View source for Wood

{{short description|Fibrous material from trees or other plants}}
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{{for-multi|a small forest|Woodland|wood as a commodity|Timber|other uses|Wood (disambiguation)|and|Wooden (disambiguation)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2011}}
{{Use American English|date=October 2012}}<!--THIS ARTICLE WAS STARTED IN AMERICAN SPELLING. PLEASE KEEP PER WP:ENGVAR-->
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| header =Wood samples
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{{Annotation|10|90|&nbsp;[[Pine]]&nbsp;|background-color=#F5DEB3}}
{{Annotation|97|90|&nbsp;[[Spruce]]&nbsp;|background-color=#F5DEB3}}
{{Annotation|184|90|&nbsp;[[Larch]]&nbsp;|background-color=#F5DEB3}}
{{Annotation|270|90|&nbsp;[[Juniper]]&nbsp;|background-color=#F5DEB3}}

{{Annotation|10|197|&nbsp;[[Aspen]]&nbsp;|background-color=#F5DEB3}}
{{Annotation|97|197|&nbsp;[[Hornbeam]]&nbsp;|background-color=#F5DEB3}}
{{Annotation|184|197|&nbsp;[[Birch]]&nbsp;|background-color=#F5DEB3}}
{{Annotation|270|197|&nbsp;[[Alder]]&nbsp;|background-color=#F5DEB3}}

{{Annotation|10|304|&nbsp;[[Beech]]&nbsp;|background-color=#F5DEB3}}
{{Annotation|97|304|&nbsp;[[Oak]]&nbsp;|background-color=#F5DEB3}}
{{Annotation|184|304|&nbsp;[[Elm]]&nbsp;|background-color=#F5DEB3}}
{{Annotation|270|304|&nbsp;[[Prunus avium|Cherry]]&nbsp;|background-color=#F5DEB3}}

{{Annotation|10|411|&nbsp;[[Pyrus communis|Pear]]&nbsp;|background-color=#F5DEB3}}
{{Annotation|97|411|&nbsp;[[Maple]]&nbsp;|background-color=#F5DEB3}}
{{Annotation|184|411|&nbsp;[[Tilia cordata|Linden]]&nbsp;|background-color=#F5DEB3}}
{{Annotation|270|411|&nbsp;[[Fraxinus excelsior|Ash]]&nbsp;|background-color=#F5DEB3}}
}}
'''Wood''' is a structural tissue/material found as [[xylem]] in the [[Plant stem|stems]] and roots of [[tree]]s and other [[woody plant]]s. Being a [[natural material]], it is characterized as an [[organic material]]{{snd}}a natural [[composite material|composite]] of [[cellulose|cellulosic]] fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a [[:wikt:matrix|matrix]] of [[lignin]] and [[hemicellulose]]s that resists compression.<ref>{{cite web | last=Brinkman | first=Eddy | title=Wood, a sustainable natural composite material | website=Betase BV | date=2021-08-27 | url=https://www.betase.nl/wood/?lang=en | access-date=2025-11-03}} "Wood is a natural composite material, with cellulose fibres embedded in a matrix of lignin and hemicelluloses – all three components composed of natural polymers. Lignin is the glue that holds the cellulose fibres together."</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=Handbook of Wood Chemistry and Wood Composites | publisher=CRC Press | date=2012-09-06 | isbn=978-0-429-10909-6 | doi=10.1201/b12487 | page=}}</ref> 

Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees,<ref>{{cite book|author=Hickey, M.|author2=King, C.|date=2001|title=The Cambridge Illustrated Glossary of Botanical Terms|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> or more broadly to include the same type of tissue elsewhere, such as in the roots of trees or shrubs. In a living tree, it performs a mechanical-support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and [[nutrient]]s among the [[leaf|leaves]], other growing tissues, and the roots. Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, [[woodchips]], or [[fiber]]s.

Wood has been used for thousands of years for [[fuel]], as a [[construction material]], for making [[tool]]s and [[weapon]]s, [[furniture]] and [[paper]]. More recently it emerged as a feedstock for the production of purified cellulose and its derivatives, such as [[cellophane]] and [[cellulose acetate#production|cellulose acetate]].

As of 2020, the growing stock of [[forest]]s worldwide was about 557 billion cubic meters.<ref name="FAO-2020">FAO. 2020. ''[https://www.fao.org/3/ca9825en/ca9825en.pdf Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020: Main report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221105155828/https://www.fao.org/3/ca9825en/ca9825en.pdf |date=November 5, 2022 }}.'' Rome.</ref> As an abundant, [[carbon-neutral]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/epa-declares-burning-wood-carbon-neutral-180968880/ | title=The EPA Declared That Burning Wood is Carbon Neutral. It's Actually a Lot More Complicated | access-date=June 3, 2022 | archive-date=June 30, 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210630153427/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/epa-declares-burning-wood-carbon-neutral-180968880/ | url-status=live }}</ref> renewable resource, woody materials have been of intense interest as a source of renewable energy. In 2023, almost 4 billion cubic meters of wood were harvested.<ref>{{cite web | title=Global wood production is at record levels, at about 4 billion m³ per year | website=FAO Knowledge Repository | date=2023-12-29 | url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/768ba59e-c692-47c3-9a13-3c3c10993396/content/src/html/wood-production-record-levels.html | access-date=2025-11-03}} 2023: World roundwood removals have amounted to about 4 billion m³ annually in recent years, around half of which has been used for fuel, either  directly (as fuelwood) or in the production of charcoal and pellets.</ref> Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction.

Wood is scientifically studied and researched through the discipline of [[wood science]], which was initiated since the beginning of the 20th century.

==History==

A 2011 discovery in the [[Canadian province]] of [[New Brunswick]] yielded the earliest known plants to have grown wood, approximately 395 to 400 [[million years ago]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/n-b-fossils-show-origins-of-wood-1.1052870|title=N.B. fossils show origins of wood|publisher=[[CBC.ca]]|access-date=August 12, 2011|date=August 12, 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813012432/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/story/2011/08/12/nb-origins-of-wood-found.html|archive-date=August 13, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Philippe Gerrienne|display-authors=etal|title=A Simple Type of Wood in Two Early Devonian Plants|journal=Science|volume=333|issue=6044|page=837|date=Aug 12, 2011|doi=10.1126/science.1208882|pmid=21836008|bibcode=2011Sci...333..837G|hdl=2268/97121 |s2cid=23513139|url=http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/jspui/handle/2268/97121|hdl-access=free}}{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Wood can be dated by [[carbon dating]] and in some species by [[dendrochronology]] to determine when a wooden object was created.

People have used wood for thousands of years for many purposes, including as a [[fuel]] or as a [[construction]] material for making [[house]]s, [[tool]]s, [[weapon]]s, [[furniture]], [[packaging]], [[artwork]]s, and [[paper]]. Known [[construction]]s using wood date back ten thousand years. Buildings like the longhouses in [[Neolithic]] Europe were made primarily of wood.

Recent use of wood has been enhanced by the addition of steel and bronze into construction.<ref name="Woods-2017">{{cite web|last1=Woods|first1=Sarah|title=A History of Wood from the Stone Age to the 21st Century|url=http://www.ecobuildingpulse.com/products/a-history-of-wood_o|website=EcoBUILDING|date=July 18, 2016 |publisher=A Publication of The American Institute of Architects|access-date=March 28, 2017|ref=3|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329051421/http://www.ecobuildingpulse.com/products/a-history-of-wood_o|archive-date=March 29, 2017}}</ref>

The year-to-year variation in tree-ring widths and isotopic abundances gives [[proxy (climate)|clues]] to the prevailing climate at the time a tree was cut.<ref name="Briffa-2008" >{{cite journal
 |author=Briffa, K.
 |date=2008
 |title=Trends in recent temperature and radial tree growth spanning 2000 years across northwest Eurasia
 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
 |issue= 1501
 |pages=2271–2284
 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2007.2199
 |pmid=18048299
 |volume=363
 |pmc=2606779
 |last2=Shishov
 |first2=V.V.
 |last3=Melvin
 |first3=T.M.
 |last4=Vaganov
 |first4=E.A.
 |last5=Grudd
 |first5=H.
 |last6=Hantemirov}}</ref>

Early humans progressively invented tools and techniques for trapping animals. The earliest spears were crafted from wood, with tips toughened by burning. By 15,000 BC, hunters employed wooden and bone [[spear]]-launchers to enhance force and distance. These devices were frequently adorned with carvings of creatures.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Branigan|first=Keith |url=https://archive.org/details/stoneagepeople0000bran/page/29/mode/1up?q=%2215%2C000+BC%22|title=Stone age people - p 29 |publisher=  London : Two-can in assoc. with Franklin Watts |year=1996|isbn=1-85434-365-3}}</ref>

==Physical properties==
[[File:Tree secondary growth diagram.svg|thumb|Diagram of [[secondary growth]] in a [[tree]] showing idealized vertical and horizontal sections. A new layer of wood is added in each growing season, thickening the stem, existing branches and [[root]]s, to form a [[growth ring]].]]

===Growth rings===
{{see also|Dendrochronology#Growth rings}}

Wood, in the strict sense, is yielded by [[tree]]s, which increase in [[diameter]] by the formation, between the existing wood and the inner [[Bark (botany)|bark]], of new woody layers which envelop the entire stem, living branches, and roots. This process is known as [[secondary growth]]; it is the result of cell division in the [[vascular cambium]], a lateral meristem, and subsequent expansion of the new cells. These cells then go on to form thickened secondary cell walls, composed mainly of [[cellulose]], [[hemicellulose]] and [[lignin]].

Where the differences between the seasons are distinct, e.g. [[New Zealand]], growth can occur in a discrete annual or seasonal pattern, leading to [[growth ring]]s; these can usually be most clearly seen on the end of a log, but are also visible on the other surfaces. If the distinctiveness between seasons is annual (as is the case in equatorial regions, e.g. [[Singapore]]), these growth rings are referred to as annual rings. Where there is little seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be indistinct or absent.  If the bark of the tree has been removed in a particular area, the rings will likely be deformed as the plant overgrows the scar.

If there are differences within a growth ring, then the part of a growth ring nearest the center of the tree, and formed early in the growing season when growth is rapid, is usually composed of wider elements. It is usually lighter in color than that near the outer portion of the ring, and is known as earlywood or springwood. The outer portion formed later in the season is then known as the latewood or summerwood.<ref>[http://www.farmforestline.com.au/pages/2.1.2.1_wood.html Wood growth and structure] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091212121121/http://farmforestline.com.au/pages/2.1.2.1_wood.html |date=December 12, 2009 }} www.farmforestline.com.au</ref> There are major differences, depending on the kind of wood. If a tree grows all its life in the open and the conditions of [[soil]] and site remain unchanged, it will make its most rapid growth in youth, and gradually decline. The annual rings of growth are for many years quite wide, but later they become narrower and narrower. Since each succeeding ring is laid down on the outside of the wood previously formed, it follows that unless a tree materially increases its production of wood from year to year, the rings must necessarily become thinner as the trunk gets wider. As a tree reaches maturity its crown becomes more open and the annual wood production is lessened, thereby reducing still more the width of the growth rings. In the case of forest-grown trees so much depends upon the competition of the trees in their struggle for light and nourishment that periods of rapid and slow growth may alternate. Some trees, such as southern [[oak]]s, maintain the same width of ring for hundreds of years. On the whole, as a tree gets larger in diameter the width of the growth rings decreases.

===Knots===
<!--[[Wood knot]] and [[Knot (wood)]] redirect directly here.-->
[[File:TreeKnot.jpg|thumb|left|A knot on a tree trunk]]

As a tree grows, lower branches often die, and their bases may become overgrown and enclosed by subsequent layers of trunk wood, forming a type of imperfection known as a knot. The dead branch may not be attached to the trunk wood except at its base and can drop out after the tree has been sawn into boards. Knots affect the technical properties of the wood, usually reducing tension strength,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Everett |first1=Alan |last2=Barritt |first2=C. M. H. |title=Materials |date=12 May 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-89327-1 |page=38 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncCOAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT38 |language=en |access-date=March 20, 2023 |archive-date=September 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908234050/https://books.google.com/books?id=ncCOAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT38 |url-status=live }} "Knots, particularly edge and arris knots, reduce strength mainly in tension, but not in resistance to shear and splitting."</ref> but may be exploited for visual effect. In a longitudinally sawn plank, a knot will appear as a roughly circular "solid" (usually darker) piece of wood around which the [[wood grain|grain]] of the rest of the wood "flows" (parts and rejoins). Within a knot, the direction of the wood (grain direction) is up to 90 degrees different from the grain direction of the regular wood.

In the tree a knot is either the base of a side [[branch]] or a dormant bud. A knot (when the base of a side branch) is conical in shape (hence the roughly circular cross-section) with the inner tip at the point in stem diameter at which the plant's vascular cambium was located when the branch formed as a bud.

