View source for Wisdom

{{Short description|Ability to apply knowledge with good judgment}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{redirect-distinguish|Sapience|Sentience}}
{{AI-generated|date=November 2025}}
{{Other uses}}
[[File:Luca Giordano - Dream of Solomon - WGA09004.jpg|thumbnail|[[Luca Giordano]]: The ''Dream of Solomon'': God promises Solomon wisdom]]

'''Wisdom''', also known as '''sapience''', is the ability to apply [[knowledge]], [[experience]], and good [[judgment]] to navigate life's complexities. It is often associated with [[insight]], discernment, and [[ethics]] in decision-making. Throughout history, wisdom has been regarded as a key [[virtue]] in [[philosophy]], [[religion]], and [[psychology]], representing the ability to understand and respond to reality in a balanced and thoughtful manner. Unlike [[intelligence]], which primarily concerns problem-solving and reasoning, wisdom involves a deeper comprehension of [[human nature]], [[Morality|moral principles]], and the long-term consequences of actions.

Philosophically, wisdom has been explored by thinkers from [[Ancient Greece]] to modern times. [[Socrates]] famously equated wisdom with recognizing one's own ignorance, while [[Aristotle]] saw it as practical reasoning (''[[phronesis]]'') and deep contemplation (''[[sophia (wisdom)|sophia]]''). Eastern traditions, such as [[Confucianism]] and [[Buddhism]], emphasize wisdom as a form of enlightened understanding that leads to [[Buddhist ethics|ethical living]] and [[inner peace]]. Across cultures, wisdom is often linked to virtues like [[humility]], [[patience]], and [[compassion]], suggesting that it is not just about knowing what is right but also acting upon it.

[[Psychology|Psychologists]] study wisdom as a [[cognition|cognitive]] and [[emotion|emotional]] trait, often linking it to [[maturity (psychological)|maturity]], [[emotional regulation]], and the ability to consider [[perspectivism|multiple perspectives]]. Research suggests that wisdom is associated with qualities such as [[open-mindedness]], [[empathy]], and the ability to manage [[uncertainty]]. Some psychological models, such as the [[Berlin Wisdom Paradigm]] and [[Robert Sternberg]]'s Balance Theory, attempt to define and measure wisdom through various cognitive and social factors. [[Neuroscience]] studies also explore how [[human brain|brain]] structures related to emotional processing and long-term thinking contribute to wise decision-making.

Wisdom continues to be a subject of interest in modern society, influencing fields as diverse as [[leadership]], [[education]], and [[self-improvement|personal development]]. While [[technology]] provides greater access to [[information]], it does not necessarily lead to wisdom, which requires careful reflection and ethical consideration. As [[artificial intelligence]] and [[decision support system|data-driven decision-making]] play a growing role in shaping human life, discussions on wisdom remain relevant, emphasizing the importance of judgment, [[Ethics|ethical responsibility]], and [[strategic planning|long-term planning]].

==Etymology and overview==
===Etymology===
The English word wisdom originates from the Old English wīsdōm, which is derived from wīs ("wise") and dōm ("judgment, decision, law").<ref>{{cite book |last=Harper |first=Douglas |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |orig-date=2001 |year=2024 |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/wisdom}}</ref> The [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] root wis- ("to see, to know") connects wisdom to perception and insight. Related terms appear in [[Old High German]] (wīssag, "prophetic"), [[Old Norse]] (vísdómr), and [[Gothic language|Gothic]] (weisdumbs).<ref>{{cite book |last=Watkins |first=Calvert |title=The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots |orig-date=1985 |year=2011 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt}}</ref>

In Ancient Greek, wisdom is expressed as σοφία (''sophia''), often referring to both practical skill and philosophical insight. The term was central to Greek philosophy, particularly in Plato's and Aristotle's discussions on virtue.<ref>{{cite book |last=Barnes |first=Jonathan |title=The Presocratic Philosophers |orig-date=1979 |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> The Latin equivalent, ''sapientia'', derives from ''sapere'' ("to taste, to discern"), emphasizing wisdom as discerning between right and wrong.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Charlton T. |title=A Latin Dictionary |orig-date=1879 |year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

Similar concepts exist in non-Indo-European languages:

* [[Sanskrit]]: ''Jñāna'' (ज्ञान) and ''viveka'' (विवेक) refer to intellectual and spiritual wisdom in Hindu thought.<ref name="auto1">{{cite book |last=Radhakrishnan |first=Sarvepalli |title=Indian Philosophy |orig-date=1923 |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>
* [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: Zhì (智) represents wisdom as practical intelligence, central to Confucian ethics.<ref name="auto">{{cite book |last=Ames |first=Roger T. |title=The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation |year=1999 |publisher=Ballantine Books}}</ref>
* [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: Chokhmah (חָכְמָה) in the Hebrew Bible is linked to divine and moral wisdom.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clifford |first=Richard |title=The Wisdom Literature |orig-date=1998 |year=2007 |publisher=Abingdon Press}}</ref>

===Historical overview===

Wisdom has been a central concept in philosophy, religion, and literature across ancient civilizations.

The earliest wisdom literature comes from [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] and [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|Egyptian]] texts. In Sumerian tradition, wisdom (''me'') was considered a divine principle given by the gods, recorded in [[Proverb|proverbs]] and [[Myth|myths]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kramer |first=Samuel Noah |title=The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character |orig-date=1963 |year=1991 |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref> Egyptian wisdom texts, such as the [[Maxims of Ptahhotep]] (c. 2400 BCE), emphasized moral conduct and social harmony.<ref>{{cite book |last=Parkinson |first=R. B. |title=The Wisdom Texts from Ancient Egypt |orig-date=1991 |year=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

Wisdom became a major theme in Greek philosophy. Socrates equated wisdom with knowing one's own ignorance, while Plato argued that wisdom was the highest form of knowledge.<ref>{{cite book |last=Plato |title=The Republic |orig-date=4th century BCE |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Classics}}</ref> Aristotle distinguished between practical wisdom (''phronesis'') and theoretical wisdom (''sophia''), defining wisdom as the ability to deliberate well about the good life.<ref>{{cite book |last=Aristotle |title=Nicomachean Ethics |orig-date=4th century BCE |year=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>

In Roman philosophy, wisdom (''sapientia'') was regarded as the virtue of the [[Stoicism|Stoic]] sage. [[Cicero]] and [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] viewed wisdom as self-discipline and rational living, essential for achieving inner tranquility (''ataraxia'').<ref>{{cite book |last=Long |first=Anthony A. |title=Hellenistic Philosophy |orig-date=1974 |year=1986 |publisher=University of California Press}}</ref>

Wisdom also developed as a spiritual concept in various traditions:

* Biblical wisdom literature: Books like [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]], [[Ecclesiastes]], and [[Book of Job|Job]] depict wisdom as both divine and practical, often contrasting human knowledge with divine omniscience.<ref>{{cite book |last=Crenshaw |first=James L. |title=Old Testament Wisdom: An Introduction |orig-date=1981 |year=2010 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press}}</ref>
* Buddhism: Wisdom (''prajñā'') is one of the [[Threefold Training|threefold trainings]] leading to enlightenment, developed through meditation and ethical conduct.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=Peter |title=An Introduction to Buddhism |orig-date=1990 |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>
* Islamic philosophy: The Arabic term ''hikmah'' (حكمة) refers to wisdom as both divine insight and rational philosophy, deeply influenced by Aristotle, [[Avicenna]], and [[Al-Farabi]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |title=Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study |orig-date=1976 |year=2001 |publisher=World Wisdom}}</ref>

==Philosophical perspectives==
Philosophers have explored wisdom as a fundamental concept for millennia, debating its nature, acquisition, and role in ethical and intellectual life. Some traditions emphasize wisdom as practical decision-making, while others frame it as deep contemplation or spiritual insight. Broadly, wisdom has been categorized into theoretical wisdom (''sophia''), practical wisdom (''[[phronesis]]''), and moral wisdom, with varying interpretations across different philosophical traditions.

===Western philosophy===
{{main|Western philosophy}}

====Ancient Greek philosophy====
{{main|Ancient Greek philosophy}}

Wisdom (''[[Sophia (wisdom)|sophia]]'', σοφία) played a central role in [[Ancient Greek philosophy]] and was often distinguished from mere knowledge (''[[episteme]]'', ἐπιστήμη).

=====Socrates=====
According to [[Plato]] and [[Xenophon]], the Pythia of the Delphic Oracle answered the question "who is the wisest man in Greece?" by stating Socrates was the wisest.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Plato]]|title=[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]}}; {{cite book|author=[[Xenophon]]|title=[[Memorabilia (Xenophon)|Memorabilia]]}}.</ref> According to Plato's [[Apology (Plato)|''Apology'']], [[Socrates]] (469–399 BCE) decided to investigate the people who might be considered wiser than him, concluding they lacked true knowledge. He argued that true wisdom involves questioning and refining beliefs rather than assuming certainty:

{{Verse translation|lang=grc|τούτου μὲν τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἐγὼ σοφώτερός εἰμι: κινδυνεύει μὲν γὰρ ἡμῶν οὐδέτερος οὐδὲν καλὸν κἀγαθὸν εἰδέναι, ἀλλ᾽ οὗτος μὲν οἴεταί τι εἰδέναι οὐκ εἰδώς, ἐγὼ δέ, ὥσπερ οὖν οὐκ οἶδα, οὐδὲ οἴομαι: ἔοικα γοῦν τούτου γε σμικρῷ τινι αὐτῷ τούτῳ σοφώτερος εἶναι, ὅτι ἃ μὴ οἶδα οὐδὲ οἴομαι εἰδέναι.|I am wiser than this man; for neither of us really knows anything fine and good, but this man thinks he knows something when he does not, whereas I, as I do not know anything, do not think I do either.}}

This became immortalized in the phrase "[[I know that I know nothing]]", an aphorism suggesting that it is wise to recognize one's own [[ignorance]]<ref>{{cite journal|first=Gail|last=Fine|title=Does Socrates Claim to Know that He Knows Nothing?|journal=Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy|volume=35|year=2008|pages=49–88|doi=10.1093/oso/9780199557790.003.0003 |isbn=978-0-19-955779-0 }}</ref> and to value [[Epistemic humility#Socratic humility theory of wisdom|epistemic humility]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Ryan|first=Sharon|title=Wisdom|year=2013|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/wisdom/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Fall 2018|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=17 August 2019}}</ref>

=====Plato and Aristotle=====
To Socrates and his student [[Plato]] (c. 427–347 BCE), [[philosophy]] was literally the love of wisdom ({{transliteration|grc|philo-[[sophia (wisdom)|sophia]]}}). This permeates Plato's [[dialogue]]s; in ''[[The Republic (Plato)|The Republic]]'' the leaders of his proposed [[utopia]] are [[philosopher king]]s who, through education and contemplation, attain a deep [[understanding]] of [[justice]] and the [[Theory of Forms|Forms]], and possess the courage to act accordingly.<ref name="Trowbridge-2011">{{cite journal |last=Trowbridge |first=R. H. |date=May 2011
|title=Waiting for Sophia: 30 years of Conceptualizing Wisdom in Empirical Psychology |journal=Research in Human Development |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=111–117 |doi=10.1080/15427609.2011.568872 |s2cid=145371442}}</ref>

[[Aristotle]] (384–322 BCE), in ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]'', defined wisdom as understanding why things are a certain way ([[causality]]), which is deeper than merely knowing things are a certain way. He was the first to differentiate between two types of wisdom:

*Theoretical wisdom ({{transliteration|grc|sophia}}), which involves deep contemplation of universal truths.
*Practical wisdom ({{transliteration|grc|[[phronesis]]}}), which is the ability to make sound decisions in everyday life.

