canal]] but she ran aground several times in the canal and the ships continued to operate via the Cape. ''Cevic'' was used on the Australia run on a seasonal basis, mainly carrying cattle and wool at the end of the Australian autumn (February–April) and then being switched to the New York run during the Atlantic summer.

Continued demand for extra passenger capacity led to White Star building a one-off ship for the route. Launched in 1913, {{SS|Ceramic||2}} was a larger, more sophisticated development of the Jubilee class, at {{cvt|655|ft}} in length and 18,495 gross register tons. Like {{SS|Laurentic|1908|2}} and the {{sclass|Olympic|ocean liner|4}}, ''Ceramic'' was a triple-screw ship<ref name="mercury-ceramic">{{cite web |title=White Star Australian Line – New Steamer Ceramic |newspaper=[[The Mercury (Hobart)|The Mercury]] |date=17 February 1913 |url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/10274788}}</ref> with the central propeller driven by a low-pressure turbine using exhaust from the two reciprocating steam engines. This enabled her to be slightly faster – {{convert|16|kn}} – than the Jubilee-class vessels despite her extra size for a minimal increase in coal consumption. The new ship had a significantly larger superstructure and nearly double the passenger capacity of the Jubilee-class ships – a total of 600 passengers,<ref name="mercury-ceramic" /> still carried only in what was advertised as third-class accommodation. She could also carry 19,000 tons of cargo in eight holds, including {{cvt|321,000|cuft}} of refrigerated space.<ref name="Hardy">{{cite book |last1=Hardy |first1=Clare |title=SS Ceramic, The Untold Story |date=2006 |pages=19–20 |publisher=C. Hardy |isbn=1-904908-64-0}}</ref> The dimensions of ''Ceramic'' were restricted by the length of the quay at London's [[Port of Tilbury]] and the clearance for the masts under the then-proposed [[Sydney Harbour Bridge]]. When she arrived in Sydney in September 1914, she took the place of the Jubilee-class ships as the largest vessel on the Australia run from Britain. After the long-delayed construction of the Harbour Bridge in 1932, ''Ceramic'' would be the tallest ship then in service to pass under it.<ref name="Hardy" />

All seven ships were requisitioned as troop transports during [[World War I]], forcing White Star to suspend the regular Australia service. ''Afric'' was torpedoed by a [[U-boat]] in the English Channel in 1917<ref>{{cite web |title=HMAT Afric |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/C2076729 |website=Australian War Memorial |access-date=8 November 2023}}</ref> and ''Cevic'' remained in the ownership of the [[Royal Fleet Auxiliary]] after the war, but the remaining five ships were returned to White Star and the service was resumed in 1919. The remaining Jubilee-class liners were withdrawn from service in the late 1920s. ''Persic'' was scrapped in 1926 while ''Medic'' and ''Suevic'' were sold in 1928 and ''Runic'' in 1929. All were converted into whaling [[factory ship]]s on account of their size and cargo capacity. The Australia run was no longer as lucrative or as heavily trafficked as it had been before the war and the route was no longer a priority for White Star, especially once it came under the ownership of the [[Royal Mail Steam Packet Company]] in 1927. A new ship, intended to be the first of a new class to replace the Jubilee class, had been launched in 1917 – {{SS|Vedic||2}}. This was the first White Star ship to be powered solely by [[steam turbine|turbines]] and had the same emigrant/cargo-carrying role as her predecessors, although at {{cvt|460|ft}} and 9,332 gross register tons, she was smaller than the older ships. ''Vedic'' went straight from the builders to service as a troopship and was initially used on White Star's Canadian service until she was put on the Australia run in 1925. ''Ceramic'' and ''Vedic'' maintained a less-intensive Australian service until White Star merged with the [[Cunard Line]] in 1934. The new management immediately decided to end White Star's routes to the southern hemisphere – ''Ceramic'' was sold to the [[Shaw, Savill & Albion Line]], which continued to operate her on the same route, while ''Vedic'' was scrapped.