In grading [[lumber]] and structural [[timber]], knots are classified according to their form, size, soundness, and the firmness with which they are held in place. This firmness is affected by, among other factors, the length of time for which the branch was dead while the attaching stem continued to grow.

[[File:Wood Knot.JPG|thumb|upright|Wood knot in vertical section]]
{{blockquote|''Knots materially affect cracking and warping, ease in working, and cleavability of timber. They are defects which weaken timber and lower its value for structural purposes where strength is an important consideration. The weakening effect is much more serious when timber is subjected to forces perpendicular to the grain and/or [[tension (physics)|tension]] than when under load along the grain and/or [[physical compression|compression]]. The extent to which knots affect the strength of a [[beam (structure)|beam]] depends upon their position, size, number, and condition. A knot on the upper side is compressed, while one on the lower side is subjected to tension. If there is a season check in the knot, as is often the case, it will offer little resistance to this tensile stress.  Small knots may be located along the neutral plane of a beam and increase the strength by preventing longitudinal [[shear stress|shearing]]. Knots in a board or plank are least injurious when they extend through it at right angles to its broadest surface. Knots which occur near the ends of a beam do not weaken it. Sound knots which occur in the central portion one-fourth the height of the beam from either edge are not serious defects.''|Samuel J. Record|The Mechanical Properties of Wood<ref name="Record-1914">{{cite book
 |last = Record
 |first = Samuel J
 |title = The Mechanical Properties of Wood
 |publisher = J. Wiley & Sons
 |year = 1914
 |page = 165
 |url = https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12299
 |asin = B000863N3W
 |asin-tld = co.uk
 |access-date = August 28, 2020
 |archive-date = October 18, 2020
 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201018011708/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12299
 |url-status = live
 }}</ref>}}

Knots do not necessarily influence the stiffness of structural timber; this will depend on the size and location. Stiffness and elastic strength are more dependent upon the sound wood than upon localized defects. The breaking strength is very susceptible to defects. Sound knots do not weaken wood when subject to compression parallel to the grain.

In some decorative applications, wood with knots may be desirable to add visual interest. In applications where wood is [[painted]], such as skirting boards, fascia boards, door frames and furniture, resins present in the timber may continue to 'bleed' through to the surface of a knot for months or even years after manufacture and show as a yellow or brownish stain. A knot [[primer (paint)|primer]] paint or solution (knotting), correctly applied during preparation, may do much to reduce this problem but it is difficult to control completely, especially when using mass-produced kiln-dried timber stocks.

===Heartwood and sapwood===<!-- [[Sapwood]] and [[Heartwood]] redirect here -->
{{Redirect|Heartwood}}
{{Redirect|Sapwood|the missile also called "SS-6 Sapwood"|R7 Semyorka}}
{{see also|Trunk (botany)}}
[[File:Taxus wood.jpg|thumb|right|A section of a [[Taxus|yew]] branch showing 27 annual growth rings, pale sapwood, dark heartwood, and [[pith]] (center dark spot). The dark radial lines are small knots.]]
'''Heartwood''' (or duramen<ref name="Britannica-1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Duramen|volume=8|page=692|short=y}}</ref>) is wood that as a result of a naturally occurring chemical transformation has become more resistant to decay. Heartwood formation is a genetically programmed process that occurs spontaneously. Some uncertainty exists as to whether the wood dies during heartwood formation, as it can still chemically react to decay organisms, but only once.<ref>Shigo, Alex. (1986) ''A New Tree Biology Dictionary''. Shigo and Trees, Associates. {{ISBN|0-943563-12-7}}</ref>

The term ''heartwood'' derives solely from its position and not from any vital importance to the tree. This is evidenced by the fact that a tree can thrive with its heart completely decayed. Some species begin to form heartwood very early in life, so having only a thin layer of live sapwood, while in others the change comes slowly. Thin sapwood is characteristic of such species as [[chestnut]], [[black locust]], [[mulberry]], [[osage-orange]], and [[sassafras]], while in [[maple]], [[ash tree|ash]], [[hickory]], [[Celtis|hackberry]], [[beech]], and pine, thick sapwood is the rule.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mechanicalprope02recogoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/mechanicalprope02recogoog/page/n70 51]|quote=The term heartwood derives solely from its position and not from any vital importance to the tree as a tree can thrive with heart completely decayed.|title=The Mechanical Properties of Wood: Including a Discussion of the Factors Affecting the Mechanical Properties, and Methods of Timber Testing|last=Record|first=Samuel James|date=1914|publisher=J. Wiley & Sons, Incorporated|language=en}}</ref> Some others never form heartwood.

Heartwood is often visually distinct from the living sapwood and can be distinguished in a cross-section where the boundary will tend to follow the growth rings. For example, it is sometimes much darker. Other processes such as decay or insect invasion can also discolor wood, even in woody plants that do not form heartwood, which may lead to confusion.

'''Sapwood''' (or alburnum<ref name="Alburnum-1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Alburnum|volume=1|page=516|short=y}}</ref>) is the younger, outermost wood; in the growing tree it is living wood,<ref>Capon, Brian (2005), Botany for Gardeners (2nd ed.), Portland, OR: Timber Publishing, p. 65 {{ISBN|0-88192-655-8}}</ref> and its principal functions are to conduct water from the [[root]]s to the [[leaf|leaves]] and to store up and give back according to the season the reserves prepared in the leaves. By the time they become competent to conduct water, all xylem tracheids and vessels have lost their cytoplasm and the cells are therefore functionally dead. All wood in a tree is first formed as sapwood. The more leaves a tree bears and the more vigorous its growth, the larger the volume of sapwood required. Hence trees making rapid growth in the open have thicker sapwood for their size than trees of the same species growing in dense forests. Sometimes trees (of species that do form heartwood) grown in the open may become of considerable size, {{convert|30|cm|abbr=on}} or more in diameter, before any heartwood begins to form, for example, in second growth [[hickory]], or open-grown [[pine]]s.
[[File:Cross-section of an Oak Log Showing Growth Rings.jpg|thumb|Cross-section of an oak log showing growth rings]]

No definite relation exists between the annual rings of growth and the amount of sapwood. Within the same species the cross-sectional area of the sapwood is very roughly proportional to the size of the crown of the tree. If the rings are narrow, more of them are required than where they are wide. As the tree gets larger, the sapwood must necessarily become thinner or increase materially in volume. Sapwood is relatively thicker in the upper portion of the trunk of a tree than near the base, because the age and the diameter of the upper sections are less.

When a tree is very young it is covered with limbs almost, if not entirely, to the ground, but as it grows older some or all of them will eventually die and are either broken off or fall off. Subsequent growth of wood may completely conceal the stubs which will remain as knots. No matter how smooth and clear a log is on the outside, it is more or less knotty near the middle. Consequently, the sapwood of an old tree, and particularly of a forest-grown tree, will be freer from knots than the inner heartwood. Since in most uses of wood, knots are defects that weaken the timber and interfere with its ease of working and other properties, it follows that a given piece of sapwood, because of its position in the tree, may well be stronger than a piece of heartwood from the same tree.

Different pieces of wood cut from a large tree may differ decidedly, particularly if the tree is big and mature. In some trees, the wood laid on late in the life of a tree is softer, lighter, weaker, and more even textured than that produced earlier, but in other trees, the reverse applies. This may or may not correspond to heartwood and sapwood. In a large log the sapwood, because of the time in the life of the tree when it was grown, may be inferior in [[hardness]], [[strength of materials|strength]], and toughness to equally sound heartwood from the same log. In a smaller tree, the reverse may be true.

===Color===
[[File:Sequoia wood.jpg|thumb|The wood of [[Sequoia sempervirens|coast redwood]] is distinctively red.]]
In species which show a distinct difference between heartwood and sapwood the natural color of heartwood is usually darker than that of the sapwood, and very frequently the contrast is conspicuous (see section of yew log above). This is produced by deposits in the heartwood of chemical substances, so that a dramatic color variation does not imply a significant difference in the mechanical properties of heartwood and sapwood, although there may be a marked biochemical difference between the two.

Some experiments on very resinous [[longleaf pine]] specimens indicate an increase in strength, due to the [[resin]] which increases the strength when dry. Such resin-saturated heartwood is called "fat lighter". Structures built of fat lighter are almost impervious to rot and [[termite]]s, and very flammable. [[Tree stump]]s of old longleaf pines are often dug, split into small pieces and sold as kindling for fires. Stumps thus dug may actually remain a century or more since being cut. [[Spruce]] impregnated with crude resin and dried is also greatly increased in strength thereby.

Since the latewood of a growth ring is usually darker in color than the earlywood, this fact may be used in visually judging the density, and therefore the hardness and strength of the material. This is particularly the case with coniferous woods. In ring-porous woods the vessels of the early wood often appear on a finished surface as darker than the denser latewood, though on cross sections of heartwood the reverse is commonly true. Otherwise the color of wood is no indication of strength.

Abnormal discoloration of wood often denotes a diseased condition, indicating unsoundness. The black check in western [[Tsuga|hemlock]] is the result of insect attacks. The reddish-brown streaks so common in hickory and certain other woods are mostly the result of injury by birds. The discoloration is merely an indication of an injury, and in all probability does not of itself affect the properties of the wood. Certain [[wood-decay fungus|rot-producing fungi]] impart to wood characteristic colors which thus become symptomatic of weakness. Ordinary sap-staining is due to fungal growth, but does not necessarily produce a weakening effect.

===Water content===
Water occurs in living wood in three locations, namely:
* in the [[cell wall]]s
* in the [[protoplasm]]ic contents of the [[cell (biology)|cells]]
* as free water in the cell cavities and spaces, especially of the xylem
[[File:Hailwood-Horrobin EMC graph.svg|thumb|Equilibrium moisture content in wood.]]
In heartwood it occurs only in the first and last forms. Wood that is thoroughly air-dried (in [[Equilibrium moisture content#Equilibrium moisture content of wood|equilibrium]] with the moisture content of the air) retains 8–16% of the water in the cell walls, and none, or practically none, in the other forms. Even oven-dried wood retains a small percentage of moisture, but for all except chemical purposes, may be considered absolutely dry.

The general effect of the [[Water content#Wood moisture measurement|water content]] upon the wood substance is to render it softer and more pliable. A similar effect occurs in the softening action of water on rawhide, paper, or cloth. Within certain limits, the greater the water content, the greater its softening effect. The moisture in wood can be measured by several different [[moisture meter]]s.

[[Wood drying|Drying]] produces a decided increase in the strength of wood, particularly in small specimens. An extreme example is the case of a completely dry [[spruce]] block 5&nbsp;cm in section, which will sustain a permanent load four times as great as a green (undried) block of the same size will.

The greatest strength increase due to drying is in the ultimate crushing strength, and strength at [[yield (engineering)|elastic limit]] in endwise compression; these are followed by the modulus of rupture, and stress at elastic limit in cross-bending, while the [[elastic modulus|modulus of elasticity]] is least affected.<ref name="Record-1914"/>

===Structure===
[[File:BlkWalnut-x-section.jpg|thumb|upright|Magnified cross-section of [[Juglans nigra|black walnut]], showing the vessels, rays (white lines) and annual rings: this is intermediate between diffuse-porous and ring-porous, with vessel size declining gradually]]
Wood is a [[heterogeneous]], [[hygroscopic]], [[cell (biology)|cellular]] and [[anisotropy|anisotropic]] (or more specifically, [[Orthotropic material|orthotropic]]) material. It consists of cells, and the cell walls are composed of micro-fibrils of [[cellulose]] (40–50%) and [[hemicellulose]] (15–25%) impregnated with [[lignin]] (15–30%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://treetesting.com/wood_properties_growth_and_structure.htm|title=Wood Properties Growth and Structure 2015|work=treetesting.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313044617/http://treetesting.com/wood_properties_growth_and_structure.htm|archive-date=March 13, 2016}}</ref>

In coniferous or [[softwood]] species the wood cells are mostly of one kind, [[tracheid]]s, and as a result the material is much more uniform in structure than that of most [[hardwood]]s. There are no vessels ("pores") in coniferous wood such as one sees so prominently in oak and ash, for example.