Aristotle saw ''phronesis'' as essential for ethical living, arguing that virtuous actions require both knowledge and experience. This concept of practical wisdom later influenced [[virtue ethics]] and modern discussions of decision-making.<ref name="Trowbridge-2011" />

====Medieval and Renaissance thought====
In the [[Middle Ages|Medieval period]], wisdom was often linked to [[divine revelation]] and theology. [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354–430 CE) viewed wisdom as knowledge aligned with God's eternal truth, distinguishing it from mere worldly intelligence.<ref>{{cite book |last=Augustine |first=Saint |title=The City of God |orig-date=426 |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Classics |location=London}}</ref> He argued that true wisdom (''sapientia'') comes from knowing and loving God, contrasting it with human knowledge (''scientia''), which concerns temporal matters.<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Daly |first=Gerard |title=Augustine's City of God: A Reader's Guide |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

[[Thomas Aquinas]] built upon [[Aristotle]]'s distinction between theoretical and practical wisdom, incorporating it into [[Christian theology]]. He argued that wisdom (''sapientia'') is the highest intellectual virtue, guiding [[reason]] toward ultimate truth and divine understanding.<ref>{{cite book |last=Aquinas |first=Thomas |title=Summa Theologica |orig-date=1265–1274 |year=1981 |publisher=Christian Classics}}</ref> Aquinas distinguished between natural wisdom, which humans acquire through reason, and supernatural wisdom, which comes through divine revelation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kretzmann |first=Norman |title=The Cambridge Companion to Aquinas |year=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>

During the [[Renaissance]], humanist thinkers such as [[Erasmus]] and [[Michel de Montaigne|Montaigne]] emphasized the role of self-reflection and skepticism in wisdom, challenging dogmatic reliance on authority.<ref>{{cite book |last=Erasmus |first=Desiderius |title=The Praise of Folly |orig-date=1511 |year=1993 |publisher=Penguin Classics}}</ref> Montaigne, in his ''[[Essays (Montaigne)|Essays]]'', proposed that true wisdom lies in acknowledging uncertainty and maintaining intellectual humility.<ref>{{cite book |last=Montaigne |first=Michel de |title=The Complete Essays |orig-date=1580 |year=1993 |publisher=Penguin Classics |isbn=978-0-14-044604-3}}</ref> The Renaissance emphasis on human reason and critical inquiry laid the groundwork for early modern philosophical discussions of wisdom.

====Modern and contemporary philosophy====
In the [[Age of Enlightenment]], the concept of wisdom shifted from religious and metaphysical frameworks to one rooted in rationality and moral duty. [[Immanuel Kant]] argued that wisdom involves the application of practical reason to align one's actions with universal moral principles.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Critique of Practical Reason |orig-date=1788 |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> He distinguished between theoretical reason, which seeks knowledge for its own sake, and practical reason, which applies knowledge ethically. Kantian wisdom involves making decisions that conform to the categorical imperative, a moral law derived from reason.

During the 19th century, romanticism and existentialism challenged the rationalist foundations of wisdom. [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] criticized traditional views of wisdom as passive contemplation and obedience to moral codes. Instead, he championed "life-affirming wisdom", emphasizing personal growth through struggle and self-overcoming.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nietzsche |first=Friedrich |title=Thus Spoke Zarathustra |orig-date=1883 |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Nietzsche rejected the pursuit of static truths, instead advocating for a dynamic and self-created form of wisdom.

Existentialist philosophers further expanded this critique. [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] viewed wisdom as a confrontation with the absurd condition of life and the freedom to create meaning in a world devoid of inherent purpose.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sartre |first=Jean-Paul |title=Being and Nothingness |orig-date=1943 |year=1993 |publisher=Washington Square Press}}</ref> [[Albert Camus]] echoed these ideas in ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'', arguing that wisdom lies in accepting life's absurdity and choosing to live meaningfully despite its challenges.<ref>{{cite book |last=Camus |first=Albert |title=The Myth of Sisyphus |orig-date=1942 |year=1991 |publisher=Vintage International}}</ref>

In the 20th century, pragmatist philosophers like [[John Dewey]] argued for a form of wisdom based on adaptability and practical decision-making. Dewey rejected fixed moral absolutes in favor of wisdom as a constantly evolving process of inquiry and experimentation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dewey |first=John |title=Democracy and Education |orig-date=1916 |year=2018 |publisher=Free Press}}</ref> Pragmatic wisdom, according to Dewey, emerges from ongoing reflection on experience and the ability to adapt principles to changing contexts. Following Dewey's lead, [[Robert L. Holmes]] argued that wisdom in the modern nuclear era calls for individuals to transcend the dogmatic use of fixed philosophical principles such as ''[[just wars]]'' and ''[[unjust]] wars'' by resolving military conflict through the use of "pragmatic [[pacifism]]" instead.<ref>
[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pacifism/ Fiala, Andrew, "Pacifism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2023/entries/pacifism/>. 8 May 2023]</ref><ref>[https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/pacificism-a-philosophy-of-nonviolence/ ''Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews'' - "Pacifism A Philosophy of Nonviolence" by Robert L. Holmes. Book review presented by Cheyney Ryan, the University of Oxford 6/7/2017 archived at the University of Notre Dame on ndpr.nd.edu]</ref>

Meanwhile, [[Virtue ethics|virtue ethicists]] such as [[Martha Nussbaum]] argue that wisdom is tied to [[emotional intelligence]] and [[empathy]]. In her works on [[Aristotelian ethics]], Nussbaum writes that wise individuals understand the complexities of human emotions and integrate them into moral reasoning.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nussbaum |first=Martha |title=The Fragility of Goodness: Luck and Ethics in Greek Tragedy and Philosophy |orig-date=1986 |year=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Similarly, [[Richard Clyde Taylor]] argued that wisdom is characterized by compassionate [[understanding]] when accompanied by the realization that, "there simply is no such thing as philosophical knowledge, nor any philosophical way of knowing anything."<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/20124689 "The Review of Metaphysics"; "Dare to be Wise"  Vol. 21 No. 4 (June 1968) pp.615-629 "Dare to be Wise" by Richard Taylor on JSTOR.org]</ref><ref name="Taylor1963">{{cite book | last=Taylor | first=Richard | title=Metaphysics| publisher=Englewood Cliffs | publication-place=New Jersey | date=1963 | isbn=9780135784686| oclc=}}</ref><ref>[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4410806&seq=22 "Metaphysics."] Taylor, Richard. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs (1963) Introduction p. 2 {{OCLC|1036688294}}</ref> This perspective sees wisdom not merely as intellectual discernment but as the capacity to recognize the emotional and contextual dimensions of moral life. 

[[Postmodernism|Postmodern]] philosophers challenge the notion of wisdom as a universal concept. [[Michel Foucault]] argued that ideas of wisdom are shaped by power structures and are inherently subjective, often serving to reinforce dominant ideologies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Foucault |first=Michel |title=The Archaeology of Knowledge |orig-date=1969 |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> Postmodern perspectives emphasize cultural relativism and the diversity of wisdom across historical and social contexts rather than a singular definition.

Today, contemporary discussions of wisdom draw from cognitive science and social philosophy. Philosophers like [[Philip Kitcher]] focus on practical wisdom as collaborative decision-making in democratic societies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kitcher |first=Philip |title=The Ethical Project |year=2011 |publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> This view holds that wisdom is not an individual trait but a collective process involving diverse perspectives. As such, modern philosophy views wisdom as dynamic, context-dependent, and shaped by emotional, social, and cognitive factors.

===Eastern philosophy===
{{main|Eastern philosophy}}

====In Confucian thought====
{{main|Confucianism}}
[[File:Confucius, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg|thumb|[[Confucius]] in a fresco from a [[Western Han]] tomb in [[Dongping County|Dongping]], [[Shandong]]]]

In Confucian thought, wisdom (''[[Mencius (book)#Content|zhi]]'', 智) is closely linked to ethical living and social harmony. [[Confucius]] (551–479 BCE) taught that wisdom is not merely intelligence but the ability to act virtuously in relationships and governance.<ref>{{cite book |last=Confucius |title=The Analects |orig-date=5th century BCE |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Classics}}</ref> It involves self-cultivation, learning from the past, and practicing benevolence (''[[Ren (philosophy)|ren]]'', 仁), which Confucius regarded as a foundational virtue.<ref name="auto"/>

Wisdom in Confucianism is practical and moral, requiring individuals to cultivate righteousness (''yi'', 義) and ritual propriety (''li'', 禮) in order to contribute to a stable society.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chan |first=Wing-Tsit |title=A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy |orig-date=1963 |year=2009 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref> The ideal wise person, or "superior person" (''junzi'', 君子), embodies wisdom by continuously refining their character and aligning their actions with ethical principles.<ref>{{cite book |last=Slingerland |first=Edward |title=Effortless Action: Wu-wei as Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China |year=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