== The New Zealand Service ==
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2021}}
In 1883 an agreement was made between White Star and the [[Shaw, Savill & Albion Line]] (newly formed by merger the previous year) to operate a joint service between London and [[Wellington]]. Thomas Ismay had already been considering setting up a New Zealand route for White Star, but with Shaw, Savill & Albion (SS&A) already formed due to the difficulties of competing against the [[New Zealand Shipping Company]] (NZSC), sharing the venture with a firm that was already established on the route but looking to expand was an attractive proposition. Two ships were already in-build by the time the agreement was signed – the {{SS|Ionic|1883|3}} and the {{SS|Doric|1883|2}}. In fact both these ships were chartered to the would-be rival NZSC immediately after their launch, as well as the older {{SS|Coptic||2}} to make up for the very shortfall in ships on the run that White Star was hoping to exploit.

The White Star/Shaw Savill New Zealand service did not begin in earnest until the next year. The three ships were timetabled in addition to the existing Shaw Savill service and were managed and administered by Shaw Savill's agents, but White Star provided the crews and the ships retained their White Star names, livery and house flag. The route was an eastward [[circumnavigation]], calling at [[Tenerife]], Cape Town and [[Dar es Salaam]] on the way to Wellington, then rounding [[Cape Horn]] and calling at [[Montevideo]] and [[Rio de Janeiro]] on the return.

Traffic on the New Zealand route did not develop as quickly as anticipated, and in 1893 a new dedicated combined cargo/passenger liner, {{SS|Gothic|1893|2}}, with nearly twice the gross tonnage of one of the older ships, was introduced. ''Coptic'' and ''Doric'' were chartered to White Star's long-time partner in the Pacific, the [[Occidental and Oriental Steamship Company]].

By the next decade, traffic on the New Zealand service had picked up and was becoming both profitable and over-subscribed. When White Star became part of the [[International Mercantile Marine Company]] in 1902, an agreement was made with Shaw, Savill & Albion that White Star would construct and provide three ships for the joint New Zealand service which, as before, would be managed and administered by SS&A. A trio of new {{GRT|12300|link=off}} liners, the {{sclass|Athenic|ocean liner|4}} were ordered from Harland & Wolff. Although slightly smaller in length and tonnage, they closely resembled the two modified Jubilee-class liners built for the Australia Run, with bridges mounted far forward to allow for a generous passenger-carrying space. Unlike the Jubilees, the ''Athenic'' class carried passengers in all three classes. {{SS|Athenic||2}} and {{SS|Corinthic|1902|2}} entered service in 1902 and {{SS|Ionic|1902|3}} (re-using the name of one of the ships that began the service 20 years before) in 1903.

All three ships became troop carriers under the auspices of the [[Minister of Shipping]] during the [[First World War]], carrying the [[New Zealand Expeditionary Force]] to Europe and the Middle East. After the war they returned to the joint service with White Star/Shaw Savill, but the route was no longer in such demand or so profitable, and White Star was becoming more focused on its core Atlantic service between Southampton and New York and increasingly looking to wind down the Australia Run, the Atlantic services to Boston and Canada and the New Zealand service. In 1928 ''Athenic'' was sold to a Norwegian firm and converted into a whaling [[factory ship]]. In 1929 ''Corinthic'' was re-fitted to have single third/tourist class accommodation only, and she was sold for scrap in 1931. Only ''Ionic'' was still in service when White Star and [[Cunard Line|Cunard]] merged in 1934, at which point ''Ionic'' on the New Zealand run was sold on to Shaw, Savill & Albion along with ''Ceramic'' on the Australian service. The elderly liner was scrapped in 1936.