The structure of hardwoods is more complex.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nationalvetcontent.edu.au/alfresco/d/d/workspace/SpacesStore/b2f0fcee-47cb-4650-b248-f533d73d5428/13_05/toolbox13_05/unit9_selecting_timber/section2_characteristics/lesson2_hardwood.htm|title=Timber Plus Toolbox, Selecting timber, Characteristics of timber, Structure of hardwoods|work=nationalvetcontent.edu.au|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810184152/https://nationalvetcontent.edu.au/alfresco/d/d/workspace/SpacesStore/b2f0fcee-47cb-4650-b248-f533d73d5428/13_05/toolbox13_05/unit9_selecting_timber/section2_characteristics/lesson2_hardwood.htm|archive-date=August 10, 2014}}</ref> The water conducting capability is mostly taken care of by [[vessel element|vessels]]: in some cases (oak, chestnut, ash) these are quite large and distinct, in others ([[Aesculus|buckeye]], [[Populus|poplar]], [[willow]]) too small to be seen without a hand lens. In discussing such woods it is customary to divide them into two large classes, ''ring-porous'' and ''diffuse-porous''.<ref name="Sperry-1994">{{cite journal |last=Sperry |first=John S. |author2=Nichols, Kirk L. |author3=Sullivan, June E. |author4=Eastlack, Sondra E. |title=Xylem Embolism in ring-porous, diffuse-porous, and coniferous trees of Northern Utah and Interior Alaska |journal=Ecology |date=1994 |volume=75 |issue=6 |pages=1736–1752 |jstor=1939633 |doi=10.2307/1939633 |bibcode=1994Ecol...75.1736S |url=http://bioweb.biology.utah.edu/sperry/publications/Sperry%20et%20al.%201994%20Ecology.pdf |access-date=November 30, 2018 |archive-date=August 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810100919/http://bioweb.biology.utah.edu/sperry/publications/Sperry%20et%20al.%201994%20Ecology.pdf }}</ref>

In ring-porous species, such as ash, black locust, [[catalpa]], chestnut, [[elm]], hickory, [[mulberry]], and oak,<ref name="Sperry-1994"/> the larger vessels or pores (as cross sections of vessels are called) are localized in the part of the growth ring formed in spring, thus forming a region of more or less open and porous tissue. The rest of the ring, produced in summer, is made up of smaller vessels and a much greater proportion of wood fibers. These fibers are the elements which give strength and toughness to wood, while the vessels are a source of weakness.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Record |first1=Samuel James |title=The Mechanical Properties of Wood, Including a Discussion of the Factors Affecting the Mechanical Properties, and Methods of Timber Testing |date=1914 |publisher=J. Wiley & sons, Incorporated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IbjPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA44 |language=en |access-date=March 20, 2023 |archive-date=September 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908234053/https://books.google.com/books?id=IbjPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA44 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In diffuse-porous woods the pores are evenly sized so that the water conducting capability is scattered throughout the growth ring instead of being collected in a band or row. Examples of this kind of wood are [[Alnus|alder]],<ref name="Sperry-1994"/> [[Tilia|basswood]],<ref name="SJRecord-1914">{{cite book|author=Samuel James Record|title=The mechanical properties of wood, including a discussion of the factors affecting the mechanical properties, and methods of timber testing|url=https://archive.org/details/mechanicalprope01recogoog|year=1914|publisher=J. Wiley & sons, inc.|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mechanicalprope01recogoog/page/n63 44]–}}</ref> [[birch]],<ref name="Sperry-1994"/> buckeye, maple, [[willow]], and the ''[[Populus]]'' species such as aspen, cottonwood and poplar.<ref name="Sperry-1994"/> Some species, such as [[Juglans nigra|walnut]] and [[Prunus pumila|cherry]], are on the border between the two classes, forming an intermediate group.<ref name="SJRecord-1914"/>

===Earlywood and latewood===

====In softwood====
[[File:Wood Pseudotsuga taxifolia.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Earlywood and latewood in a softwood; radial view, growth rings closely spaced in [[Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca|Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir]]]]
In temperate softwoods, there often is a marked difference between latewood and earlywood. The latewood will be denser than that formed early in the season. When examined under a microscope, the cells of dense latewood are seen to be very thick-walled and with very small cell cavities, while those formed first in the season have thin walls and large cell cavities. The strength is in the walls, not the cavities. Hence the greater the proportion of latewood, the greater the density and strength. In choosing a piece of pine where strength or stiffness is the important consideration, the principal thing to observe is the comparative amounts of earlywood and latewood. The width of ring is not nearly so important as the proportion and nature of the latewood in the ring.

If a heavy piece of pine is compared with a lightweight piece it will be seen at once that the heavier one contains a larger proportion of latewood than the other, and is therefore showing more clearly demarcated growth rings. In [[Pinus classification|white pines]] there is not much contrast between the different parts of the ring, and as a result the wood is very uniform in texture and is easy to work. In [[Pinus classification|hard pines]], on the other hand, the latewood is very dense and is deep-colored, presenting a very decided contrast to the soft, straw-colored earlywood.

It is not only the proportion of latewood, but also its quality, that counts. In specimens that show a very large proportion of latewood it may be noticeably more porous and weigh considerably less than the latewood in pieces that contain less latewood. One can judge comparative density, and therefore to some extent strength, by visual inspection.

No satisfactory explanation can as yet be given for the exact mechanisms determining the formation of earlywood and latewood. Several factors may be involved. In conifers, at least, rate of growth alone does not determine the proportion of the two portions of the ring, for in some cases the wood of slow growth is very hard and heavy, while in others the opposite is true. The quality of the site where the tree grows undoubtedly affects the character of the wood formed, though it is not possible to formulate a rule governing it. In general, where strength or ease of working is essential, woods of moderate to slow growth should be chosen.

====In ring-porous woods====
[[File:Wood Fraxinus excelsior.jpg|thumb|upright|Earlywood and latewood in a ring-porous wood (ash) in a ''[[Fraxinus excelsior]]''; tangential view, wide growth rings]]
In ring-porous woods, each season's growth is always well defined, because the large pores formed early in the season abut on the denser tissue of the year before.

In the case of the ring-porous hardwoods, there seems to exist a pretty definite relation between the rate of growth of timber and its properties. This may be briefly summed up in the general statement that the more rapid the growth or the wider the rings of growth, the heavier, harder, stronger, and stiffer the wood. This, it must be remembered, applies only to ring-porous woods such as oak, ash, hickory, and others of the same group, and is, of course, subject to some exceptions and limitations.

In ring-porous woods of good growth, it is usually the latewood in which the thick-walled, strength-giving fibers are most abundant. As the breadth of ring diminishes, this latewood is reduced so that very slow growth produces comparatively light, porous wood composed of thin-walled vessels and wood parenchyma. In good oak, these large vessels of the earlywood occupy from six to ten percent of the volume of the log, while in inferior material they may make up 25% or more. The latewood of good oak is dark colored and firm, and consists mostly of thick-walled fibers which form one-half or more of the wood. In inferior oak, this latewood is much reduced both in quantity and quality. Such variation is very largely the result of rate of growth.

Wide-ringed wood is often called "second-growth", because the growth of the young timber in open stands after the old trees have been removed is more rapid than in trees in a closed forest, and in the manufacture of articles where strength is an important consideration such "second-growth" hardwood material is preferred. This is particularly the case in the choice of hickory for handles and [[spoke]]s. Here not only strength, but toughness and resilience are important.<ref name="Record-1914"/>

The results of a series of tests on hickory by the U.S. Forest Service show that:
:"The work or shock-resisting ability is greatest in wide-ringed wood that has from 5 to 14 rings per inch (rings 1.8-5 mm thick), is fairly constant from 14 to 38 rings per inch (rings 0.7–1.8 mm thick), and decreases rapidly from 38 to 47 rings per inch (rings 0.5–0.7 mm thick). The strength at maximum load is not so great with the most rapid-growing wood; it is maximum with from 14 to 20 rings per inch (rings 1.3–1.8 mm thick), and again becomes less as the wood becomes more closely ringed. The natural deduction is that wood of first-class mechanical value shows from 5 to 20 rings per inch (rings 1.3–5 mm thick) and that slower growth yields poorer stock. Thus the inspector or buyer of hickory should discriminate against timber that has more than 20 rings per inch (rings less than 1.3 mm thick). Exceptions exist, however, in the case of normal growth upon dry situations, in which the slow-growing material may be strong and tough."<ref name="USDA_FPL-2007">U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Products Laboratory. ''[http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/fplgtr/fplgtr113/fplgtr113.htm The Wood Handbook: Wood as an engineering material] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070315214043/http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/fplgtr/fplgtr113/fplgtr113.htm |date=March 15, 2007 }}''. General Technical Report 113. Madison, WI.</ref>

The effect of rate of growth on the qualities of chestnut wood is summarized by the same authority as follows:

:"When the rings are wide, the transition from spring wood to summer wood is gradual, while in the narrow rings the spring wood passes into summer wood abruptly. The width of the spring wood changes but little with the width of the annual ring, so that the narrowing or broadening of the annual ring is always at the expense of the summer wood. The narrow vessels of the summer wood make it richer in wood substance than the spring wood composed of wide vessels. Therefore, rapid-growing specimens with wide rings have more wood substance than slow-growing trees with narrow rings. Since the more the wood substance the greater the weight, and the greater the weight the stronger the wood, chestnuts with wide rings must have stronger wood than chestnuts with narrow rings. This agrees with the accepted view that sprouts (which always have wide rings) yield better and stronger wood than seedling chestnuts, which grow more slowly in diameter."<ref name="USDA_FPL-2007"/>

====In diffuse-porous woods====
In the diffuse-porous woods, the demarcation between rings is not always so clear and in some cases is almost (if not entirely) invisible to the unaided eye. Conversely, when there is a clear demarcation there may not be a noticeable difference in structure within the growth ring.

In diffuse-porous woods, as has been stated, the vessels or pores are even-sized, so that the water conducting capability is scattered throughout the ring instead of collected in the earlywood. The effect of rate of growth is, therefore, not the same as in the ring-porous woods, approaching more nearly the conditions in the conifers. In general, it may be stated that such woods of medium growth afford stronger material than when very rapidly or very slowly grown. In many uses of wood, total strength is not the main consideration. If ease of working is prized, wood should be chosen with regard to its uniformity of texture and straightness of grain, which will in most cases occur when there is little contrast between the latewood of one season's growth and the earlywood of the next.

===Monocots===
[[File:Gelugu (coconut wood) in Klaten, Java.jpg|thumb|Trunks of the [[coconut]] palm, a monocot, in [[Java]]. From this perspective these look not much different from trunks of a [[dicot]] or [[conifer]]]]
Structural material that resembles ordinary, "dicot" or conifer timber in its gross handling characteristics is produced by a number of [[monocotyledon|monocot]] plants, and these also are colloquially called wood. Of these, [[bamboo]], botanically a member of the grass family, has considerable economic importance, larger culms being widely used as a building and construction material and in the manufacture of engineered flooring, panels and [[Wood veneer|veneer]]. Another major plant group that produces material that often is called wood are the [[Arecaceae|palms]]. Of much less importance are plants such as ''[[Pandanus]],'' ''[[Dracaena (plant)|Dracaena]]'' and ''[[Cordyline]].'' With all this material, the structure and composition of the processed raw material is quite different from ordinary wood.

===Specific gravity===
The single most revealing property of wood as an indicator of wood quality is [[Relative density|specific gravity]] (Timell 1986),<ref name="Timell-1986">Timell, T.E. 1986. Compression wood in gymnosperms. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 2150 p.</ref> as both pulp yield and lumber strength are determined by it. Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of an equal volume of water; density is the ratio of a mass of a quantity of a substance to the volume of that quantity and is expressed in mass per unit substance, e.g., grams per milliliter (g/cm<sup>3</sup> or g/ml). The terms are essentially equivalent as long as the metric system is used. Upon drying, wood shrinks and its density increases. Minimum values are associated with green (water-saturated) wood and are referred to as ''basic specific gravity'' (Timell 1986).<ref name="Timell-1986" />

The U.S. [[Forest Products Laboratory]] lists a variety of ways to define specific gravity (G) and density (ρ) for wood:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wood Handbook: Chapter 4: Moisture Relations and Physical Properties of Wood |url=https://www.fpl.fs.usda.gov/documnts/fplgtr/fplgtr282/chapter_04_fpl_gtr282.pdf |publisher=U.S. Forest Products Laboratory |access-date=September 10, 2023 |archive-date=December 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230131945/https://www.fpl.fs.usda.gov/documnts/fplgtr/fplgtr282/chapter_04_fpl_gtr282.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!Symbol
!Mass basis
!Volume basis
|-
|G<sub>0</sub>
|Ovendry
|Ovendry
|-
|G<sub>b</sub> (basic)
|Ovendry
|Green
|-
|G<sub>12</sub>
|Ovendry
|12% MC
|-
|G<sub>x</sub>
|Ovendry
|x% MC
|-
|ρ<sub>0</sub>
|Ovendry
|Ovendry
|-
|ρ<sub>12</sub>
|12% MC
|12% MC
|-
|ρ<sub>x</sub>
|x% MC
|x% MC
|}
The FPL has adopted G<sub>b</sub> and G<sub>12</sub> for specific gravity, in accordance with the [[ASTM International|ASTM]] D2555<ref>{{Cite web |title=Standard Practice for Establishing Clear Wood Strength Values |url=https://www.astm.org/d2555-17a.html |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=www.astm.org |language=en |archive-date=April 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401232343/https://www.astm.org/d2555-17a.html |url-status=live }}</ref> standard. These are scientifically useful, but don't represent any condition that could physically occur. The FPL Wood Handbook also provides formulas for approximately converting any of these measurements to any other.