Later Confucian thinkers expanded on this concept. [[Mencius]] (372–289 BCE) emphasized compassion and moral intuition as sources of wisdom, arguing that humans are naturally inclined toward goodness but must develop wisdom through education and reflection.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mencius |title=Mencius |orig-date=4th century BCE |year=2004 |publisher=Penguin Classics}}</ref> [[Xunzi (philosopher)|Xunzi]] (c. 310–235 BCE), by contrast, saw wisdom as the product of strict discipline and adherence to ritual, believing that human nature is inherently flawed and must be shaped through deliberate effort.<ref>{{cite book |last=Xunzi |title=Xunzi: The Complete Text |orig-date=3rd century BCE |year=2014 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref>

The Confucian approach to wisdom remains influential in [[East Asia]]n ethics, education, and leadership philosophy, continuing to shape modern discussions on morality and governance.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tu |first=Wei-ming |title=Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation |orig-date=1985 |year=1998 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}</ref>

====In Buddhist philosophy====
{{main|Buddhist philosophy}}

[[File:Shakyamuni-Thangka.jpg|thumb|Shakyamuni Buddha flanked by Chenrezig and Manjushri]]
In Buddhist philosophy, wisdom (''[[Prajñā (Buddhism)|prajñā]]'', प्रज्ञा) is one of the threefold training principles (along with ethics and meditation). It involves seeing reality as it truly is, free from delusions. In [[Mahayana Buddhism]], wisdom is often personified by the Bodhisattva [[Manjushri]], who wields a sword to cut through ignorance. [[Zen]] traditions emphasize ''[[satori]]'' (悟り), a sudden flash of wisdom or enlightenment. In [[Theravāda Buddhism]], wisdom is developed through [[vipassanā]] (insight meditation), leading to the realization of [[impermanence]] (''anicca''), suffering (''[[duḥkha]]''), and non-self (''[[anattā]]''). Buddhist religious traditions provide comprehensive guidance on how to develop wisdom.<ref name="Karunamuni-2019">{{cite journal|last1=Karunamuni|first1=N.|last2=Weerasekera|first2=R.|title=Theoretical Foundations to Guide Mindfulness Meditation: A Path to Wisdom|journal=Current Psychology|volume=38|issue=3|pages=627–646|doi=10.1007/s12144-017-9631-7|url=http://mindrxiv.org/mfs63/|year=2019|s2cid=149024504}}</ref><ref name="Bhikkhu Bodhi">{{cite web|url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/waytoend.html|title=The Noble Eightfold Path|access-date=16 March 2009|publisher=Access to Insight|first=Bhikkhu|last=Bodhi}}</ref>

The term {{transliteration|sa|[[Prajñā (Buddhism)|Prajñā]]}} was translated [[Chinese Buddhism|into Chinese]] as
{{lang|zh|智慧}} (pinyin {{transliteration|zh|zhìhuì}}, characters [[:wikt:智|智]] "knowledge" and [[:wikt:慧|慧]] "bright, intelligent"). In Chinese Buddhism, the idea of wisdom is closely linked to its Indian equivalent as it appears for instance in certain conceptual continuities that exist between [[Asanga]], [[Vasubandhu]] and [[Xuanzang]].{{Explain|reason=what are these continuities, how do they illustrate the linkage?|date=August 2023}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jannel |first1=Romaric |title=Xuanzang and the Three Types of Wisdom: Learning, Reasoning, and Cultivating in Yogācāra Thought |journal=Religions |date=May 2022 |volume=13 |issue=6 |page=486 |doi=10.3390/rel13060486 |doi-access=free |url=https://philpapers.org/archive/JANXAT.pdf }}</ref>

Developing wisdom is of central importance in [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] traditions, where the ultimate aim is often presented as "seeing things as they are" or as gaining a "penetrative understanding of all phenomena", which in turn is described as ultimately leading to the "complete freedom from suffering".<ref name="Karunamuni-2019" /><ref name="Bhikkhu Bodhi" /> In Buddhism, developing wisdom is accomplished through an understanding of what are known as the [[Four Noble Truths]] and by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]].<ref name="Karunamuni-2019" /><ref name="Bhikkhu Bodhi" /> This path lists [[mindfulness]] as one of eight required components for cultivating wisdom.<ref name="Karunamuni-2019" />

Buddhist scriptures teach that wise people conduct themselves well.<ref>''[[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]]'' 3:2</ref> A wise person does actions that are unpleasant to do but give good results, and does not do actions that are pleasant to do but give bad results.<ref>''AN'' 4:115</ref> Wisdom is the [[antidote]] to the [[Kleshas (Buddhism)|poison]] of [[ignorance]]. The [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] has much to say on the subject of wisdom including:

* He who arbitrates a case by force does not thereby become just (established in [[Dhamma]]). But the wise man is he who carefully discriminates between right and wrong.<ref>''[[Dhammapada]]'' v. 256</ref>
* He who leads others by nonviolence, righteously and equitably, is indeed a guardian of justice, wise and righteous.<ref>''Dhammapada'' v. 257</ref>
* One is not wise merely because he talks much. But he who is calm, free from hatred and fear, is verily called a wise man.<ref>''Dhammapada'' v. 258</ref>
* By quietude alone one does not become a [[Wise old man|sage]] ({{transliteration|sa|muni}}) if he is foolish and ignorant. But he who, as if holding a pair of scales, takes the good and shuns the evil, is a wise man; he is indeed a {{transliteration|sa|muni}} by that very reason. He who understands both good and evil as they really are, is called a true sage.<ref>''Dhammapada'' v. 268–269</ref>

To recover the original supreme wisdom of self-nature ([[Buddha-nature]] or [[Tathāgata|Tathagata]]) concealed by the self-imposed three dusty poisons (the [[Kleshas (Buddhism)|kleshas]]: greed, anger, ignorance), Buddha taught to his students the threefold training by turning greed into generosity and discipline, anger into kindness and meditation, ignorance into wisdom.{{cn|date=February 2025}}

==== In Hindu philosophy ====
{{Main|Hindu philosophy}}

In Hindu philosophy, wisdom (''[[jñāna]]'', ज्ञान) is closely associated with [[self-realization]] and spiritual knowledge. Unlike the empirical knowledge (''vidyā'', विद्या) gained through sensory experience, wisdom in Hinduism involves insight into the ultimate nature of reality (''[[Brahman]]'', ब्रह्मन्) and the self (''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]]'', आत्मन्).<ref name="auto1"/> The [[Upanishads]], foundational texts of Hindu thought, describe wisdom as the realization that all worldly distinctions are illusions (''[[Maya (religion)|maya]]'', माया), and that the self is one with the infinite consciousness of Brahman.<ref>{{cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |title=The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation |orig-date=1998 |year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

Within [[Vedanta]] philosophy, wisdom is considered the path to liberation (''[[mokṣa]]'', मोक्ष). [[Adi Shankaracharya]] (c. 8th century CE) argued that true wisdom (''[[jnana yoga]]'') arises through discrimination (''viveka'', विवेक) between the real and the unreal.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shankara |first=Adi |title=Vivekachudamani: Crest-Jewel of Discrimination |orig-date=8th century CE |year=2004 |publisher=Advaita Ashrama}}</ref> He taught that ignorance (''avidyā'', अविद्या) binds individuals to the cycle of [[samsara]] (rebirth), and wisdom is the means to overcome illusion and attain self-realization.<ref>{{cite book |last=Comans |first=Michael |title=The Method of Early Advaita Vedanta |orig-date=2000 |year=2000 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass}}</ref> In contrast, [[Dvaita Vedanta]], founded by [[Madhvacharya]] (13th century CE), holds that wisdom involves recognizing the eternal distinction between the self and God, rather than dissolving all distinctions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=B. N. K. |title=The Philosophy of Madhvacharya |orig-date=1962 |year=2008 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass}}</ref>

Wisdom is also a core element in Hindu sacred texts, including the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', where [[Krishna]] teaches [[Arjuna]] that true wisdom transcends personal desires and emotions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Easwaran |first=Eknath |title=The Bhagavad Gita |orig-date=1985 |year=2007 |publisher=Nilgiri Press}}</ref> The Gita outlines three paths to wisdom:

* [[Jnana yoga]] – the path of intellectual discernment and self-inquiry.
* [[Bhakti yoga]] – the path of devotion to a personal deity as a means to wisdom.
* [[Karma yoga]] – the path of selfless action leading to enlightened understanding.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sargeant |first=Winthrop |title=The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-Fifth Anniversary Edition |orig-date=1984 |year=2009 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}</ref>

Hindu wisdom traditions remain deeply influential in both spiritual practice and philosophical inquiry, with modern thinkers like [[Swami Vivekananda]] and [[Aurobindo Ghose]] integrating ancient wisdom concepts with contemporary thought.<ref>{{cite book |last=Halbfass |first=Wilhelm |title=Tradition and Reflection: Explorations in Indian Thought |orig-date=1991 |year=1991 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}</ref> [[Medha Sūktam|''Medha'']] is a goddess of wisdom found in the ''[[Garuda Purana]]''.<ref>{{cite journal
| last1 = Scott
| first1 = David
| date = 1998
| title = The Perennial Message of 'the Goddess': Enduring Themes down the Ages in Bactria
| journal = East and West
| volume = 48
| issue = 1/2
| pages = 27–39
| jstor = 29757365
| quote = In the ''Garuda Purana'' 1.7.9, one of the manifestations of the energy of Sarasvati was ''medha'' (wisdom), an identification repeated with respect to the Goddess in the ''Devi Mahatmya'' 1.11. Thus it is no surprise to find with Anahita, in verse 86 of her ''Aban Yast'', that 'the priests (''athravans'') who read and the pupils of the priest will beg of thee knowledge'.}}</ref>

====In Taoist philosophy====
{{main|Taoist philosophy}}
[[File:Bagua Zhao Huiqian.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|''Bagua'' diagram from Zhao Huiqian's ''Liushu benyi'', {{circa|1370s}}]]

Taoist views of wisdom (''[[wu wei]]'', 無為) emphasizes effortless action, aligning with the natural flow of the universe (''[[Tao]]''). While early Confucianism values social harmony and structured virtue, Taoist wisdom often embraces paradox and non-conformity. The ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'' text, attributed to [[Zhuang Zhou]] (c. 4th century BCE), presents wisdom as a state of effortless flow (''wu wei''), where one aligns with the spontaneous patterns of nature rather than imposing human will.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zhuangzi |title=Zhuangzi: Basic Writings |orig-date=4th century BCE |year=2003 |publisher=Columbia University Press}}</ref> This contrasts with Confucian ideals of ritual and duty, as Taoist wisdom values freedom from rigid thinking and acceptance of change.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |title=Wandering on the Way: Early Taoist Tales and Parables of Zhuangzi |year=1998 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press}}</ref>