== Legacy==
[[File:SS Nomadic March 2012.jpg|thumb|upright
|Last surviving White Star ship, {{SS|Nomadic|1911|2}}, photographed in 2012 in the condition in which she would have appeared in 1912, drydocked in [[Belfast]], Northern Ireland]]

The White Star Line's main offices, [[Albion House, Liverpool|Albion House]], still exist in Liverpool, standing in James Street within sight of the more grandiose headquarters of their rivals, the [[Cunard Building]]. The building has a plaque commemorating the fact that it was once the head office of the White Star Line. It was the first open plan office building in Liverpool.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lancashirelife.co.uk/out-about/places/liverpool-s-old-white-star-line-building-reborn-as-a-luxury-titanic-styled-hotel-1-3675191 |title=Liverpool's old White Star Line building reborn as a luxury Titanic styled hotel |website=Lancashirelife.co.uk |date=9 July 2014 |access-date=17 August 2018}}</ref> J. Bruce Ismay had his office in the building.

The White Star Line's London office building, [[Oceanic House]], still exists today, and has been converted into apartments.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/titanics-london-hq-to-be-turned-into-luxury-flats-a3400376.html |title=Titanic's London HQ to be turned into luxury flats |website=Standard.co.uk |date=21 November 2016 |access-date=17 August 2018}}</ref> They are on [[Cockspur Street]], off [[Trafalgar Square]], and the company name can still be seen on the building over the entrances. The Southampton offices in Canute Road still exist, now known as Canute Chambers.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dailyecho.co.uk/heritage/titanic/trail/locations/9443568.Canute_Chambers/ |title=Canute Chambers |website=Daily Echo |date=29 December 2011 |access-date=17 August 2018}}</ref>

The French passenger tender ''[[SS Nomadic (1911)|Nomadic]]'', the last surviving vessel of the White Star Line, was purchased by the Northern Ireland [[Department for Social Development (Northern Ireland)|Department for Social Development]] in January 2006. She has since been returned to [[Belfast]], where she has been fully restored to her original and elegant 1912 appearance under the auspices of the [[SS Nomadic (1911)#Nomadic Preservation Society|Nomadic Preservation Society]] with the assistance of her original builders, [[Harland and Wolff]]. She is currently serving as an outside exhibit of the [[Titanic Belfast]] museum, a museum dedicated to the history of Atlantic steam, the White Star Line, and its most famous ship, ''Titanic''. The historic ''Nomadic'' was opened ceremoniously to the public on 31 May 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hlf.org.uk/about-us/media-centre/press-releases/ss-nomadic-restored-major-maritime-tourism-attraction |title=SS Nomadic restored as a major maritime tourism attraction – Heritage Lottery Fund |website=Hlf.org.uk |access-date=17 August 2018 |archive-date=21 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721192225/https://www.hlf.org.uk/about-us/media-centre/press-releases/ss-nomadic-restored-major-maritime-tourism-attraction |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Chirnside|2004|p=306}}</ref>

In 1995, Cunard Line introduced ''White Star Service'' to {{ship||Queen Elizabeth 2}} as a reference to the high standards of customer service expected of the company. The term is still used today onboard {{RMS|Queen Mary 2||2}}, {{MS|Queen Victoria||2}} and {{MS|Queen Elizabeth||2}}.<ref name=":0" /> The company has also created the White Star Academy, an in-house programme for preparing new crew members for the service standards expected on Cunard ships.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=White Star Service – Cunard Cruise Line |url=https://www.cunard.com/en-gb/the-cunard-experience/white-star-service |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240505142012/https://www.cunard.com/en-gb/the-cunard-experience/white-star-service |archive-date=2024-05-05 |access-date=2024-08-21 |work=Cunard}}</ref>

The White Star flag is raised on all Cunard ships and ''Nomadic'' every 15 April in memory of the ''Titanic'' disaster.