===Density===

{{See also|Janka hardness test}}

Wood density is determined by multiple growth and physiological factors compounded into "one fairly easily measured wood characteristic" (Elliott 1970).<ref name="Elliott-1970">Elliott, G.K. 1970. Wood density in conifers. Commonwealth For. Bureau, Oxford, U.K., Tech. Commun. 8. 44 p.</ref>

Age, diameter, height, radial (trunk) growth, geographical location, site and growing conditions, [[silviculture|silvicultural]] treatment, and seed source all to some degree influence wood density. Variation is to be expected. Within an individual tree, the variation in wood density is often as great as or even greater than that between different trees (Timell 1986).<ref name="Timell-1986" /> Variation of specific gravity within the [[trunk (botany)|bole]] of a tree can occur in either the horizontal or vertical direction.

Because the specific gravity as defined above uses an unrealistic condition, woodworkers tend to use the "average dried weight", which is a density based on mass at 12% moisture content and volume at the same (ρ<sub>12</sub>). This condition occurs when the wood is at equilibrium moisture content with air at about 65% relative humidity and temperature at 30&nbsp;°C (86&nbsp;°F). This density is expressed in units of kg/m<sup>3</sup> or lbs/ft<sup>3</sup>. If you know the specific gravity at 12% MC, G<sub>12</sub> (from the Wood Handbook), then multiply by 1120 to get the average dried weight at 12% MC, ρ<sub>12</sub>, in kg/m<sup>3</sup>. For example, if G<sub>12</sub> is 0.40, then average dried weight is ρ<sub>12</sub> = 0.40 * 1120 = 448 kg/m<sup>3</sup>. You can also find values for dried weight in two other FPL publications, Hardwoods of North America<ref>{{Cite book |last=Alden |first=Harry A. |url=https://www.fpl.fs.usda.gov/documnts/fplgtr/fplgtr83.pdf |title=Hardwoods of North America, General Technical Report FPL-GTR-83 |date=September 1995 |publisher=Forest Products Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture}}</ref> and Softwoods of North America.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Alden |first=Harry A. |url=https://www.fpl.fs.usda.gov/documnts/fplgtr/fplgtr102.pdf |title=Softwoods of North America, General Technical Report FPL-GTR-102 |date=September 1997 |publisher=Forest Products Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture}}</ref> 

===Tables===
The following tables list the mechanical properties of wood and lumber plant species, including bamboo. See also [[Tonewood#Mechanical properties of tonewoods|Mechanical properties of tonewoods]] for additional properties.