Taoist wisdom also includes cosmological insight, recognizing that all things emerge from the ''[[Tao]]'' (道), the fundamental force of existence.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kirkland |first=Russell |title=Taoism: The Enduring Tradition |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> In ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' (道德經), attributed to [[Laozi]] (6th century BCE), wisdom is described as yielding like water, able to overcome obstacles through gentleness rather than force.<ref name="Laozi-2006">{{cite book |last=Laozi |title=Tao Te Ching |orig-date=4th century BCE |year=2006 |publisher=Hackett Publishing}}</ref> This perspective aligns with Taoist ethics, which discourage aggression and rigid control, instead promoting a harmonious existence in sync with nature's rhythms.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ames |first=Roger T. |title=Dao De Jing: A Philosophical Translation |year=2003 |publisher=Ballantine Books |isbn=978-0-345-44419-6}}</ref> He also describes wisdom as understanding the balance of opposites ([[Yin and yang|Yin and Yang]]) and acting in harmony with nature rather than imposing force.<ref name="Laozi-2006"/>

Unlike Western views, Taoist wisdom often involves paradox and non-action, valuing spontaneity over rigid rules. Taoist sages are often depicted as detached from worldly concerns, seeking a deeper, wordless understanding of existence that transcends conventional logic.<ref>{{cite book |last=Robinet |first=Isabelle |title=Taoism: Growth of a Religion |year=1997 |publisher=Stanford University Press}}</ref>

== Psychological perspectives ==
{{Main|Expert}}
{{Further|Developmental psychology|personality psychology}}

The three major psychological categories for wisdom are ''personality'', ''development'', and ''expertise''.<ref>{{cite journal
| last1 = Baltes
| first1 = Paul B.
| last2 = Staudinger
| first2 = Ursula M.
| date = 2000
| title = Wisdom: A Metaheuristic (Pragmatic) to Orchestrate Mind and Virtue Toward Excellence
| url = https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_2102711/component/file_2102710/content
| journal = American Psychologist
| volume = 55
| issue = 1
| pages = 122–136
| doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.122
| pmid = 11392856
| access-date = 27 July 2024
| quote = Theoretical and empirical work on explicit psychological theories of wisdom can be roughly divided into three groups: (a) the conceptualization of wisdom as a personal characteristic or constellation of personality dispositions (e.g., Erikson, 1959; McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1998), (b) the conceptualization of wisdom in the neo-Piagetian tradition of postformal and dialectical thought (e.g., Alex ander & Langer, 1990; Labouvie-Vief, 1990), and (c) the conceptualization of wisdom as an expert system dealing with the meaning and conduct of life (P. Baltes & Smith, 1990; Dittmann-Kohli & Baltes, 1990; Staudinger & Baltes, 1994).| hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-0025-9C51-4
| hdl-access = free
}}</ref>

Psychologists have begun to gather data on commonly held beliefs or folk theories about wisdom.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sternberg|first=R. J.|year=1985|title=Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=49|issue=3 |pages=607–662|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.49.3.607 }}</ref> Initial analyses indicate that although "there is an overlap of the implicit theory of wisdom with intelligence, perceptiveness, spirituality, and shrewdness, it is evident that wisdom is an expertise in dealing with difficult questions of life and adaptation to the complex requirements."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Brown | first1 = S. C. | last2 = Greene | first2 = J. A. | year = 2006 | title = The Wisdom Development Scale: Translating the conceptual to the concrete | url = http://www.colgate.edu/portaldata/imagegallerywww/4119/ImageGallery/JCSD_WDS.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170705112332/http://www.colgate.edu/portaldata/imagegallerywww/4119/ImageGallery/JCSD_WDS.pdf | archive-date = 5 July 2017 | journal = Journal of College Student Development | volume = 47 | pages = 1–19 | doi=10.1353/csd.2006.0002| citeseerx = 10.1.1.502.7954 | s2cid = 35496789 }}</ref>

The field of psychology has also developed explicit theories and empirical research on the psychological processes underlying wisdom.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bluck|first1=Susan|last2=Glück|first2=Judith |title=A handbook of wisdom: Psychological perspectives|editor-first1=Robert|editor-last1=Sternberg|editor-first2=Jennifer|editor-last2=Jordan|pages= 84–109|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2005|location=New York|doi= 10.1017/cbo9780511610486.005|chapter=From the Inside Out: People's Implicit Theories of Wisdom|isbn= 978-0-511-61048-6}}</ref><ref name="Staudinger-2011">{{cite journal
| last1 = Staudinger 
| first1 = U.M. 
| last2 = Glück
| first2 = J. 
| year = 2011 
| title = Psychological wisdom research: Commonalities and differences in a growing field. 
| journal = Annual Review of Psychology 
| volume = 62 
| pages = 215–241 
| doi = 10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131659 
| pmid = 20822439 }}</ref> Opinions on the psychological definition of wisdom vary,<ref name="Staudinger-2011"/> but there is some consensus that critical to wisdom are certain [[Metacognition|meta-cognitive]] processes that afford life reflection and judgment about critical life matters.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Baltes|first1=Paul B.|last2=Staudinger|first2=Ursula M.|year=2000|title=Wisdom: A metaheuristic (pragmatic) to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence|journal=American Psychologist|volume=55|issue=1|pages=122–136|doi=10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.122|pmid=11392856|hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0025-9C51-4|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Grossmann-2017a">{{cite journal
| last1 = Grossmann
| first1 = Igor 
| date = 2017
| title = Wisdom in Context
| url = http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pps
| journal = Perspectives on Psychological Science
| volume = 12
| issue = 2
| pages = 233–257
| doi = 10.1177/1745691616672066
| pmid = 28346113
| s2cid = 26818408
| access-date = 18 July 2024
| quote = Compromise [...] Intellectual humility [...] Recognition of uncertainty and change [...] Others' perspectives / broader contexts| url-access = subscription
}}</ref> These processes include recognizing the limits of one's own knowledge, acknowledging uncertainty and change, attention to context and the bigger picture, and integrating different perspectives of a situation.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Vuong|first1=Quan-Hoang|title=The Kingfisher Story Collection|date=2022|publisher=Amazon Digital Services|isbn=979-8-3539-4659-5}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref> Cognitive scientists suggest that wisdom requires coordinating such reasoning processes for insight into managing one's life.<ref>{{cite web|last=Vervaeke|first=John|title=The Cognitive Science of Wisdom|date=4 May 2012 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ti4Kj8TcEgk| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211107/ti4Kj8TcEgk| archive-date=7 November 2021 | url-status=live|publisher=Mind Matters Conference|access-date=13 April 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Reasoning of this sort is both theoretically and empirically distinct from general (fluid or crystallized) intelligence.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sternberg|first=Robert J.|author-link=Robert Sternberg|title=Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2003|location=New York|isbn=978-0-521-80238-3 }}</ref> Researchers have shown empirically that wise reasoning is distinct from [[IQ]].<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Grossmann| first1 = I. | last2 = Na | first2 = J. | last3 = Varnum | first3 = M.E. | last4 = Park | first4 = D.C. | last5 =Kitayama | first5 = S. | last6 = Nisbett | first6 = R.E. | year = 2010 | title = Reasoning about social conflicts improves into old age. | url = https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/early/2010/03/23/1001715107.full.pdf | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| volume = 107 | issue = 16 | pages = 7246–7250 | bibcode = 2010PNAS..107.7246G | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1001715107 | pmid = 20368436 | pmc = 2867718 | doi-access = free }}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Staudinger| first1 = U.M. | last2 = Lopez| first2 = D.F | last3 = Baltes| first3 = P.B. | year = 1997 | title = The psychometric location of wisdom-related performance: Intelligence, personality, and more? | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 23 | issue = 11 | pages = 1200–1214 | doi = 10.1177/01461672972311007 | s2cid = 145148320}} }}</ref>

Baltes and colleagues defined wisdom as "the ability to deal with the contradictions of a specific situation and to assess the consequences of an action for themselves and for others. It is achieved when in a concrete situation, a balance between intrapersonal, interpersonal and institutional interests can be prepared".<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|first1=P.B.|last1=Baltes|first2=J.|last2=Glück|first3=U.|last3=Kunzmann|chapter=Wisdom: Its structure and function in regulating successful life span development|title=Handbook of Positive Psychology|editor-first1=C.R.|editor-last1=Snyder|editor-first2=S.J.|editor-last2=Lopez|pages=327–347|publisher=Oxford University Press}}
|2={{cite journal | pmc = 2937249 | pmid=20233730 | doi=10.1093/geront/gnq022 | volume=50 | issue=5 | title=Expert consensus on characteristics of wisdom: a Delphi method study | date=October 2010 | journal=Gerontologist | pages=668–680 | last1 = Jeste | first1 = D.V. | last2 = Ardelt | first2 = M. | last3 = Blazer | first3 = D. | last4 = Kraemer | first4 = H.C. | last5 = Vaillant | first5 = G. | last6 = Meeks | first6 = T.W.}} }}</ref> Balance appears to be a critical criterion of wisdom. Empirical research provides some support for this idea, showing that wisdom-related reasoning is associated with achieving balance between intrapersonal and interpersonal interests when facing personal life challenges, and when setting goals for managing interpersonal conflicts.<ref name="Brienza-2017">{{cite journal 
| last1 = Brienza
| first1 = J.P. 
| last2 = Kung
| first2 = F.Y.H. 
| last3 = Santos
| first3 = H. 
| last4 = Bobocel
| first4 = D.R. 
| last5 = Grossmann
| first5 = I. 
|year = 2017 
| title = Wisdom, Bias, and Balance: Toward a Process-Sensitive Measurement of Wisdom-Related Cognition 
| journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 
| volume = 115 
| issue = 6 
| pages = 1093–1126 
| pmid = 28933874 
| doi = 10.1037/pspp0000171 
| s2cid = 29052539 
| url = https://osf.io/p25c2/download }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Grossmann| first1 = I. | last2 = Brienza| first2 = J.P. | last3 = Bobocel| first3 = D.R.|year = 2017 | title = Wise deliberation sustains cooperation | journal = Nature Human Behaviour | volume = 1 | issue = 3 | page = 0061 | doi = 10.1038/s41562-017-0061 | s2cid = 38342840 }}</ref>