== See also ==
{{Portal|United Kingdom|Transport|Companies}}
*[[List of White Star Line ships]]
{{Clear}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |last=Anderson |first=Roy Claude |title=White Star |location=Prescot |publisher=T. Stephenson & Sons Ltd |year=1964 |oclc=3134809}}
* {{cite book |last=Chirnside |first=Mark |title=The Olympic-class ships: Olympic, Titanic, Britannic |publisher=Tempus |year=2004 |isbn=0-7524-2868-3}}
* {{cite book |last=de Kerbrech |first=Richard P. |title=Ships of the White Star Line |location=Hersham |publisher=Ian Allan Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7110-3366-5 |oclc=298597975}}
* {{cite book |last1=Eaton |first1=John P. |last2=Haas |first2=Charles A. |title=Falling Star: Misadventures of White Star Line Ships |location=Wellingborough |publisher=Patrick Stephens Ltd |year=1989 |isbn=1-85260-084-5 |oclc=20935102}}
* {{cite book |language=fr |last=Ferruli |first=Corrado |title=Au cœur des Bateaux de légende |publisher=Hachette Collection |year=2004 |isbn=978-2-84634-350-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Haws |first=Duncan |title=White Star Line |series=Merchant Fleets |volume=17 |location=Hereford |publisher=TCL Publications |year=1990 |isbn=0-946378-16-9 |oclc=50214776}}
* {{cite book |language=fr |last=Le Goff |first=Olivier |title=Les Plus Beaux Paquebots du Monde |location=Paris |publisher=Solar |year=1998 |isbn=2-263-02799-8}}
* {{cite book |language=fr |last=Masson |first=Philippe |title=Le Drame du Titanic |location=Paris |publisher=Tallendier |year=1998 |isbn=2-235-02176-X}}

== Further reading ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120716184616/http://www.theshipslist.com/ships/lines/whitestar.html The ship's list]
* {{usurped|1=[http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110224092536/http://www.titanic-whitestarships.com/History_WSL.htm History of the White Star Line]}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100819033343/http://www.red-duster.co.uk/WSTAR.htm Red duster page on the White Star Line]
* [http://www.marcpercy.com/april151912/company.htm Brief company overview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080108051918/http://www.marcpercy.com/april151912/company.htm |date=8 January 2008 }}
* [http://www.ihbc.org.uk/context_archive/48/columns_dir/columns_s.htm Info on the original financing deal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525185823/http://www.ihbc.org.uk/context_archive/48/columns_dir/columns_s.htm |date=25 May 2013 }}
* Oldham, Wilton J., ''The Ismay Line: The White Star Line, and the Ismay family story'', The Journal of Commerce, Liverpool, 1961
* [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Nice-Quiet-Life-Merchant-through-ebook/dp/B00QO3WND4/ref=pd_ecc_rvi_1 "A Nice Quiet Life"] by Alfred H Burlinson, an engineer who served on the Olympic, the Megantic, and Britanic

== External links ==
{{Commons category-inline|White Star Line}}
* [https://www.titanic-titanic.com/white_star_line.shtml White Star Line] at Titanic-Titanic.com
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180217001651/http://www.titanic-whitestarships.com/MGY_Demise.htm Final Demise of White Star Line Vessels]}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121024222824/http://www.freewebs.com/tdtsc-mn/wsl.htm Brief history of the White Star Line – from TDTSC MN]
* [http://www.runboard.com/btomdyerstitanicsitecommunity.f4 White Star Line discussion forum at TDTSC]
* [https://www.ggarchives.com/OceanTravel/SteamshipLines/WhiteStarLine.html White Star Line Historical Documents, Brochures, Menus, Passenger Lists etc.] GG Archives
* [https://www.whitestarhistory.com/ White Star Line History website]
* [https://www.chriscunard.com/history-fleet/cunard-white-star/ Cunard-White Star Line] on Chris' Cunard page
* {{PM20|FID=co/072994|TEXT=Documents and clippings about}}

{{White Star Line ships}}
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[[Category:White Star Line| ]]
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[[Category:British companies disestablished in 1934]]
[[Category:British companies established in 1845]]
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