Wood properties:<ref>{{Cite tech report |first=D.W. |last=Green |first2=J.E. |last2=Winandy |first3=D.E. |last3=Kretschmann |chapter=4. Mechanical Properties of Wood |chapter-url=https://www.fpl.fs.usda.gov/documnts/fplgtr/fplgtr113/ch04.pdf |title=Wood handbook: Wood as an engineering material |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory |year=1999 |id=FPL–GTR–113 |pages=463 |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/treesearch/5734 |doi=10.2737/FPL-GTR-113|hdl=2027/mdp.39015000158041 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="pfaf-2019" />
{|class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed sortable"
!'''Common name'''
!'''Scientific name'''
!'''Moisture content'''
!'''Density (kg/m<sup>3</sup>)'''
!'''Compressive strength (megapascals)'''
!'''Flexural strength (megapascals)'''
|-
|Red Alder
|''[[Alnus rubra]]''
|Green
|370
|20.4
|45
|-
|Red Alder
|''[[Alnus rubra]]''
|12.00%
|410
|40.1
|68
|-
|Black Ash
|''[[Fraxinus nigra]]''
|Green
|450
|15.9
|41
|-
|Black Ash
|''[[Fraxinus nigra]]''
|12.00%
|490
|41.2
|87
|-
|Blue Ash
|''[[Fraxinus quadrangulata]]''
|Green
|530
|24.8
|66
|-
|Blue Ash
|''[[Fraxinus quadrangulata]]''
|12.00%
|580
|48.1
|95
|-
|Green Ash
|''[[Fraxinus pennsylvanica]]''
|Green
|530
|29
|66
|-
|Green Ash
|''[[Fraxinus pennsylvanica]]''
|12.00%
|560
|48.8
|97
|-
|Oregon Ash
|''[[Fraxinus latifolia]]''
|Green
|500
|24.2
|52
|-
|Oregon Ash
|''[[Fraxinus latifolia]]''
|12.00%
|550
|41.6
|88
|-
|White Ash
|''[[Fraxinus americana]]''
|Green
|550
|27.5
|66
|-
|White Ash
|''[[Fraxinus americana]]''
|12.00%
|600
|51.1
|103
|-
|Bigtooth Aspen
|''[[Populus grandidentata]]''
|Green
|360
|17.2
|37
|-
|Bigtooth Aspen
|''[[Populus grandidentata]]''
|12.00%
|390
|36.5
|63
|-
|Quaking Aspen
|''[[Populus tremuloides]]''
|Green
|350
|14.8
|35
|-
|Quaking Aspen
|''[[Populus tremuloides]]''
|12.00%
|380
|29.3
|58
|-
|American Basswood
|''[[Tilia americana]]''
|Green
|320
|15.3
|34
|-
|American Basswood
|''[[Tilia americana]]''
|12.00%
|370
|32.6
|60
|-
|American Beech
|''[[Fagus grandifolia]]''
|Green
|560
|24.5
|59
|-
|American Beech
|''[[Fagus grandifolia]]''
|12.00%
|640
|50.3
|103
|-
|Paper Birch
|''[[Betula papyrifera]]''
|Green
|480
|16.3
|44
|-
|Paper Birch
|''[[Betula papyrifera]]''
|12.00%
|550
|39.2
|85
|-
|Sweet Birch
|''[[Betula lenta]]''
|Green
|600
|25.8
|65
|-
|Sweet Birch
|''[[Betula lenta]]''
|12.00%
|650
|58.9
|117
|-
|Yellow Birch
|''[[Betula alleghaniensis]]''
|Green
|550
|23.3
|57
|-
|Yellow Birch
|''[[Betula alleghaniensis]]''
|12.00%
|620
|56.3
|114
|-
|Butternut
|''[[Juglans cinerea]]''
|Green
|360
|16.7
|37
|-
|Butternut
|''[[Juglans cinerea]]''
|12.00%
|380
|36.2
|56
|-
|Black Cherry
|''[[Prunus serotina]]''
|Green
|470
|24.4
|55
|-
|Blach Cherry
|''[[Prunus serotina]]''
|12.00%
|500
|49
|85
|-
|American Chestnut
|''[[American chestnut|Castanea dentata]]''
|Green
|400
|17
|39
|-
|American Chestnut
|''[[American chestnut|Castanea dentata]]''
|12.00%
|430
|36.7
|59
|-
|Balsam Poplar Cottonwood
|''[[Populus balsamifera]]''
|Green
|310
|11.7
|27
|-
|Balsam Poplar Cottonwood
|''[[Populus balsamifera]]''
|12.00%
|340
|27.7
|47
|-
|Black Cottonwood
|''[[Populus trichocarpa]]''
|Green
|310
|15.2
|34
|-
|Black Cottonwood
|''[[Populus trichocarpa]]''
|12.00%
|350
|31
|59
|-
|Eastern Cottonwood
|''[[Populus deltoides]]''
|Green
|370
|15.7
|37
|-
|Eastern Cottonwood
|''[[Populus deltoides]]''
|12.00%
|400
|33.9
|59
|-
|American Elm
|''[[Ulmus americana]]''
|Green
|460
|20.1
|50
|-
|American Elm
|''[[Ulmus americana]]''
|12.00%
|500
|38.1
|81
|-
|Rock Elm
|''[[Ulmus thomasii]]''
|Green
|570
|26.1
|66
|-
|Rock Elm
|''[[Ulmus thomasii]]''
|12.00%
|630
|48.6
|102
|-
|Slippery Elm
|''[[Ulmus rubra]]''
|Green
|480
|22.9
|55
|-
|Slippery Elm
|''[[Ulmus rubra]]''
|12.00%
|530
|43.9
|90
|-
|Hackberry
|''[[Celtis occidentalis]]''
|Green
|490
|18.3
|45
|-
|Hackberry
|''[[Celtis occidentalis]]''
|12.00%
|530
|37.5
|76
|-
|Bitternut Hickory
|''[[Carya cordiformis]]''
|Green
|600
|31.5
|71
|-
|Bitternut Hickory
|''[[Carya cordiformis]]''
|12.00%
|660
|62.3
|118
|-
|Nutmeg Hickory
|''[[Carya myristiciformis]]''
|Green
|560
|27.4
|63
|-
|Nutmeg Hickory
|''[[Carya myristiciformis]]''
|12.00%
|600
|47.6
|114
|-
|Pecan Hickory
|''[[Carya illinoinensis]]''
|Green
|600
|27.5
|68
|-
|Pecan Hickory
|''[[Carya illinoinensis]]''
|12.00%
|660
|54.1
|94
|-
|Water Hickory
|''[[Carya aquatica]]''
|Green
|610
|32.1
|74
|-
|Water Hickory
|''[[Carya aquatica]]''
|12.00%
|620
|59.3
|123
|-
|Mockernut Hickory
|''[[Carya tomentosa]]''
|Green
|640
|30.9
|77
|-
|Mockernut Hickory
|''[[Carya tomentosa]]''
|12.00%
|720
|61.6
|132
|-
|Pignut Hickory
|''[[Carya glabra]]''
|Green
|660
|33.2
|81
|-
|Pignut Hickory
|''[[Carya glabra]]''
|12.00%
|750
|63.4
|139
|-
|Shagbark Hickory
|''[[Carya ovata]]''
|Green
|640
|31.6
|76
|-
|Shagbark Hickory
|''[[Carya ovata]]''
|12.00%
|720
|63.5
|139
|-
|Shellbark Hickory
|''[[Carya laciniosa]]''
|Green
|620
|27
|72
|-
|Shellbark Hickory
|''[[Carya laciniosa]]''
|12.00%
|690
|55.2
|125
|-
|Honeylocust
|''[[Gleditsia triacanthos]]''
|Green
|600
|30.5
|70
|-
|Honeylocust
|''[[Gleditsia triacanthos]]''
|12.00%
|600
|51.7
|101
|-
|Black Locust
|''[[Robinia pseudoacacia]]''
|Green
|660
|46.9
|95
|-
|Black Locust
|''[[Robinia pseudoacacia]]''
|12.00%
|690
|70.2
|134
|-
|Cucumber Tree Magnolia
|''[[Magnolia acuminata]]''
|Green
|440
|21.6
|51
|-
|Cucumber Tree Magnolia
|''[[Magnolia acuminata]]''
|12.00%
|480
|43.5
|85
|-
|Southern Magnolia
|''[[Magnolia grandiflora]]''
|Green
|460
|18.6
|47
|-
|Southern Magnolia
|''[[Magnolia grandiflora]]''
|12.00%
|500
|37.6
|77
|-
|Bigleaf Maple
|''[[Acer macrophyllum]]''
|Green
|440
|22.3
|51
|-
|Bigleaf Maple
|''[[Acer macrophyllum]]''
|12.00%
|480
|41
|74
|-
|Black Maple
|''[[Acer nigrum]]''
|Green
|520
|22.5
|54
|-
|Black Maple
|''[[Acer nigrum]]''
|12.00%
|570
|46.1
|92
|-
|Red Maple
|''[[Acer rubrum]]''
|Green
|490
|22.6
|53
|-
|Red Maple
|''[[Acer rubrum]]''
|12.00%
|540
|45.1
|92
|-
|Silver Maple
|''[[Acer saccharinum]]''
|Green
|440
|17.2
|40
|-
|Silver Maple
|''[[Acer saccharinum]]''
|12.00%
|470
|36
|61
|-
|Sugar Maple
|''[[Acer saccharum]]''
|Green
|560
|27.7
|65
|-
|Sugar Maple
|''[[Acer saccharum]]''
|12.00%
|630
|54
|109
|-
|Black Red Oak
|''[[Quercus velutina]]''
|Green
|560
|23.9
|57
|-
|Black Red Oak
|''[[Quercus velutina]]''
|12.00%
|610
|45
|96
|-
|Cherrybark Red Oak
|''[[Quercus pagoda]]''
|Green
|610
|31.9
|74
|-
|Cherrybark Red Oak
|''[[Quercus pagoda]]''
|12.00%
|680
|60.3
|125
|-
|Laurel Red Oak
|''[[Quercus hemisphaerica]]''
|Green
|560
|21.9
|54
|-
|Laurel Red Oak
|''[[Quercus hemisphaerica]]''
|12.00%
|630
|48.1
|87
|-
|Northern Red Oak
|''[[Quercus rubra]]''
|Green
|560
|23.7
|57
|-
|Northern Red Oak
|''[[Quercus rubra]]''
|12.00%
|630
|46.6
|99
|-
|Pin Red Oak
|''[[Quercus palustris]]''
|Green
|580
|25.4
|57
|-
|Pin Red Oak
|''[[Quercus palustris]]''
|12.00%
|630
|47
|97
|-
|Scarlet Red Oak
|''[[Quercus coccinea]]''
|Green
|600
|28.2
|72
|-
|Scarlet Red Oak
|''[[Quercus coccinea]]''
|12.00%
|670
|57.4
|120
|-
|Southern Red Oak
|''[[Quercus falcata]]''
|Green
|520
|20.9
|48
|-
|Southern Red Oak
|''[[Quercus falcata]]''
|12.00%
|590
|42
|75
|-
|Water Red Oak
|''[[Quercus nigra]]''
|Green
|560
|25.8
|61
|-
|Water Red Oak
|''[[Quercus nigra]]''
|12.00%
|630
|46.7
|106
|-
|Willow Red Oak
|''[[Quercus phellos]]''
|Green
|560
|20.7
|51
|-
|Willow Red Oak
|''[[Quercus phellos]]''
|12.00%
|690
|48.5
|100
|-
|Bur White Oak
|''[[Quercus macrocarpa]]''
|Green
|580
|22.7
|50
|-
|Bur White Oak
|''[[Quercus macrocarpa]]''
|12.00%
|640
|41.8
|71
|-
|Chestnut White Oak
|''[[Quercus montana]]''
|Green
|570
|24.3
|55
|-
|Chestnut White Oak
|''[[Quercus montana]]''
|12.00%
|660
|47.1
|92
|-
|Live White Oak
|''[[Quercus virginiana]]''
|Green
|800
|37.4
|82
|-
|Live White Oak
|''[[Quercus virginiana]]''
|12.00%
|880
|61.4
|127
|-
|Overcup White Oak
|''[[Quercus lyrata]]''
|Green
|570
|23.2
|55
|-
|Overcup White Oak
|''[[Quercus lyrata]]''
|12.00%
|630
|42.7
|87
|-
|Post White Oak
|''[[Quercus stellata]]''
|Green
|600
|24
|56
|-
|Post White Oak
|''[[Quercus stellata]]''
|12.00%
|670
|45.3
|91
|-
|Swamp Chestnut White Oak
|''[[Quercus michauxii]]''
|Green
|600
|24.4
|59
|-
|Swamp Chestnut White Oak
|''[[Quercus michauxii]]''
|12.00%
|670
|50.1
|96
|-
|Swamp White Oak
|''[[Quercus bicolor]]''
|Green
|640
|30.1
|68
|-
|Swamp White Oak
|''[[Quercus bicolor]]''
|12.00%
|720
|59.3
|122
|-
|White Oak
|''[[Quercus alba]]''
|Green
|600
|24.5
|57
|-
|White Oak
|''[[Quercus alba]]''
|12.00%
|680
|51.3
|105
|-
|Sassafras
|''[[Sassafras albidum]]''
|Green
|420
|18.8
|41
|-
|Sassafras
|''[[Sassafras albidum]]''
|12.00%
|460
|32.8
|62
|-
|Sweetgum
|''[[Liquidambar styraciflua]]''
|Green
|460
|21
|49
|-
|Sweetgum
|''[[Liquidambar styraciflua]]''
|12.00%
|520
|43.6
|86
|-
|American Sycamore
|''[[Platanus occidentalis]]''
|Green
|460
|20.1
|45
|-
|American Sycamore
|''[[Platanus occidentalis]]''
|12.00%
|490
|37.1
|69
|-
|Tanoak
|''[[Notholithocarpus densiflorus]]''
|Green
|580
|32.1
|72
|-
|Tanoak
|''[[Notholithocarpus densiflorus]]''
|12.00%
|580
|32.1
|72
|-
|Black Tupelo
|''[[Nyssa sylvatica]]''
|Green
|460
|21
|48
|-
|Black Tupelo
|''[[Nyssa sylvatica]]''
|12.00%
|500
|38.1
|66
|-
|Water Tupelo
|''[[Nyssa aquatica]]''
|Green
|460
|23.2
|50
|-
|Water Tupelo
|''[[Nyssa aquatica]]''
|12.00%
|500
|40.8
|66
|-
|Black Walnut
|''[[Juglans nigra]]''
|Green
|510
|29.6
|66
|-
|Black Walnut
|''[[Juglans nigra]]''
|12.00%
|550
|52.3
|101
|-
|Black Willow
|''[[Salix nigra]]''
|Green
|360
|14.1
|33
|-
|Black Willow
|''[[Salix nigra]]''
|12.00%
|390
|28.3
|54
|-
|Yellow Poplar
|''[[Liriodendron tulipifera]]''
|Green
|400
|18.3
|41
|-
|Yellow Poplar
|''[[Liriodendron tulipifera]]''
|12.00%
|420
|38.2
|70
|-
|Baldcypress
|''[[Taxodium distichum]]''
|Green
|420
|24.7
|46
|-
|Baldcypress
|''[[Taxodium distichum]]''
|12.00%
|460
|43.9
|73
|-
|Atlantic White Cedar
|''[[Chamaecyparis thyoides]]''
|Green
|310
|16.5
|32
|-
|Atlantic White Cedar
|''[[Chamaecyparis thyoides]]''
|12.00%
|320
|32.4
|47
|-
|Eastern Redcedar
|''[[Juniperus virginiana]]''
|Green
|440
|24.6
|48
|-
|Eastern Redcedar
|''[[Juniperus virginiana]]''
|12.00%
|470
|41.5
|61
|-
|Incense Cedar
|''[[Calocedrus decurrens]]''
|Green
|350
|21.7
|43
|-
|Incense Cedar
|''[[Calocedrus decurrens]]''
|12.00%
|370
|35.9
|55
|-
|Northern White Cedar
|''[[Thuja occidentalis]]''
|Green
|290
|13.7
|29
|-
|Northern White Cedar
|''[[Thuja occidentalis]]''
|12.00%
|310
|27.3
|45
|-
|Port Orford Cedar
|''[[Chamaecyparis lawsoniana]]''
|Green
|390
|21.6
|45
|-
|Port Orford Cedar
|''[[Chamaecyparis lawsoniana]]''
|12.00%
|430
|43.1
|88
|-
|Western Redcedar
|''[[Thuja plicata]]''
|Green
|310
|19.1
|35.9
|-
|Western Redcedar
|''[[Thuja plicata]]''
|12.00%
|320
|31.4
|51.7
|-
|Yellow Cedar
|''[[Cupressus nootkatensis]]''
|Green
|420
|21
|44
|-
|Yellow Cedar
|''[[Cupressus nootkatensis]]''
|12.00%
|440
|43.5
|77
|-
|Coast Douglas Fir
|''[[Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii]]''
|Green
|450
|26.1
|53
|-
|Coast Douglas Fir
|''[[Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii]]''
|12.00%
|480
|49.9
|85
|-
|Interior West Douglas Fir
|''[[Pseudotsuga menziesii|Pseudotsuga Menziesii]]''
|Green
|460
|26.7
|53
|-
|Interior West Douglas Fir
|''[[Pseudotsuga menziesii|Pseudotsuga Menziesii]]''
|12.00%
|500
|51.2
|87
|-
|Interior North Douglas Fir
|''[[Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca]]''
|Green
|450
|23.9
|51
|-
|Interior North Douglas Fir
|''[[Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca]]''
|12.00%
|480
|47.6
|90
|-
|Interior South Douglas Fir
|''[[Pseudotsuga lindleyana]]''
|Green
|430
|21.4
|47
|-
|Interior South Douglas Fir
|''[[Pseudotsuga lindleyana]]''
|12.00%
|460
|43
|82
|-
|Balsam Fir
|''[[Abies balsamea]]''
|Green
|330
|18.1
|38
|-
|Balsam Fir
|''[[Abies balsamea]]''
|12.00%
|350
|36.4
|63
|-
|California Red Fir
|''[[Abies magnifica]]''
|Green
|360
|19
|40
|-
|California Red Fir
|''[[Abies magnifica]]''
|12.00%
|380
|37.6
|72.4
|-
|Grand Fir
|''[[Abies grandis]]''
|Green
|350
|20.3
|40
|-
|Grand Fir
|''[[Abies grandis]]''
|12.00%
|370
|36.5
|61.4
|-
|Noble Fir
|''[[Abies procera]]''
|Green
|370
|20.8
|43
|-
|Noble Fir
|''[[Abies procera]]''
|12.00%
|390
|42.1
|74
|-
|Pacific Silver Fir
|''[[Abies amabilis]]''
|Green
|400
|21.6
|44
|-
|Pacific Silver Fir
|''[[Abies amabilis]]''
|12.00%
|430
|44.2
|75
|-
|Subalpine Fir
|''[[Abies lasiocarpa]]''
|Green
|310
|15.9
|34
|-
|Subalpine Fir
|''[[Abies lasiocarpa]]''
|12.00%
|320
|33.5
|59
|-
|White Fir
|''[[Abies concolor]]''
|Green
|370
|20
|41
|-
|White Fir
|''[[Abies concolor]]''
|12.00%
|390
|40
|68
|-
|Eastern Hemlock
|''[[Tsuga canadensis]]''
|Green
|380
|21.2
|44
|-
|Eastern Hemlock
|''[[Tsuga canadensis]]''
|12.00%
|400
|37.3
|61
|-
|Mountain Hemlock
|''[[Tsuga mertensiana]]''
|Green
|420
|19.9
|43
|-
|Mountain Hemlock
|''[[Tsuga mertensiana]]''
|12.00%
|450
|44.4
|79
|-
|Western Hemlock
|''[[Tsuga heterophylla]]''
|Green
|420
|23.2
|46
|-
|Western Hemlock
|''[[Tsuga heterophylla]]''
|12.00%
|450
|49
|78
|-
|Western Larch
|''[[Larix occidentalis]]''
|Green
|480
|25.9
|53
|-
|Western Larch
|''[[Larix occidentalis]]''
|12.00%
|520
|52.5
|90
|-
|Eastern White Pine
|''[[Pinus strobus]]''
|Green
|340
|16.8
|34
|-
|Eastern White Pine
|''[[Pinus strobus]]''
|12.00%
|350
|33.1
|59
|-
|Jack Pine
|''[[Jack pine|Pinus banksiana]]''
|Green
|400
|20.3
|41
|-
|Jack Pine
|''[[Jack pine|Pinus banksiana]]''
|12.00%
|430
|39
|68
|-
|Loblolly Pine
|''[[Pinus taeda]]''
|Green
|470
|24.2
|50
|-
|Loblolly Pine
|''[[Pinus taeda]]''
|12.00%
|510
|49.2
|88
|-
|Lodgepole Pine
|''[[Pinus contorta]]''
|Green
|380
|18
|38
|-
|Lodgepole Pine
|''[[Pinus contorta]]''
|12.00%
|410
|37
|65
|-
|Longleaf Pine
|''[[Longleaf pine|Pinus palustris]]''
|Green
|540
|29.8
|59
|-
|Longleaf Pine
|''[[Longleaf pine|Pinus palustris]]''
|12.00%
|590
|58.4
|100
|-
|Pitch Pine
|''[[Pinus rigida]]''
|Green
|470
|20.3
|47
|-
|Pitch Pine
|''[[Pinus rigida]]''
|12.00%
|520
|41
|74
|-
|Pond Pine
|''[[Pinus serotina]]''
|Green
|510
|25.2
|51
|-
|Pond Pine
|''[[Pinus serotina]]''
|12.00%
|560
|52
|80
|-
|Ponderosa Pine
|''[[Pinus ponderosa]]''
|Green
|380
|16.9
|35
|-
|Ponderosa Pine
|''[[Pinus ponderosa]]''
|12.00%
|400
|36.7
|65
|-
|Red Pine
|''[[Pinus resinosa]]''
|Green
|410
|18.8
|40
|-
|Red Pine
|''[[Pinus resinosa]]''
|12.00%
|460
|41.9
|76
|-
|Sand Pine
|''[[Pinus clausa]]''
|Green
|460
|23.7
|52
|-
|Sand Pine
|''[[Pinus clausa]]''
|12.00%
|480
|47.7
|80
|-
|Shortleaf Pine
|''[[Pinus echinata]]''
|Green
|470
|24.3
|51
|-
|Shortleaf Pine
|''[[Pinus echinata]]''
|12.00%
|510
|50.1
|90
|-
|Slash Pine
|''[[Pinus elliottii]]''
|Green
|540
|26.3
|60
|-
|Slash Pine
|''[[Pinus elliottii]]''
|12.00%
|590
|56.1
|112
|-
|Spruce Pine
|''[[Pinus glabra]]''
|Green
|410
|19.6
|41
|-
|Spruce Pine
|''[[Pinus glabra]]''
|12.00%
|440
|39
|72
|-
|Sugar Pine
|''[[Pinus lambertiana]]''
|Green
|340
|17
|34
|-
|Sugar Pine
|''[[Pinus lambertiana]]''
|12.00%
|360
|30.8
|57
|-
|Virginia Pine
|''[[Pinus virginiana]]''
|Green
|450
|23.6
|50
|-
|Virginia Pine
|''[[Pinus virginiana]]''
|12.00%
|480
|46.3
|90
|-
|Western White Pine
|''[[Pinus monticola]]''
|Green
|360
|16.8
|32
|-
|Western White Pine
|''[[Pinus monticola]]''
|12.00%
|380
|34.7
|67
|-
|Redwood Old Growth
|''[[Sequoia sempervirens]]''
|Green
|380
|29
|52
|-
|Redwood Old Growth
|''[[Sequoia sempervirens]]''
|12.00%
|400
|42.4
|69
|-
|Redwood New Growth
|''[[Sequoia sempervirens]]''
|Green
|340
|21.4
|41
|-
|Redwood New Growth
|''[[Sequoia sempervirens]]''
|12.00%
|350
|36
|54
|-
|Black Spruce
|''[[Picea mariana]]''
|Green
|380
|19.6
|42
|-
|Black Spruce
|''[[Picea mariana]]''
|12.00%
|460
|41.1
|74
|-
|Engelmann Spruce
|''[[Picea engelmannii]]''
|Green
|330
|15
|32
|-
|Engelmann Spruce
|''[[Picea engelmannii]]''
|12.00%
|350
|30.9
|64
|-
|Red Spruce
|''[[Picea rubens]]''
|Green
|370
|18.8
|41
|-
|Red Spruce
|''[[Picea rubens]]''
|12.00%
|400
|38.2
|74
|-
|Sitka Spruce
|''[[Picea sitchensis]]''
|Green
|330
|16.2
|34
|-
|Sitka Spruce
|''[[Picea sitchensis]]''
|12.00%
|360
|35.7
|65
|-
|White Spruce
|''[[Picea glauca]]''
|Green
|370
|17.7
|39
|-
|White Spruce
|''[[Picea glauca]]''
|12.00%
|400
|37.7
|68
|-
|Tamarack Spruce
|''[[Larix laricina]]''
|Green
|490
|24
|50
|-
|Tamarack Spruce
|''[[Larix laricina]]''
|12.00%
|530
|49.4
|80
|}
Bamboo properties:<ref>{{Cite web|title=What are the mechanical properties of bamboo|url=https://doorstain.com/blog/news/what-are-the-mechanical-properties-of-bamboo/|access-date=2023-08-22|website=www.DoorStain.com|date=August 22, 2023 |archive-date=August 22, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822211225/https://doorstain.com/blog/news/what-are-the-mechanical-properties-of-bamboo/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="pfaf-2019">{{Cite web|url=https://pfaf.org/user/Default.aspx|title=PFAF|website=pfaf.org|access-date=2019-11-03|archive-date=October 24, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024204115/https://pfaf.org/user/default.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed sortable"
!'''Common name'''
!'''Scientific name'''
!'''Moisture content'''
!'''Density (kg/m<sup>3</sup>)'''
!'''Compressive strength (megapascals)'''
!'''Flexural strength (megapascals)'''
|-
|Balku bans
|''[[Bambusa balcooa]]''
|green
|
|45
|73.7
|-
|Balku bans
|''[[Bambusa balcooa]]''
|air dry
|
|54.15
|81.1
|-
|Balku bans
|''[[Bambusa balcooa]]''
|8.5
|820
|69
|151
|-
|Indian thorny bamboo
|''[[Bambusa bambos]]''
|9.5
|710
|61
|143
|-
|Indian thorny bamboo
|''[[Bambusa bambos]]''
|
|
|43.05
|37.15
|-
|Nodding Bamboo
|''[[Bambusa nutans]]''
|8
|890
|75
|52.9
|-
|Nodding Bamboo
|''[[Bambusa nutans]]''
|87
|
|46
|52.4
|-
|Nodding Bamboo
|''[[Bambusa nutans]]''
|12
|
|85
|67.5
|-
|Nodding Bamboo
|''[[Bambusa nutans]]''
|88.3
|
|44.7
|88
|-
|Nodding Bamboo
|''[[Bambusa nutans]]''
|14
|
|47.9
|216
|-
|Clumping Bamboo
|''[[Bambusa pervariabilis]]''
|
|
|45.8
|
|-
|Clumping Bamboo
|''[[Bambusa pervariabilis]]''
|5
|
|79
|80
|-
|Clumping Bamboo
|''[[Bambusa pervariabilis]]''
|20
|
|35
|37
|-
|Burmese bamboo
|''[[Bambusa polymorpha]]''
|95.1
|
|32.1
|28.3
|-
|
|''[[Bambusa spinosa]]''
|air dry
|
|57
|51.77
|-
|Indian timber bamboo
|''[[Bambusa tulda]]''
|73.6
|
|40.7
|51.1
|-
|Indian timber bamboo
|''[[Bambusa tulda]]''
|11.9
|
|68
|66.7
|-
|Indian timber bamboo
|''[[Bambusa tulda]]''
|8.6
|910
|79
|194
|-
|dragon bamboo
|''[[Dendrocalamus giganteus]]''
|8
|740
|70
|193
|-
|Hamilton's bamboo
|''[[Dendrocalamus hamiltonii]]''
|8.5
|590
|70
|89
|-
|White bamboo
|''[[Dendrocalamus membranaceus]]''
|102
|
|40.5
|26.3
|-
|String Bamboo
|''[[Gigantochloa apus]]''
|54.3
|
|24.1
|102
|-
|String Bamboo
|''[[Gigantochloa apus]]''
|15.1
|
|37.95
|87.5
|-
|Java Black Bamboo
|''[[Gigantochloa atroviolacea]]''
|54
|
|23.8
|92.3
|-
|Java Black Bamboo
|''[[Gigantochloa atroviolacea]]''
|15
|
|35.7
|94.1
|-
|Giant Atter
|''[[Gigantochloa atter]]''
|72.3
|
|26.4
|98
|-
|Giant Atter
|''[[Gigantochloa atter]]''
|14.4
|
|31.95
|122.7
|-
|
|''[[Gigantochloa macrostachya]]''
|8
|960
|71
|154
|-
|American Narrow-Leaved Bamboo
|''[[Guadua angustifolia]]''
|
|
|42
|53.5
|-
|American Narrow-Leaved Bamboo
|''[[Guadua angustifolia]]''
|
|
|63.6
|144.8
|-
|American Narrow-Leaved Bamboo
|''[[Guadua angustifolia]]''
|
|
|86.3
|46
|-
|American Narrow-Leaved Bamboo
|''[[Guadua angustifolia]]''
|
|
|77.5
|82
|-
|American Narrow-Leaved Bamboo
|''[[Guadua angustifolia]]''
|15
|
|56
|87
|-
|American Narrow-Leaved Bamboo
|''[[Guadua angustifolia]]''
|
|
|63.3
|
|-
|American Narrow-Leaved Bamboo
|''[[Guadua angustifolia]]''
|
|
|28
|
|-
|American Narrow-Leaved Bamboo
|''[[Guadua angustifolia]]''
|
|
|56.2
|
|-
|American Narrow-Leaved Bamboo
|''[[Guadua angustifolia]]''
|
|
|38
|
|-
|Berry Bamboo
|''[[Melocanna baccifera]]''
|12.8
|
|69.9
|57.6
|-
|Japanese timber bamboo
|''[[Phyllostachys bambusoides]]''
|
|
|51
|
|-
|Japanese timber bamboo
|''[[Phyllostachys bambusoides]]''
|8
|730
|63
|
|-
|Japanese timber bamboo
|''[[Phyllostachys bambusoides]]''
|64
|
|44
|
|-
|Japanese timber bamboo
|''[[Phyllostachys bambusoides]]''
|61
|
|40
|
|-
|Japanese timber bamboo
|''[[Phyllostachys bambusoides]]''
|9
|
|71
|
|-
|Japanese timber bamboo
|''[[Phyllostachys bambusoides]]''
|9
|
|74
|
|-
|Japanese timber bamboo
|''[[Phyllostachys bambusoides]]''
|12
|
|54
|
|-
|Tortoise shell bamboo
|''[[Phyllostachys edulis]]''
|
|
|44.6
|
|-
|Tortoise shell bamboo
|''[[Phyllostachys edulis]]''
|75
|
|67
|
|-
|Tortoise shell bamboo
|''[[Phyllostachys edulis]]''
|15
|
|71
|
|-
|Tortoise shell bamboo
|''[[Phyllostachys edulis]]''
|6
|
|108
|
|-
|Tortoise shell bamboo
|''[[Phyllostachys edulis]]''
|0.2
|
|147
|
|-
|Tortoise shell bamboo
|''[[Phyllostachys edulis]]''
|5
|
|117
|51
|-
|Tortoise shell bamboo
|''[[Phyllostachys edulis]]''
|30
|
|44
|55
|-
|Tortoise shell bamboo
|''[[Phyllostachys edulis]]''
|12.5
|603
|60.3
|
|-
|Tortoise shell bamboo
|''[[Phyllostachys edulis]]''
|10.3
|530
|
|83
|-
|Early Bamboo
|''[[Phyllostachys praecox]]''
|28.5
|827
|79.3
|
|-
|Oliveri
|''[[Thyrsostachys oliveri]]''
|53
|
|46.9
|61.9
|-
|Oliveri
|''[[Thyrsostachys oliveri]]''
|7.8
|
|58
|90
|}