Researchers also explore the role of emotions in wisdom.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kunzmann |first1=U. |last2=Glück |first2=J. |date=2019 |chapter=Wisdom and emotion |editor1-first=R. J. |editor1-last=Sternberg |editor2-first=J. |editor2-last=Glück |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Wisdom |pages=575–601 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781108568272.027|isbn=978-1-108-56827-2 }}</ref> Most agree that emotions and emotion regulation are key to effectively managing the kinds of complex and arousing situations that most call for wisdom. Much empirical research has focused on the cognitive or meta-cognitive aspects of wisdom, assuming that an ability to reason through difficult situations is paramount. So although emotions likely play a role in how wisdom plays out in real events (and in reflecting on past events), empirical studies were late to develop on how emotions affect a person's ability to deal wisely with complex events. One study found a positive relationship between diversity of emotional experience and wise reasoning, irrespective of emotional intensity.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Grossmann|first1=Igor|last2=Oakes|first2=Harrison|last3=Santos|first3=Henri C.|year=2018|title=Wise Reasoning Benefits from Emodiversity, Irrespective of Emotional Intensity.|url=https://psyarxiv.com/jy5em/download|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=148|issue=5|pages=805–823|doi=10.1037/xge0000543|pmid=30688474|s2cid=59306284|via=PsyArXiv}}</ref>

=== Gestalt therapy===
{{Main|Gestalt therapy}}

A ''wise-person fantasy'' is an awareness intervention, where one poses a question, thinks on it for a few minutes, and then [[Role-playing|role-plays]] a fantasized wise person to answer that same question.<ref>{{cite book
| last1 = Henderson
| first1 = D.
| last2 = Thompson
| first2 = C.
| date = 2016
| title = Counseling Children
| edition = 9
| publisher = Cengage Learning
| page = 229
| isbn = 978-1-285-46454-1}}</ref>

=== Grossmann===

Grossmann and colleagues summarized prior psychological literature to conclude that wisdom involves certain cognitive processes that afford [[impartiality|unbiased]], sound [[judgment]] in the face of ill-defined life situations:
# intellectual humility, or recognition of limits of own knowledge
# appreciation of perspectives broader than the issue at hand
# sensitivity to the possibility of change in social relations
# compromise or integration of different perspectives<ref name="Grossmann-2017b">{{Cite journal|title= Wisdom and How to Cultivate It|last=Grossmann|first=Igor|journal= European Psychologist|volume=22|issue=4|date=October 2017|pages=233–246 |doi=10.1027/1016-9040/a000302}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Santos|first1=Henri C.|last2=Huynh|first2=Alex C.|last3=Grossmann|first3=Igor|year=2017|title=Wisdom in a complex world: A situated account of wise reasoning and its development|journal=Social and Personality Psychology Compass|volume=11|issue=10|article-number=e12341|doi=10.1111/spc3.12341|issn=1751-9004|url=https://psyarxiv.com/pdtxv/ }}</ref>
Grossmann found that [[Illeism|habitually speaking and thinking of oneself in the third person]] increases these characteristics, which means that such a habit makes a person wiser.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite web|first=David|last=Robson|url=https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20230411-illeism-the-ancient-trick-to-help-you-think-more-wisely |title=Illeism: The ancient trick to help you think more wisely |publisher=[[BBC]] |date=14 April 2023 |access-date=4 July 2023}}
|2={{cite web|first=David|last=Robson|url=https://aeon.co/ideas/why-speaking-to-yourself-in-the-third-person-makes-you-wiser |title=Why speaking to yourself in the third person makes you wiser |publisher=[[Aeon (magazine)|Aeon]] |date=7 August 2019 |access-date=10 July 2020}} }}</ref> Grossmann says contextual factors{{snd}}such as culture, experiences, and social situations{{snd}}influence the understanding, development, and propensity of wisdom, with implications for training and educational practice.<ref name="Grossmann-2017a" /><ref name="Grossmann-2017b" /> These contextual factors are the focus of continuing research. For instance, Grossmann and Kross identified a phenomenon they called "the Solomon's paradox": that people reflect more wisely on other people's problems than on their own. (It is named after [[Solomon|King Solomon]], who had legendary sagacity when making judgments about other people's dilemmas but lacked insight when it came to important decisions in his own life.)<ref name="Grossmann-2017c" />

=== Measuring wisdom ===

A researcher will measure wisdom differently depending on their theoretical position about the nature of wisdom. For example, some view wisdom as a stable personality trait, others as a context-bound process.<ref name="Grossmann-2017d">{{cite journal | last1 = Grossmann| first1 = I.|year = 2017 | title = Wisdom in context | journal = Perspectives on Psychological Science | volume = 12 | issue = 2 | pages = 233–257| doi = 10.1177/1745691616672066| pmid = 28346113| s2cid = 26818408}}</ref> Those wedded to the former approach often use single-shot questionnaires, which are prone to {{clarify|reason=in what way?|text=biased|date=August 2023}} responses,<ref name="Brienza-2017"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Taylor| first1 = M. | last2 = Bates| first2 = G. | last3 = Webster| first3 = J.D. |year = 2011 | title = Comparing the psychometric properties of two measures of wisdom: Predicting forgiveness and psychological well-being with the Self-Assessed Wisdom Scale (SAWS) and the Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale (3D-WS). | journal = Experimental Aging Research | volume = 37| issue = 2 | pages = 129–141 | doi = 10.1080/0361073X.2011.554508 | pmid = 21424954 | s2cid = 205555336 }}</ref> something that is antithetical to the wisdom construct<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Glück| first1 = J. | last2 = König| first2 = S. | last3 = Naschenweng| first3 = K. | last4 = Redzanowski| first4 = U. | last5 = Dorner-Hörig| first5 = L. | last6 = Straßer|first6 = I | last7 = Wiedermann|  first7 = W |year = 2013 | title = How to measure wisdom: Content, reliability, and validity of five measures. | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 4| page = 405 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00405 | pmid = 23874310 | pmc = 3709094 | doi-access = free }}</ref> and fails to study wisdom in the contexts where it is most relevant: complex life challenges. In contrast, researchers who prefer the latter approach measure wisdom-related features of cognition, motivation, and emotion in the context of a specific situation.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Baltes| first1 = P.B. | last2 = Staudinger| first2 = U. |year = 2000 | title = Wisdom: A metaheuristic (pragmatic) to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence. | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 55| issue = 1 | pages = 122–136 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.122 | pmid = 11392856 | hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-0025-9C51-4 | url = http://edoc.mpg.de/191074 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Grossmann-2017d"/> Such state-level measures provide less-biased responses as well as greater power in explaining meaningful psychological processes.<ref name="Brienza-2017"/> Also, a focus on the situation allows wisdom researchers to develop a fuller understanding of the role of context in producing wisdom.<ref name="Grossmann-2017d"/> For example, studies have shown evidence of cross-cultural<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Grossmann|first1=I.|last2=Karasawa|first2=M.|last3=Izumi|first3=S.|last4=Na|first4=J.|last5=Varnum|first5=M.E.|last6=Kitayama|first6=S|last7=Nisbett|first7=R.E|year=2012|title=Aging and wisdom: Culture matters.|journal=Psychological Science|volume=23|issue=10|pages=1059–1066|doi=10.1177/0956797612446025|pmid=22933459|hdl=11244/25191|s2cid=4829751|hdl-access=free}}</ref> and within-cultural variability,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brienza|first1=Justin P.|last2=Grossmann|first2=Igor|title=Social class and wise reasoning about interpersonal conflicts across regions, persons and situations|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=284|issue=1869|page=1869|doi=10.1098/rspb.2017.1870|pmid=29263284|pmc=5745406|year=2017}}</ref> and systematic variability in reasoning wisely across contexts<ref name="Brienza-2017"/><ref name="Grossmann-2017c">{{cite journal|last1=Grossmann|first1=Igor|last2=Kross|first2=Ethan|year=2017|title=Exploring Solomon's Paradox: Self-distancing eliminates the self-other asymmetry in wise reasoning about close relationships in younger and older adults.|journal=Psychological Science|volume=25|issue=8|pages=1571–1580|doi=10.1177/0956797614535400|pmid=24916084|s2cid=3539860}}</ref> and in daily life.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Grossmann| first1 = I. | last2 = Gerlach| first2 = T.M. | last3 = Denissen| first3 = J.J. |year = 2016 | title = Wise reasoning in the face of everyday life challenges. | journal = Social Psychological and Personality Science | volume = 7| issue = 7 | pages = 611–622 | doi = 10.1177/1948550616652206 | s2cid = 148246126 }}</ref>

Many, but not all, studies find that adults' self-ratings of perspective and wisdom do not depend on age.<ref>{{cite book|last=Harter|first=Andrew C.|title=Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification|editor=Peterson, Christopher |editor2=[[Martin Seligman|Seligman, Martin E. P.]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|chapter=Perspective [Wisdom]|year=2004|location=Oxford|pages=181–196|isbn=978-0-19-516701-6|title-link=Character Strengths and Virtues (book)}}</ref><ref name="Orwoll-1990">{{cite book|last1=Orwoll|first1=L.|last2=Perlmutter|first2=M. |title=Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development|editor-first=R. J.|editor-last= Sternberg|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|year=1990|pages=160–177|isbn=978-0-521-36718-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Serenko|first1=A.| year=2024|title=Practical wisdom in the workplace: Conceptualization, instrument development, and predictive power|url=https://www.aserenko.com/papers/Serenko_Practical_Wisdom.pdf |journal=Journal of Knowledge Management |volume=28|issue=7 |pages=2092–2119 |doi=10.1108/JKM-08-2023-0713}}</ref> This conflicts with the popular notion that wisdom increases with age.<ref name="Orwoll-1990" /> The answer to whether age and wisdom correlate depends on how one defines wisdom and one's experimental technique. The answer to this question also depends on the domain studied, and the role of experience in that domain, with some contexts favoring older adults, others favoring younger adults, and some not differentiating age groups.<ref name="Grossmann-2017d"/> Rigorous longitudinal work is needed to answer this question, while most studies rely on cross-sectional observations.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meacham|first=J. A.|year=1990|chapter=The loss of wisdom|editor-first=R. J.|editor-last=Sternberg|title=Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=181, 211}}</ref>

The Jeste-Thomas Wisdom Index<ref>{{cite web |title=Jeste-Thomas Wisdom Index |website=U.C. San Diego Health Sciences |url=https://survey.alchemer.com/s3/5991949/Jeste-Thomas-Wisdom-Index}}</ref> is based on a survey (SD-WISE-28) created by researchers at the [[University of California San Diego]] to determine how wise a person is. In 2021 [[Dilip V. Jeste]] and his colleagues created a survey (SD-WISE-7) testing seven components: acceptance of diverse perspectives, [[Decision-making|decisiveness]], [[emotional regulation]], [[prosocial behavior]]s, [[self-reflection]], social advising, and (to a lesser degree) [[spirituality]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The 7-Item Wisdom Scale: A Fast Way to See If You're Wise |author=Christopher Bergland |website=Psychology Today |date=5 December 2021 |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-athletes-way/202112/fast-way-see-if-youre-wise}}</ref>

=== Archetypal psychology ===
{{Main|Wise Old Man and Wise Old Woman}}
{{Broader|Jungian archetypes}}

The wise old person is an unconscious [[Attitude (psychology)|attitude]] concerning [[nature]] and the [[collective unconscious]].<ref>{{cite book
| last = Jacoby
| first = Mario
|translator-last1= Gubitz
|translator-first1= Myron
| date = 1985
| title = Individuation and Narcissism: The Psychology of the Self in Jung and Kohut
| publisher = Routledge
| pages = 134–135
| isbn = 0-415-06464-3
| quote = The figures representing the archetype of the 'Wise Old Man' or of the 'Magna Mater' are equivalent to the mana personality; they are both personifications of what could be called the 'wisdom in nature' or the Jungian self with its 'unconscious knowledge'. [...] From a Jungian point of view, we could say that a conscious relationship to the 'Wise Old Man or Woman' in ourselves and to his or her knowledge concerning the infinite is an essential part of an attitude that deserves being called 'wise'.}}</ref>

[[Star Wars]] is a monomyth that uses [[archetypal psychology]], specifically [[Joseph Campbell]]'s [[The Hero with a Thousand Faces|The Hero of a Thousand Faces]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Joseph|last=Campbell|title=The Hero's Journey: Joseph Campbell on His Life and Work|edition=3rd|editor-first=Phil|editor-last=Cousineau|location=Novato, California|publisher=New World Library|year=2003|pages=186–187}}</ref> The character [[Yoda|Master Yoda]] from the films evokes the [[trope (cinema)|trope]] of the [[wise old man]],<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite book|title=Virtual orientalism: Asian religions and American popular culture|last=Iwamura|first= Jane Naomi|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|oclc=1090089521}}
|2={{Cite book|title=Positive psychology at the movies: using films to build character strengths and well-being|last=Niemiec|first= Ryan M.|isbn=978-0-88937-443-0|oclc=844533648|year=2014|publisher=Hogrefe }} }}</ref> and he is frequently quoted, analogously to Chinese thinkers or Eastern sages in general.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/life/star-wars-who-said-it-yoda-or-a-jewish-sage-1.5436169|url-access=subscription|title=Star Wars: Who Said It? Yoda or a Jewish Sage|work=Haaretz|date=12 September 2017}}
|2={{cite web|url=https://www.inc.com/kevin-daum/may-the-fourth-be-with-you-the-wisdom-of-star-wars-in-40-iconic-quotes.html|title=May the Fourth Be With You: the Wisdom of Star Wars in 40 Iconic Quotes|last=Daum|first=Kevin|date=4 May 2017|website=Inc.com|access-date=16 August 2019}} }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Tao of Yoda: based upon the Tao Te Ching by Lao Tzu|last=Kreger|first=D. W.|year=2013|publisher=Windham Everitt|isbn=978-0-9833099-2-5|oclc=861507203}}</ref>

===Theories and models===
{{prose|section|date=February 2025}}
*''The Berlin Wisdom Paradigm'' is an expertise model of life wisdom.<ref>{{cite journal
| last1 = Baltes
| first1 = Paul B.
| last2 = Smith
| first2 = Jacqui
| date = 2008
| title = The Fascination of Wisdom: Its Nature, Ontogeny, and Function
| journal = Perspectives on Psychological Science
| volume = 3
| issue = 1
| pages = 56–64
| doi = 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00062.x
| jstor = 40212228
| pmid = 26158670
| quote = The Berlin Wisdom Paradigm  [...] combines a broad definition of wisdom as excellence in mind and virtue with a specific characterization of wisdom as an expert knowledge system dealing with the conduct and understanding of life. We called this domain of knowledge the ''fundamental pragmatics of life'' [...] ''life planning'' [...] ''life management'' [...] and ''life review''[.]}}</ref><ref name="Zhang-2023">{{cite journal
| last1 = Zhang
| first1 = K.
| last2 = Shi
| first2 = J.
| last3 = Wang
| first3 = F.
| date = 2023
| title = Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns
| journal = Current Psychology
| volume = 42
| issue = 18
| pages = 15030–15051
| doi = 10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6
| pmid = 35153458
|quote = Since wisdom research in psychology began in the late 1970s (Clayton, 1975), many scientific theories about wisdom have emerged, including: (a) the Berlin wisdom paradigm (Baltes & Kunzmann, 2004; Baltes & Smith, 2008; Baltes & Staudinger, 1993, 2000; Scheibe et al., 2007), (b) the balance theory of wisdom (Sternberg, 1998, 2018), (c) the self-transcendence wisdom theory (Levenson et al., 2005), (d) the three-dimensional wisdom theory (Ardelt, 2003; Thomas et al., 2015), (e) the H.E.R.O.(E.) model of wisdom (Webster, 2003; Webster et al., 2014, 2017), (f) the process view of wisdom (Yang, 2008, 2013, 2016, 2017), and (g) the integrating virtue and wit theory of wisdom (Chen & Wang, 2013; Wang et al., 2019, pp. 376–378; Wang & Zheng, 2012, 2014, 2015).| pmc = 8817649
}}</ref>
*''The Balance Theory of Wisdom''<ref name="Zhang-2023"/>
*''The Self-transcendence Wisdom Theory''<ref name="Zhang-2023"/>
*''The Three-dimensional Wisdom Theory''<ref name="Zhang-2023"/>
*''The H.E.R.O.(E.) Model of Wisdom''<ref name="Zhang-2023"/>
*''The Process View of Wisdom''<ref name="Zhang-2023"/>
*''The Integrating Virtue and Wit Theory of Wisdom''<ref name="Zhang-2023"/>

== Religious perspectives ==
=== Zoroastrianism ===
{{Main|Zoroastrianism}}

In the [[Avesta]] [[Gathas]], hymns traditionally attributed to [[Zoroaster]], [[Ahura Mazda]] means "Lord" (Ahura) and "Wisdom" (Mazda), and is the central deity who embodies goodness, being also called "Good Thought" ([[Vohu Manah]]).<ref>{{cite book|last=Boyce|first=Mary|year=1983|chapter=Ahura Mazdā|title=Encyclopaedia Iranica|editor-first=Ehsan|editor-last=Yarshater|volume=1|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopdiairani0001unse|url-access=registration|location=New York|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopdiairani0001unse/page/684/mode/2up 684]–687|isbn=978-0-7100-9099-7 }}</ref> In [[Zoroastrianism]], the order of the universe and morals is called {{transliteration|ae|[[asha]]}} (in [[Avestan]], truth, righteousness), which is determined by this [[Omniscience|omniscient]] Thought and also considered a deity emanating from Ahura ([[Amesha Spenta]]). It is related to another ahura deity, [[Amesha Spenta|Spenta Mainyu]] (active Mentality).<ref>{{cite book|last=Boyce|first=Mary|year=1975|title=A History of Zoroastrianism|volume=I|location=Leiden/Köln|publisher=Brill}}</ref> It says in Yazna 31:<ref>{{cite web| url = http://avesta.org/yasna/yasna.htm#y31| title = Yazna 31 |website=Sacred Liturgy and Gathas/Hymns of Zarathushtra}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=To him shall the best befall, who, as one that knows, speaks to me Right's truthful word of Welfare and of Immortality; even the Dominion of Mazda which Good Thought shall increase for him. About which he in the beginning thus thought, "let the blessed realms be filled with Light", he it is that by his wisdom created Right.|sign=|source=}}

=== Hellenistic religion and Gnosticism ===
{{main|Sophia (wisdom)|Sophia (Gnosticism)}}

In [[Hellenistic religion]], wisdom was often personified as a divine or mystical force guiding human understanding. In Greek mystery religions, particularly [[Orphism]] and the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]], wisdom was associated with spiritual enlightenment and initiation into hidden truths.<ref>{{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |title=Ancient Mystery Cults |year=1989 |publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> Philosophical movements such as [[Neoplatonism]] developed a concept of wisdom (''sophia'', σοφία) as the knowledge of the divine order of existence. [[Plotinus]] (204–270 CE) viewed wisdom as an ascent of the soul towards [[Neoplatonism#The One|the One]], the ultimate source of all reality.<ref>{{cite book |last=Plotinus |title=The Enneads |orig-date=3rd century CE |year=1991 |publisher=Penguin Classics}}</ref> In this tradition, wisdom was both intellectual and mystical, requiring inner purification to grasp transcendent truths.

Wisdom also played a central role in [[Gnosticism]], an [[Western esotericism|esoteric movement]] that emerged in the first few centuries CE. Gnostics saw wisdom (Sophia) as a divine figure, often depicted as a fallen being who sought to restore humanity's knowledge of its divine origin. In texts in the [[Nag Hammadi library]], Sophia is described as the mother of all living and the source of ''gnosis'' (spiritual knowledge).<ref>{{cite book |last=Pagels |first=Elaine |title=The Gnostic Gospels |orig-date=1979 |year=2004 |publisher=Random House}}</ref> According to [[Valentinian Gnosticism]], Sophia's fall led to the creation of the material world, but through wisdom, the soul could transcend illusion and return to the divine realm.<ref>{{cite book |last=Jonas |first=Hans |title=The Gnostic Religion |orig-date=1958 |year=2001 |publisher=Beacon Press}}</ref>

Gnostic texts such as the ''[[Pistis Sophia]]'' depict wisdom as a cosmic force struggling to free itself from ignorance and darkness. This contrasts with orthodox Christian views, where wisdom (σοφία) is associated with the [[Logos]] and divine order rather than cosmic dualism.<ref>{{cite book |last=Perkins |first=Pheme |title=Gnosticism and the New Testament |year=1993 |publisher=Fortress Press}}</ref> In [[Hermeticism]], another esoteric tradition of the Hellenistic period, wisdom was linked to inner enlightenment and mystical union with the divine mind (''[[nous]]'', νοῦς).<ref>{{cite book |last=Copenhaver |first=Brian P. |title=Hermetica: The Greek Corpus Hermeticum and the Latin Asclepius |year=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> These traditions, though diverse, shared the belief that wisdom was the key to transcending material existence and reuniting with the divine.