==Hard versus soft==
[[File:Death and sarcasm (3566057321).jpg|thumb|At the left, text written deeply onto the wood. At the right, text written more lightly.]]
It is common to classify wood as either [[softwood]] or [[hardwood]]. The wood from [[Pinophyta|conifers]] (e.g. pine) is called softwood, and the wood from [[dicotyledons]] (usually broad-leaved trees, e.g. oak) is called hardwood. These names are a bit misleading, as hardwoods are not necessarily hard, and softwoods are not necessarily soft. The well-known balsa (a hardwood) is actually softer than any commercial softwood. Conversely, some softwoods (e.g. [[Taxus baccata|yew]]) are harder than many hardwoods.

There is a strong relationship between the properties of wood and the properties of the particular tree that yielded it, at least for certain species. For example, in loblolly pine, wind exposure and stem position greatly affect the hardness of wood, as well as compression wood content.<ref>{{cite book |title=Agriculture Handbook |date=1997 |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture |pages=2–6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MeAstagRCJ4C&pg=SA2-PA6 |language=en |access-date=March 20, 2023 |archive-date=September 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908234052/https://books.google.com/books?id=MeAstagRCJ4C&pg=SA2-PA6 |url-status=live }}</ref> The density of wood varies with species. The density of a wood correlates with its strength (mechanical properties). For example, [[mahogany]] is a medium-dense hardwood that is excellent for fine furniture crafting, whereas [[Ochroma pyramidale|balsa]] is light, making it useful for [[Physical model|model]] building. One of the densest woods is [[Olea laurifolia|black ironwood]].

==Chemistry==
[[File:Lignin.png|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Chemical structure of [[lignin]], which makes up about 25% of wood dry matter and is responsible for many of its properties.]]
The chemical composition of wood varies from species to species, but is approximately 50% carbon, 42% oxygen, 6% hydrogen, 1% nitrogen, and 1% other elements (mainly [[calcium]], [[potassium]], [[sodium]], [[magnesium]], [[iron]], and [[manganese]]) by weight.<ref>{{cite book|title=Mémotech Bois et Matériaux Associés|date=1996|publisher=Éditions Casteilla|location=Paris|isbn=978-2-7135-1645-0|page=22|author= Jean-Pierre Barette|author2= Claude Hazard et Jérôme Mayer}}</ref> Wood also contains [[sulfur]], [[chlorine]], [[silicon]], [[phosphorus]], and other elements in small quantity.

Aside from water, wood has three main components. [[Cellulose]], a crystalline polymer derived from glucose, constitutes about 41–43%. Next in abundance is [[hemicellulose]], which is around 20% in deciduous trees but near 30% in conifers. It is mainly [[pentose|five-carbon sugars]] that are linked in an irregular manner, in contrast to the cellulose. [[Lignin]] is the third component at around 27% in coniferous wood vs. 23% in deciduous trees. Lignin confers the hydrophobic properties reflecting the fact that it is based on [[aromatic ring]]s. These three components are interwoven, and direct covalent linkages exist between the lignin and the hemicellulose. A major focus of the paper industry is the separation of the lignin from the cellulose, from which paper is made.