=== Abrahamic religions ===
{{main|Holy Wisdom|Hikmah}}
[[File:Book of Wisdom Belarusian Skaryna.jpg|thumb|Image from "[[Book of Wisdom]]" of Francysk Skaryna 1518]]

The word "wisdom" ({{lang|he|חכם}}) is mentioned 222 times in the [[Hebrew Bible]]. It was regarded as one of the highest virtues among the Israelites along with kindness ({{lang|he|חסד}}) and justice ({{lang|he|צדק}}). Wisdom is exemplified by [[Solomon]]. Much of the [[Book of Proverbs]], which is filled with [[Proverb|wise sayings]], is attributed to Solomon. The [[Talmud]] teaches that a wise person can foresee the future. {{transliteration|he|Nolad}} is a Hebrew word for "future," but also the Hebrew word for "birth", so one rabbinic interpretation of the teaching is that a wise person is one who can foresee the consequences of his/her choices (i.e. can "see the future" that he/she "gives birth" to).<ref>[[David Wolpe|Wolpe, David]], perf. [https://www.sinaitemple.org/learning_with_the_rabbis/sermons/mp3/2012/Sermon081812.mp3 "Re'eh: What it Means to Choose."] ''Rabbi David Wolpe''. Sinai Temple, 11 August 2012. web. 16 August 2013.</ref>

In [[Christian theology]], "wisdom" describes an aspect of God, or the [[Theology|theological]] concept regarding the wisdom of [[God]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2015}} Wisdom is considered one of the [[seven gifts of the Holy Spirit]]. [[Justin Martyr]],<ref>In his ''Dialogue with Tripho'' (55, 1), Justin calls the Word of God a "second God" (ἕτερος θεός), meaning the second divine person of a unique Triune God.</ref> [[Athenagoras of Athens]] and [[Theophilus of Antioch]] identified the Wisdom of the Book of Proverbs with the [[Logos (Christianity)#Septuagint|Word]] who is Jesus Christ God.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Dudzik, Pavel |date=25 November 2022 |title=Prov 8:22ff in Early Christian Statements on the Relation of Origin of the Son from the Father: The Case of Justin, Athenagoras, and Theophilus |journal=AUC Theologia |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=103–125 |format=PDF |issn=1804-5588 |oclc=9722510497 |language=en |doi=10.14712/23363398.2022.20 |url=https://karolinum.cz/casopis/auc-theologica/rocnik-12/cislo-1/clanek-10747|doi-access=free }} p. 111.</ref>

The Islamic term for wisdom is {{transliteration|ar|hikmah}}. Prophets of Islam are believed by Muslims to possess great wisdom. The Sufi philosopher [[Ibn Arabi]] considers ''al-Hakim'' ("The Wise") as one of the names of the Creator.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Shahzad|first=Qaiser|year=2004|title=Ibn 'Arabī's Contribution to the Ethics of Divine Names|journal=Islamic Studies|volume=43|number=1|pages=5–38|doi=10.52541/isiri.v43i1.4732 |jstor=20837323 }}</ref> Wisdom and truth, considered divine attributes, were valued in [[Science in the medieval Islamic world|Islamic sciences]] and [[Islamic philosophy|philosophy]]. The first Arab philosopher, [[Al-Kindi]] says at the beginning of his book:<ref>{{Citation|last=Adamson|first=Peter|title=Al-Kindi|year=2018|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/al-kindi/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Summer 2018|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=16 August 2019}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=We must not be ashamed to admire the truth or to acquire it, from wherever it comes. Even if it should come from far-flung nations and foreign peoples, there is for the student of truth nothing more important than the truth, nor is the truth demeaned or diminished by the one who states or conveys it; no one is demeaned by the truth, rather all are ennobled by it.|sign=|source=[[Al-Kindi]], ''On First Philosophy''}}

In [[Baháʼí Faith]] scripture, "The essence of wisdom is the fear of God, the dread of His scourge and punishment, and the apprehension of His justice and decree."<ref>{{cite book|title=Bahai Reference Library|chapter=Asl-i-Kullu'l-Khayr (Words of Wisdom)|chapter-url=https://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/TB/tb-11.html|series=Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh Revealed After the Kitáb-i-Aqdas|publisher=US Bahá'í Publishing Trust|year=1988|edition=pocket-size|access-date=19 March 2013}}</ref> Wisdom is seen as a light that casts away darkness, and "its dictates must be observed under all circumstances".<ref>{{cite book|translator-last=Browne|author=ʻAbduʹl-Bahá|translator-first=Edward G.|title=A traveler's narrative|year=1980|publisher=Bahá'i Publ. Trust|location=Wilmette, Ill.|isbn=978-0-87743-134-3|page=46|edition=New and corr.}}</ref> One may obtain knowledge and wisdom through God, his Word, and his [[Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)|Divine Manifestation]]; the source of all learning is the knowledge of God.<ref>{{cite book|last=Esslemont|first=J.E.|title=Bahá'u'lláh and the new era: an introduction to the Bahá'í faith|year=2006|publisher=Bahá'í Pub. Trust|location=Wilmette, Ill.|isbn=978-1-931847-27-8}}</ref>

== Cultural and literary depictions ==
[[File:Meynier - Wisdom defending Youth against Love.jpg|thumb|''Wisdom Defending Youth against Love'' by [[Charles Meynier|Meynier]], {{circa|1810}}]]
[[File:Jacob de Wit - Allegorie op het schrijven van de geschiedenis 1754.jpg|thumb|''Truth and Wisdom assist History in writing'' by [[Jacob de Wit]], 1754]]

===In mythology===
==== Mesopotamian mythology ====
In [[Mesopotamian mythology|Mesopotamian religion and mythology]], [[Enki]], also known as Ea, was the god of wisdom and intelligence. Divine wisdom allowed {{clarify|reason=who is designating? what is functioning? what makes a designation providential?|text=the provident designation of functions|date=August 2023}} and the ordering of the cosmos, and it{{ambiguous|reason=what is "it"? the wisdom? the designation?|date=August 2023}} was achieved by humans by following {{transliteration|sux|[[Me (mythology)|me]]}}s (in [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]: order, rite, righteousness) which maintain balance.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/pdfy-OBb9_axzoPvTFsq4|title=The God Enki in Sumerian Royal Ideology and Mythology|last=Espak|first=Peeter|publisher=Tartu University Press|year=2014|series=Dissertationes Theologiae Universitatis Tartuensis|volume=19|location=Tartu|isbn=978-9949-19-522-0}}</ref> In addition to [[Sumerian religion|hymns to Enki or Ea]] dating from [[3rd millennium BC|{{BCE|the third millennium}}]], there is among the [[clay tablet]]s of [[Abu Salabikh]] from {{BCE|2600}} (the oldest dated texts), a "Hymn to [[Utu|Shamash]]" which includes the following:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bonechi|first=Marco|year=2016|title=87) The Pregnant Woman in the Archaic Hymn to Shamash of Sippar|url=http://sepoa.fr/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/NABU-2016-4-DEF.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801055234/http://sepoa.fr/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/NABU-2016-4-DEF.pdf |archive-date=1 August 2019 |url-status=live|journal=Nouvelles Assyriologiques Brèves et Utilitaires |issue=4 |pages=147–150}}</ref>

{{blockquote|Wide is the courtyard of Shamash night chamber, (just as wide is the womb of) a wise pregnant woman! [[Sin (mythology)|Sin]], his warrior, wise one, heard of the offerings and came down to his fiesta. He is the father of the nation and the father of intelligence}}

==== Egyptian mythology ====
{{Main|Egyptian mythology}}
{{Further|Sia (god)|Thoth}}

Sia was the personification of perception and thoughtfulness in the mythology of [[Ancient Egypt]]. Thoth, married to [[Maat]] (in [[Egyptian language|ancient Egyptian]]: order, righteousness, truth), was regarded as the being who introduced wisdom to the nation.<ref>{{cite web|first=Joshua J.|last=Mark|date=14 April 2016|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/885/egyptian-gods---the-complete-list/|title=Egyptian Gods – The Complete List|website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]|access-date=29 January 2019}}</ref><ref name="Uždavinys-2008" />

The concept of [[Logos]]{{snd}}manifest word of the divine thought{{snd}}was also present in the [[Ancient Egyptian religion|philosophy and hymns of Egypt]] and [[Ancient Greek philosophy|Ancient Greece]].<ref name="Uždavinys-2008">{{cite book|last=Uždavinys|first=Algis|title=Philosophy as a Rite of Rebirth: From Ancient Egypt to Neoplatonism|publisher=The Prometheus Trust|year=2008|isbn=978-1-898910-35-0|url=https://themathesontrust.org/publications-files/MTexcerpt-PhilosophyRebirth.pdf}}</ref> It was important in the thinking of [[Heraclitus]], and in the [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic traditions]]. It seems to have been derived from Mesopotamian culture.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/6411568|title=Mesopotamian precursors to the Stoic concept of logic|last=Lawson, Jack Newton.|journal=Melammu Symposia 2. Myth and Mythologies: Methodological Approaches to Intercultural Influences|year=2001|publisher=[Melammu Project]|oclc=714111111}}</ref>

==== Greek mythology ====
===== Athena and Metis =====
{{Main|Athena|Metis (mythology)}}

{{Blockquote
|text=[[Athena]] (as Mentor) supported [[Telemachus|him]] by recognizing and fostering [[courage]], [[hope]], sense, bravery, and adeptness (Homer, trans. 1996, p. 102).<ref>{{cite journal
| last1 = Carol
| first1 = Sommer
| last2 = Markopoulos 
| first2 = Panagiotis
| last3 = Goggins
| first3 =Shana
| date = 2013
| title = Mentoring master's level students: Drawing upon the wisdom of Athena as Mentor in Homer's Odyssey
| journal = Journal of Poetry Therapy
| volume = 26
| issue = 1
| pages = 1–12
| doi = 10.1080/08893675.2013.764049
| quote = [R]eference to Athena within the context of mentoring is not new (Roberts, 2000; Sambunjak & Marusic, 2009) [...] Athena appears in the guise of an old friend of Odysseus, whose name happens to be Mentor. She offers aid and advice to the young Telemachus. [...] In relationship to Telemachus, Athena (as Mentor) supported him by recognizing and fostering courage, hope, sense, bravery, and adeptness (Homer, trans. 1996, p. 102).}}</ref>
|author=Sommer}}

The [[ancient Greeks]] considered wisdom to be an important [[virtue]], [[personified]] as the [[goddess]]es Metis and Athena. Metis was the first wife of [[Zeus]], who, according to [[Hesiod]]'s [[Theogony]], had devoured her pregnant; Zeus earned the title of Mêtieta ("The Wise Counselor") after that, as Metis was the embodiment of wisdom, and he gave birth to Athena, who is said to have sprung from his head.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theoi.com/Titan/TitanisMetis.html|title=METIS – Greek Titan Goddess of Wise Counsel|website=Theoi Project|access-date=17 August 2019}}</ref><ref>[[Hesiod]]. ''Theogony''.</ref> Athena was portrayed as strong, fair, merciful, and chaste.<ref>{{cite web|last=Turnbill|first=Liz|date=12 August 2011|title=Athena, Greek goddess of wisdom and craftsmanship|url=https://goddessgift.com/goddesses/athena/|website=Goddess Gift}}</ref>

===== Apollo =====
{{Main|Apollo}}

Apollo was also considered a god of wisdom, designated as the conductor of the [[Muses]] (''Musagetes''),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theoi.com/Ouranios/Mousai.html|title=MOUSAI – Greek Goddesses of Music, Poetry & the Arts|website=Theoi Project|access-date=17 August 2019}}</ref> who were personifications of the sciences and of the inspired and poetic arts. According to [[Plato]] in his ''[[Cratylus (dialogue)|Cratylus]]'', the name of Apollo could also mean "{{transliteration|grc|ballon}}" (archer) and "{{transliteration|grc|omopoulon}}" (unifier of poles [divine and earthly]), since this god was responsible for divine and true inspirations, thus considered an archer who was always right in healing and oracles: "he is an ever-darting archer".<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Plato]]|title=[[Cratylus (dialogue)|Cratylus]]|at=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0172%3Atext%3DCrat.%3Apage%3D406 405e–406a]}}</ref> Apollo prophesied through the priestesses ([[Pythia]]) in the [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)]], where the aphorism "[[know thyself]]" ({{transliteration|grc|gnōthi seauton}}){{Efn|1=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0176:text%3DCharm.:section%3D165a Critias states the meaning of "know thyself" in Plato's ''Charmides'' (165a)] |name=|group=}} was inscribed (one of the [[Delphic maxims]]).<ref>{{cite book|last=Scott|first=Michael|title=Delphi: A History of the Center of the Ancient World|publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref> He was contrasted with [[Hermes]], who was related to the sciences and technical wisdom, and, in the first centuries after Christ, was associated with [[Thoth]] in an [[Ancient Egyptian religion|Egyptian syncretism]], under the name [[Hermes Trismegistus|Hermes Trimegistus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Preus|first=Anthony|date=30 March 1998|title=Thoth and Apollo. Greek Myths of the Origin of Philosophy|journal=Méthexis|volume=11|issue=1|pages=113–125|doi=10.1163/24680974-90000303|issn=0327-0289}}</ref> Greek tradition recorded the earliest introducers of wisdom in the [[Seven Sages of Greece]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Alan H.|last=Griffiths|chapter=Seven Sages|title=Oxford Classical Dictionary|date=29 January 2024 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordclassicald0000unse_w0c8|url-access=registration|editor-first1=Simon|editor-last1=Hornblower|editor-first2=Antony|editor-last2=Spawforth|editor-first3=Esther|editor-last3=Eidinow|edition=4th|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordclassicald0000unse_w0c8/page/1357/mode/1up 1357]}}</ref>

==== Roman mythology ====
{{Main|Roman mythology}}

The [[ancient Romans]] also valued wisdom, which was personified as [[Minerva]] or Pallas. She also represents skillful knowledge and the virtues, especially chastity. Her symbol was the [[owl#Symbolism and mythology|owl]], which is still a popular representation of wisdom, because it can see in darkness. She was said to have been born from Jupiter's forehead.<ref>{{cite web|title=Myths about Roman Goddess Minerva|url=http://www.roman-colosseum.info/roman-gods/myths-about-the-roman-goddess-minerva.htm|url-status=usurped|website=Roman-colosseum.info|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626062447/http://www.roman-colosseum.info/roman-gods/myths-about-the-roman-goddess-minerva.htm|archive-date=26 June 2012}}</ref>

==== Norse mythology ====
{{Main|Norse mythology}}
{{Further|Odin|Mimir}}

Odin is known for his wisdom, often as acquired through various hardships and ordeals involving pain and self-sacrifice. In one instance he plucked out an eye and offered it to Mímir, guardian of the well of knowledge and wisdom, in return for a drink from the well.<ref name="Sturluson-1987">{{cite book|translator-last=Faulkes|translator-first=Anthony|editor-last=Faulkes|editor-first=Anthony|year=1987|title=[[Prose Edda|Edda]]|first=Snorri|last=Sturluson|author-link=Snorri Sturluson|publisher=[[Everyman's Library]]|isbn=0-460-87616-3}}</ref>
In another famous account, Odin hanged himself for nine nights from [[Yggdrasil]], the [[World Tree]] that unites all the [[Norse cosmology|realms of existence]], suffering from hunger and thirst and finally wounding himself with a spear until he gained the knowledge of [[runic alphabet|runes]] for use in casting powerful [[magic (paranormal)|magic]].<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Larrington|editor-first=Carolyne|translator-last=Larrington|translator-first=Carolyne|year=1996|title=[[Poetic Edda]]|first=Snorri|last=Sturluson|author-link=Snorri Sturluson|publisher=[[Oxford World's Classics]]|isbn=0-19-283946-2}}</ref> He was also able to acquire the [[mead of poetry]] from the [[Jötunn|giants]], a drink of which could grant the power of a scholar or [[skald|poet]], for the benefit of [[Æsir|gods]] and mortals alike.<ref name="Sturluson-1987"/>

===In folklore===

In many cultures, the name for third molars, which are the last teeth to grow, is etymologically linked with wisdom, as in the English ''[[wisdom tooth]]''. This nickname originated from the classical tradition{{snd}}the Hippocratic writings used the term {{transliteration|grc|sóphronistér}} (in [[Greek language|Greek]], related to the meaning of moderation or teaching a lesson), and in [[Latin]] {{lang|la|dens sapientiae}} (wisdom tooth).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Šimon|first=František|title=The history of Latin teeth names|date=15 December 2015|url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/223786|journal=Acta medico-historica Adriatica|volume=13|issue=2|pages=365–384|issn=1334-4366|pmid=27604204}}</ref>

== Educational perspectives ==
[[Education in the United States|Public schools in the U.S.]] sometimes nod at "[[character education]]" which would include training in wisdom.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=U.S. Department of Education|date=31 May 2005|title=Character education: our shared responsibility|url=https://www2.ed.gov/admins/lead/character/brochure.html}}</ref>

=== Maxwell's educational philosophy ===
{{See also|Nicholas Maxwell}}

Nicholas Maxwell, a philosopher in the United Kingdom, believes [[academia]] ought to alter its focus from the acquisition of knowledge to seeking and promoting wisdom.<ref>{{cite book|author-link=Nicholas Maxwell|first=Nicholas|last=Maxwell|year=2007|title=From Knowledge to Wisdom: A Revolution for Science and the Humanities|publisher=Pentire Press}}</ref> This he defines as the capacity to realize what is of value in life, for oneself and others.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/friends-of-wisdom|title=Friends of Wisdom|website=University College London|date=21 February 2019 |quote=an association of people sympathetic to the idea that academic inquiry should help humanity acquire more wisdom by rational means}}</ref> He teaches that new knowledge and technological [[know-how]] increase our power to act. Without wisdom though, Maxwell claims this new knowledge may cause human harm as well as human good. He argues that the pursuit of knowledge is indeed valuable and good, but that it should be considered a part of the broader task of improving wisdom.<ref>{{citation|url=https://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/1709/|title=Can Humanity Learn to become Civilized? The Crisis of Science without Civilization|first=Nicholas|last=Maxwell|year=2000}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Philosophy|Psychology}}
{{Div col|colwidth=30em|small=yes}}
* {{annotated link|Anima mundi}}
* {{annotated link|Bildung}}
* {{annotated link|Book of Wisdom}}
* {{annotated link|Cassandra (metaphor)}}
* {{annotated link|Conventional wisdom}}
* {{annotated link|DIKW pyramid}}
* {{annotated link|Ecological wisdom}}
* {{annotated link|Eudaimonia}}
* {{annotated link|Genius}}
* {{annotated link|Heuristic}}
* {{annotated link|Invocation}}
* {{annotated link|Metacognition}}
* {{annotated link|Perspicacity}}
* {{annotated link|Procedural knowledge}}
* {{annotated link|Reflexivity (social theory)}}
* {{annotated link|Sage (philosophy)}}
* {{annotated link|Sapere aude|''Sapere aude''}}
* {{annotated link|Socratic method}}
* {{annotated link|Transcendence (philosophy)}}
* {{annotated link|Wisdom of the crowd}}
{{Div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |chapter=[[s:Sermons for all the Sundays in the year/Sermon 5|Sermon V.{{snd}}Sunday within the Octave of the Nativity: In what true wisdom consists]] |title=Sermons for all the Sundays in the year |year=1882 |publisher=Dublin |first=Alphonus |last=Liguori |author-link=Alphonsus Liguori}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sternberg |first1=R. |last2=Gluck |first2=J. |year=2021 |title=Wisdom: The Psychology of Wise Thoughts, Words, and Deeds |place=Cambridge, UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Tsai |first=Cheng-hung |year=2023 |title=Wisdom: A Skill Theory |place=Cambridge, UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|n=no|s=no|b=no}}
* {{PhilPapers|category|wisdom}}
* [https://metis.ethz.ch/en/home-en/ Metis portal for intercultural wisdom literature and wisdom practices] at [[ETH Zurich]].
* {{InPho|idea|1544}}
* {{cite SEP|url-id=wisdom|title=Wisdom}}
* [http://www.wisdomresearch.org Center for Practical Wisdom] at the [[University of Chicago]]

{{Virtues}}
{{Humanities}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Wisdom| ]]
[[Category:Virtue]]