In chemical terms, the difference between hardwood and softwood is reflected in the composition of the constituent [[lignin]]. Hardwood lignin is primarily derived from [[sinapyl alcohol]] and [[coniferyl alcohol]]. Softwood lignin is mainly derived from coniferyl alcohol.<ref name="Boerjan-2003">{{cite journal| author = W. Boerjan| author2 =  J. Ralph| author3 = M. Baucher|date=June 2003| title = Lignin biosynthesis| journal = Annu. Rev. Plant Biol.| volume = 54| issue = 1| pages = 519–549| doi = 10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.031902.134938| pmid = 14503002| bibcode = 2003AnRPB..54..519B}}</ref>

===Extractives===
Aside from the structural [[polymer]]s, i.e. [[cellulose]], [[hemicellulose]] and [[lignin]] ([[Lignocellulosic biomass|lignocellulose]]), wood contains a large variety of non-structural constituents, composed of low [[molecular weight]] [[organic compound]]s, called ''extractives''. These compounds are present in the [[extracellular space]] and can be extracted from the wood using different neutral [[solvent]]s, such as [[acetone]].<ref name="Ek-2009">{{cite book |last1=Ek |first1=Monica |last2=Gellerstedt |first2=Göran |last3=Henriksson |first3=Gunnar |title=Pulp and Paper Chemistry and Technology. Volume 1, Wood Chemistry and Wood Biotechnology |date=2009 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |location=Berlin |isbn=978-3-11-021339-3 |chapter=Chapter 7: Wood extractives}}</ref> Analogous content is present in the so-called ''exudate'' produced by trees in response to mechanical damage or after being attacked by [[insect]]s or [[fungi]].<ref name="Sjöström-2013">{{cite book |last1=Sjöström |first1=Eero |title=Wood Chemistry: Fundamentals and Applications |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=San Diego |isbn=978-0-08-092589-9 |edition=Second |chapter=Chapter 5: Extractives|date=October 22, 2013 }}</ref> Unlike the structural constituents, the composition of extractives varies over wide ranges and depends on many factors.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ansell |first1=Martin P. |title=Woodhead Publishing Series in Composites Science and Engineering: Number 54. Wood Composites |date=2015 |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=978-1-78242-454-3 |chapter=Chapter 11: Preservation, Protection and Modification of Wood Composites}}</ref> The amount and composition of extractives differs between tree species, various parts of the same tree, and depends on genetic factors and growth conditions, such as climate and geography.<ref name="Ek-2009" /> For example, slower growing trees and higher parts of trees have higher content of extractives. Generally, the [[softwood]] is richer in extractives than the [[hardwood]]. Their concentration increases from the [[cambium]] to the [[pith]]. [[Bark (botany)|Bark]]s and [[branch]]es also contain extractives. Although extractives represent a small fraction of the wood content, usually less than 10%, they are extraordinarily diverse and thus characterize the chemistry of the wood species.<ref name="Hon-2001">{{cite book |last1=Hon |first1=David N.-S. |last2=Shiraishi |first2=Nubuo |title=Wood and Cellulosic Chemistry |date=2001 |publisher=Marcel Dekker |location=New York |isbn=0-8247-0024-4 |edition=2nd, rev. and expanded |chapter=Chapter 6: Chemistry of Extractives}}</ref> Most extractives are secondary metabolites and some of them serve as precursors to other chemicals. Wood extractives display different activities, some of them are produced in response to wounds, and some of them participate in natural defense against insects and fungi.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rowell |first1=Roger M. |title=Handbook of Wood Chemistry and Wood Composites |date=2013 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=Boca Raton |isbn=978-1-4398-5380-1 |edition=2nd |chapter=Chater 3: Cell Wall Chemistry}}</ref>

[[File:Forchem Rauma 2.jpg|thumb|Forchem [[tall oil]] refinery in [[Rauma, Finland|Rauma]], Finland]]
These compounds contribute to various physical and chemical properties of the wood, such as wood color, fragnance, durability, acoustic properties, [[hygroscopicity]], adhesion, and drying.<ref name="Hon-2001" /> Considering these impacts, wood extractives also affect the properties of [[Pulp (paper)|pulp]] and paper, and importantly cause many problems in [[Papermaking|paper industry]]. Some extractives are surface-active substances and unavoidably affect the surface properties of paper, such as water adsorption, friction and strength.<ref name="Ek-2009" /> [[Lipophilicity|Lipophilic]] extractives often give rise to sticky deposits during [[kraft pulping]] and may leave spots on paper. Extractives also account for paper smell, which is important when making [[food contact materials]].

Most wood extractives are [[Lipophilicity|lipophilic]] and only a little part is water-soluble.<ref name="Sjöström-2013" /> The lipophilic portion of extractives, which is collectively referred as wood [[resin]], contains [[fat]]s and [[fatty acid]]s, [[sterol]]s and steryl esters, [[terpene]]s, [[terpenoid]]s, [[resin acid]]s, and [[wax]]es.<ref>{{cite book |last = Mimms |first = Agneta |author2=Michael J. Kuckurek |author3=Jef A. Pyiatte |author4=Elizabeth E. Wright |title = Kraft Pulping. A Compilation of Notes |publisher = TAPPI Press |date = 1993 |pages = 6–7 |isbn = 978-0-89852-322-5 }}</ref> The heating of resin, i.e. [[distillation]], vaporizes the [[Volatility (chemistry)|volatile]] terpenes and leaves the solid component – [[rosin]]. The concentrated liquid of volatile compounds extracted during [[steam distillation]] is called [[essential oil]]. Distillation of [[oleoresin]] obtained from many [[pines]] provides [[rosin]] and [[turpentine]].<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1002/14356007.a23_073 |chapter=Resins, Natural |title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |date=2000 |last1=Fiebach |first1=Klemens |last2=Grimm |first2=Dieter |isbn=978-3-527-30673-2}}</ref>

Most extractives can be categorized into three groups: [[aliphatic compound]]s, [[terpene]]s and [[Phenols|phenolic compounds]].<ref name="Ek-2009" /> The latter are more water-soluble and usually are absent in the resin.
*[[Aliphatic compound]]s include fatty acids, [[fatty alcohol]]s and their esters with [[glycerol]], fatty alcohols (waxes) and sterols (steryl esters). [[Hydrocarbon]]s, such as [[alkane]]s, are also present in the wood. [[Suberin]] is a polyester, made of suberin acids and glycerol, mainly found in [[Bark (botany)|bark]]s. Fats serve as a source of energy for the wood cells.<ref name="Sjöström-2013" /> The most common wood sterol is [[sitosterol]], and less commonly [[sitostanol]], citrostadienol, [[campesterol]] or [[cholesterol]].<ref name="Ek-2009" />
*The main [[terpene]]s occurring in the softwood include [[Monoterpene|mono-]], [[Sesquiterpene|sesqui-]] and [[diterpene]]s.<ref name="Sjöström-2013" /> Meanwhile, the terpene composition of the hardwood is considerably different, consisting of [[Triterpene#Triterpenoids|triterpenoid]]s, [[polyprenol]]s and other higher terpenes. Examples of mono-, di- and sesquiterpenes are [[alpha-Pinene|α-]] and [[beta-Pinene|β-pinene]]s, [[3-carene]], [[β-myrcene]], [[limonene]], [[thujaplicin]]s, α- and β-[[phellandrene]]s, α-muurolene, [[δ-cadinene]], [[alpha-cadinol|α-]] and [[delta-cadinol|δ-cadinol]]s, α- and β-[[cedrene]]s, juniperol, [[longifolene]], ''cis''-abienol, [[borneol]], pinifolic acid, nootkatin, chanootin, [[phytol]], geranyl-linalool, β-epimanool, manoyloxide, pimaral and pimarol. Resin acids are usually [[tricyclic]] [[terpenoid]]s, examples of which are [[pimaric acid]], sandaracopimaric acid, [[isopimaric acid]], [[abietic acid]], [[levopimaric acid]], palustric acid, neoabietic acid and dehydroabietic acid. [[Bicyclic molecule|Bicyclic]] resin acids are also found, such as lambertianic acid, communic acid, mercusic acid and secodehydroabietic acid. [[Cycloartenol]], [[betulin]] and [[squalene]] are [[Triterpene#Triterpenoids|triterpenoid]]s purified from hardwood. Examples of wood polyterpenes are [[rubber]] (''cis''-polypren), [[gutta percha]] (''trans''-polypren), gutta-balatá (''trans''-polypren) and betulaprenols ([[Open-chain compound|acyclic]] polyterpenoids).<ref name="Ek-2009" /><ref name="Sjöström-2013" /> The mono- and sesquiterpenes of the softwood are responsible for the typical smell of [[pine]] forest.<ref name="Ek-2009" /> Many monoterpenoids, such as [[β-myrcene]], are used in the preparation of [[Flavoring|flavor]]s and [[Perfume|fragrances]].<ref name="Sjöström-2013" /> [[Tropolone]]s, such as [[hinokitiol]] and other [[thujaplicin]]s, are present in [[Wood-decay fungus|decay]]-resistant trees and display [[fungicidal]] and [[Insecticide|insecticidal]] properties. Tropolones strongly bind metal ions and can cause digester [[corrosion]] in the process [[kraft pulping]]. Owing to their [[Chelation|metal-binding]] and [[Ionophore|ionophoric]] properties, especially thujaplicins are used in physiology experiments.<ref>{{cite book |title=Cell physiology sourcebook: essentials of membrane biophysics |location=London, UK |isbn=978-0-12-387738-3 |edition=Fourth |chapter=Chapter 4: Ionophores in Planar Lipid Bilayers |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123877383000044 |last1=Sperelakis |first1=Nicholas |last2=Sperelakis |first2=Nick |date=January 11, 2012 |access-date=September 27, 2020 |archive-date=June 28, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200628201941/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123877383000044 |url-status=live }}</ref> Different other ''in-vitro'' biological activities of thujaplicins have been studied, such as insecticidal, anti-browning, anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-proliferative and anti-oxidant.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Saniewski |first1=Marian |last2=Horbowicz |first2=Marcin |last3=Kanlayanarat |first3=Sirichai |title=The Biological Activities of Troponoids and Their Use in Agriculture A Review |journal=Journal of Horticultural Research |date=10 September 2014 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=5–19 |doi=10.2478/johr-2014-0001|s2cid=33834249 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bentley |first1=Ronald |title=A fresh look at natural tropolonoids |journal=Nat. Prod. Rep. |date=2008 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=118–138 |doi=10.1039/b711474e|pmid=18250899 }}</ref>
*[[Phenols|Phenolic compounds]] are especially found in the hardwood and the bark.<ref name="Sjöström-2013" /> The most well-known wood phenolic constituents are [[stilbenes]] (e.g. [[pinosylvin]]), [[lignans]] (e.g. [[pinoresinol]], conidendrin, [[plicatic acid]], [[hydroxymatairesinol]]), norlignans (e.g. [[nyasol]], puerosides A and B, hydroxysugiresinol, sequirin-C), [[tannin]]s (e.g. [[gallic acid]], [[ellagic acid]]), [[flavonoid]]s (e.g. [[chrysin]], [[taxifolin]], [[catechin]], [[genistein]]). Most of the phenolic compounds have fungicidal properties and protect the wood from [[Wood-decay fungus|fungal decay]].<ref name="Sjöström-2013" /> Together with the neolignans the phenolic compounds influence on the color of the wood. Resin acids and phenolic compounds are the main toxic contaminants present in the untreated [[effluent]]s from [[Pulp (paper)|pulping]].<ref name="Ek-2009" /> [[Polyphenolic]] compounds are one of the most abundant biomolecules produced by plants, such as [[flavonoid]]s and [[tannin]]s. Tannins are used in [[leather]] industry and have shown to exhibit different biological activities.<ref name="Hon-2001" /> [[Flavonoid]]s are very diverse, widely distributed in the [[plant]] kingdom and have numerous biological activities and roles.<ref name="Sjöström-2013" />

==Uses==
[[File:World Production Of Roundwood By Type, Main Producers (2021).svg|thumb|Main global producers of roundwood by type.]]
[[File:World Production Of Roundwood By Type.svg|thumb|World production of roundwood by type]]

=== Production ===
{{Main|Forestry}}
Global production of roundwood rose from 3.5 billion m''³'' in 2000 to 4 billion m''³'' in 2021. In 2021, wood fuel was the main product with a 49 percent share of the total (2 billion m''³''), followed by coniferous industrial roundwood with 30 percent (1.2 billion m''³'') and non-coniferous industrial roundwood with 21 percent (0.9 billion m''³''). Asia and the Americas are the two main producing regions, accounting for 29 and 28 percent of the total roundwood production, respectively; Africa and Europe have similar shares of 20–21 percent, while Oceania produces the remaining 2 percent.<ref name="FAO-2023">{{Cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cc8166en |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023 |date=2023-11-29 |publisher=FAO |isbn=978-92-5-138262-2 |language=en |doi=10.4060/cc8166en}}</ref>

===Fuel===
{{Main|Wood fuel}}
Wood has a long history of being used as fuel,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jFvrF4DaZcgC&q=%C2%A0Wood+has+a+long+history+of+being+used+as+fuel&pg=PA261|title=Alternative Fuels and the Environment|last=Sterrett|first=Frances S.|date=1994-10-12|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-87371-978-0|language=en|access-date=October 6, 2020|archive-date=December 30, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230131945/https://books.google.com/books?id=jFvrF4DaZcgC&q=%C2%A0Wood+has+a+long+history+of+being+used+as+fuel&pg=PA261#v=snippet&q=%C2%A0Wood%20has%20a%20long%20history%20of%20being%20used%20as%20fuel&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> which continues to this day, mostly in rural areas of the world. Hardwood is preferred over softwood because it creates less smoke and burns longer. Adding a woodstove or fireplace to a home is often felt to add ambiance and warmth.

===Pulpwood===
Pulpwood is wood that is raised specifically for use in making paper.

===Construction===

[[File:Saitta House Dyker Heights.JPG|thumb|left|upright|The [[Saitta House]], [[Dyker Heights]], [[Brooklyn]], New York built in 1899 is made of and decorated in wood.<ref>"[http://www.dykerheightscivicassociation.com/saittareport.pdf Saitta House&nbsp;– Report Part 1] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216233832/http://www.dykerheightscivicassociation.com/saittareport.pdf |date=December 16, 2008 }}",''DykerHeightsCivicAssociation.com''</ref>]]
[[File:Importers And Exporters Of Forest Products (2021).svg|thumb|220x220px|Map of importers and exporters of forest products including wood in 2021]]
Wood has been an important construction material since humans began building shelters, houses and boats. Nearly all boats were made out of wood until the late 19th century, and wood remains in common use today in boat construction. [[Elm]] in particular was used for this purpose as it resisted decay as long as it was kept wet (it also served for water pipe before the advent of more modern plumbing).

Wood to be used for construction work is commonly known as ''[[lumber]]'' in North America. Elsewhere, ''lumber'' usually refers to felled trees, and the word for sawn planks ready for use is ''timber''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jSiRAAAAQBAJ&q=%C2%A0Wood+to+be+used+for+construction+work+is+commonly+known+as+lumber+in+North+America&pg=SA7-PA15|title=Materials for Interior Environments|last=Binggeli|first=Corky|year=2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-42160-4|language=en|access-date=October 6, 2020|archive-date=December 30, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230132013/https://books.google.com/books?id=jSiRAAAAQBAJ&q=%C2%A0Wood+to+be+used+for+construction+work+is+commonly+known+as+lumber+in+North+America&pg=SA7-PA15#v=snippet&q=%C2%A0Wood%20to%20be%20used%20for%20construction%20work%20is%20commonly%20known%20as%20lumber%20in%20North%20America&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> In medieval Europe [[oak]] was the wood of choice for all wood construction, including beams, walls, doors, and floors. Today a wider variety of woods is used: solid wood doors are often made from [[Populus|poplar]], small-knotted [[pine]], and [[Douglas fir]].

[[File:Преображенская церковь (деревянная) (1714 г.) 01.JPG|thumb|right|The churches of [[Kizhi]], Russia are among a handful of [[World Heritage Site]]s built entirely of wood, without metal joints. See [[Kizhi Pogost]] for more details.]]
New domestic housing in many parts of the world today is commonly made from timber-framed construction. [[Engineered wood]] products are becoming a bigger part of the construction industry. They may be used in both residential and commercial buildings as structural and aesthetic materials.

In buildings made of other materials, wood will still be found as a supporting material, especially in roof construction, in interior doors and their frames, and as exterior cladding.

Wood is also commonly used as shuttering material to form the mold into which concrete is poured during [[reinforced concrete]] construction.

====Flooring====
[[File:LightningVolt Wood Floor.jpg|thumb|right|Wood can be cut into straight planks and made into a [[wood flooring]].]]
{{Main |Wood flooring}}A solid wood floor is a floor laid with planks or battens created from a single piece of timber, usually a hardwood. Since wood is hydroscopic (it acquires and loses moisture from the ambient conditions around it) this potential instability effectively limits the length and width of the boards.

Solid hardwood flooring is usually cheaper than engineered timbers and damaged areas can be sanded down and refinished repeatedly, the number of times being limited only by the thickness of wood above the tongue.

Solid hardwood floors were originally used for structural purposes, being installed perpendicular to the wooden support beams of a building (the joists or bearers) and solid construction timber is still often used for sports floors as well as most traditional wood blocks, [[mosaic]]s and [[parquetry]].

====Engineered products====
{{main |Engineered wood}}

Engineered wood products, glued building products "engineered" for application-specific performance requirements, are often used in construction and industrial applications. Glued engineered wood products are manufactured by bonding together wood strands, veneers, lumber or other forms of wood fiber with glue to form a larger, more efficient composite structural unit.<ref name="apawood">{{cite web|url=http://www.apawood.org/pdfs/download_pdf.cfm?PDFFilename=managed/E30.pdf|title=APA – The Engineered Wood Association|work=apawood.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060627045932/http://www.apawood.org/pdfs/download_pdf.cfm?PDFFilename=managed%2FE30.pdf|archive-date=June 27, 2006}}</ref>

These products include [[glued laminated timber]] (glulam), wood structural panels (including [[plywood]], [[oriented strand board]] and composite panels), [[laminated veneer lumber]] (LVL) and other structural composite lumber (SCL) products, [[parallel strand lumber]], and I-joists.<ref name="apawood" /> Approximately 100 million cubic meters of wood was consumed for this purpose in 1991.<ref name="Horst-2005">Horst H. Nimz, Uwe Schmitt, Eckart Schwab, Otto Wittmann, Franz Wolf "Wood" in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'' 2005, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{doi|10.1002/14356007.a28_305}}</ref> The trends suggest that particle board and fiber board will overtake plywood.

Wood unsuitable for construction in its native form may be broken down mechanically (into fibers or chips) or chemically (into cellulose) and used as a raw material for other building materials, such as engineered wood, as well as [[particle board|chipboard]], [[hardboard]], and [[medium-density fiberboard]] (MDF). Such wood derivatives are widely used: wood fibers are an important component of most paper, and cellulose is used as a component of some [[Organic compound#Synthetic compounds|synthetic materials]]. Wood derivatives can be used for kinds of flooring, for example [[laminate flooring]].

===Furniture and utensils===
Wood has always been used extensively for [[furniture]], such as [[chairs]] and beds. It is also used for tool handles and cutlery, such as [[chopsticks]], [[toothpick]]s, and other utensils, like the [[wooden spoon]] and [[pencil]].

===Other===
Further developments include new [[lignin]] glue applications, recyclable food packaging, rubber tire replacement applications, anti-bacterial medical agents, and high strength fabrics or composites.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forintek.ca/public/pdf/annual%20report/AR_2007_2008/AR_ENG_2007.pdf|title=FPInnovations|work=forintek.ca|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319100903/http://www.forintek.ca/public/pdf/annual%20report/AR_2007_2008/AR_ENG_2007.pdf|archive-date=March 19, 2009}}</ref>
As scientists and engineers further learn and develop new techniques to extract various components from wood, or alternatively to modify wood, for example by adding components to wood, new more advanced products will appear on the marketplace. Moisture content electronic monitoring can also enhance next generation wood protection.<ref>"System for remotely monitoring moisture content on wooden elements" I Arakistain, O Munne EP Patent EPO1382108.0</ref>

===Art===
[[File:Prayer Bead with the Adoration of the Magi and the Crucifixion MET DP371962.jpg|thumb|''[[Prayer Bead with the Adoration of the Magi and the Crucifixion]]'', [[Gothic boxwood miniature]]]]
Wood has long been used as an [[media (arts)|artistic medium]]. It has been used to make sculptures and [[wood carving|carvings]] for millennia. Examples include the [[totem pole]]s carved by North American indigenous people from conifer trunks, often Western Red Cedar (''[[Thuja plicata]]'').

Other uses of wood in the arts include:
* [[Woodcut]] [[printmaking]] and [[wood engraving|engraving]]
* Wood can be a surface to paint on, such as in [[panel painting]]
* Many [[musical instrument]]s are made mostly or entirely of wood

===Sports and recreational equipment===
Many types of [[sports equipment]] are made of wood, or were constructed of wood in the past. For example, [[cricket bat]]s are typically made of [[Salix alba|white willow]]. The [[baseball bat]]s which are legal for use in [[Major League Baseball]] are frequently made of [[Fraxinus|ash wood]] or [[hickory]], and in recent years have been constructed from [[maple]] even though that wood is somewhat more fragile. [[National Basketball Association]] courts have been traditionally made out of [[Parquetry#Use in the NBA|parquetry]].

Many other types of sports and recreation equipment, such as [[ski]]s, [[ice hockey stick]]s, [[lacrosse stick]]s and [[bow (weapon)|archery bows]], were commonly made of wood in the past, but have since been replaced with more modern materials such as aluminium, [[titanium]] or [[composite material]]s such as [[fiberglass]] and [[carbon fiber]]. One noteworthy example of this trend is the family of [[golf club]]s commonly known as the ''[[wood (golf)|woods]]'', the heads of which were traditionally made of [[Diospyros|persimmon]] wood in the early days of the game of golf, but are now generally made of metal or (especially in the case of [[Wood (golf)#Drivers|drivers]]) carbon-fiber composites.

==Bacterial degradation==
Little is known about the bacteria that degrade cellulose. [[Symbiotic bacteria]] in ''[[Xylophaga]]'' may play a role in the degradation of sunken wood. ''[[Alphaproteobacteria]]'', ''[[Flavobacteria]]'', ''[[Actinomycetota]]'', ''[[Clostridia]]'', and ''[[Bacteroidota]]'' have been detected in wood submerged for over a year.<ref>{{cite journal|title=How Deep-Sea Wood Falls Sustain Chemosynthetic Life|author1=Christina Bienhold|author2=Petra Pop Ristova|author3=Frank Wenzhöfer|author4=Thorsten Dittmar|author5=Antje Boetius|journal=PLOS ONE|volume = 8|issue=1|article-number=e53590|date=January 2, 2013|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0053590|pmid=23301092|pmc=3534711|bibcode = 2013PLoSO...853590B|doi-access=free}}</ref>
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==See also==
{{Portal|Trees}}
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Acetylated wood]]
* [[Ancient Chinese wooden architecture]]
* [[Ash burner]]
* [[Burl]]
* [[Carpentry]]
* [[Certified wood]]
* [[Conservation and restoration of waterlogged wood]]
* [[Conservation and restoration of wooden artifacts]]
* [[Driftwood]]
* [[Dunnage]]
* [[Forestry]]
* [[Fossil wood]]
* [[Furfurylated wood]]
* [[Green building and wood]]
* [[Helsinki Central Library Oodi]]
* [[International Wood Products Journal]]
* [[List of tallest wooden buildings]]
* [[List of woods]]
* [[Log building]]
* [[Log cabin]]
* [[Log house]]
* [[Mineral bonded wood wool board]]
* [[Mjøstårnet]]
* [[Natural building]]
* [[Parquetry]]
* [[Pallet crafts]]
* [[Pellet fuel]]
* [[Petrified wood]]
* [[Pine tar]]
* [[Plyscraper]]
* [[Pulpwood]]
* [[Reclaimed lumber]]
* [[Sawdust brandy]]
* [[Sawdust]]
* [[Thermally modified wood]]
* [[Timber framing]]
* [[Timber pilings]]
* [[Timber recycling]]
* [[Tinder]]
* [[Wood ash]]
* [[Wood degradation]]
* [[Wood drying]]
* [[Wood economy]]
* [[Wood lagging]]
* [[Wood preservation]]
* [[Wood stabilization]]
* [[Wood warping]]
* [[Wood wool]]
* [[Wood-decay fungus]]
* [[Wooden box]]
* [[Wood-plastic composite]]
* [[Woodturning]]
* [[Woodworm]]
* [[Xylology]]
* [[Xylophagy]]
* [[Xylotheque]]
* [[Xylotomy]]
* ''[[Yakisugi]]''
{{div col end}}

==Sources==
{{Free-content attribution
| title = World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023
| author = 
| publisher = FAO
| documentURL = https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en
| license statement URL = https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_Food_and_Agriculture_-_Statistical_Yearbook_2023.pdf <!-- Also in the document itself -->
| license = CC BY-SA IGO 3.0
}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
* {{cite book |author-link = R. Bruce Hoadley |last = Hoadley |first = R. Bruce |date = 2000 |title = Understanding Wood: A Craftsman's Guide to Wood Technology |publisher = [[Taunton Press]] |isbn = 978-1-56158-358-4 }}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160527073656/http://www.woodinculture.fi/en/ The Wood in Culture Association] (archived 27 May 2016)
* [http://www.thewoodexplorer.com/ The Wood Explorer: A comprehensive database of commercial wood species] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407062512/http://www.thewoodexplorer.com/ |date=April 7, 2015 }})
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110414041302/http://www.apawood.org/level_b.cfm?content=prd_main APA&nbsp;– The Engineered Wood Association] (archived 14 April 2011)
{{Botany}}
{{Forestry}}
{{Wood products}}
{{Woodworking}}
{{Natural resources}}
{{Tannin source}}
{{Sculptures}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Portal bar|Arthropods|Ecology|Engineering|Environment|Fungi|Islands|Painting|Trains|Trees}}

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[[Category:Woodworking| ]]
[[Category:Woodworking materials]]
[[Category:Materials]]
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[[Category:Botany]]
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