View source for Xerxes I

{{Short description|King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire from 486 to 465 BC}}
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{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Xerxes I<br/>{{lang|peo|𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠}}
| title        = 
| image        = National_Museum_of_Iran_Darafsh_%28785%29.JPG
| caption      = [[Rock relief]] of Xerxes I from [[Persepolis]], kept at [[National Museum of Iran]]
| succession   = {{ubl|[[King of Kings]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire]]|[[List of Pharaohs|Pharaoh of Egypt]]}}
| reign        = October 486 – August 465 BC
| predecessor  = [[Darius the Great]]
| successor    = [[Artaxerxes I]]
| spouse       = [[Amestris]]
| dynasty      = [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid]]
| issue        = {{plainlist|
* [[Darius (son of Xerxes I)|Darius]]
* [[Hystaspes (son of Xerxes I)|Hystaspes]]
* [[Artaxerxes I]]
* [[Rhodogune]]
* [[Amytis of Persia|Amytis]]
}}
| father       = [[Darius the Great]]
| mother       = [[Atossa]]
| birth_date   = {{circa|518 BC}}
| death_date   = 4-8{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=}}{{pn|date=June 2025}} August 465 BC (aged approximately 53)
| place of burial = [[Naqsh-e Rostam]]
| religion     = [[Indo-Iranian religion]]
}}
{{Hiero|Xerxes (Xašayaruša/Ḫašayaruša)<ref>Jürgen von Beckerath (1999). ''Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen''. Mainz: Von Zabern. {{ISBN|3-8053-2310-7}}, pp. 220–221</ref>|<hiero>< xA-SA-i*i-A-rw-SA-A ></hiero>|align=right|era=lp}}
'''Xerxes I''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|z|ɜː|r|k|s|iː|z}} {{respell|ZURK|seez}};<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/xerxes-i |title=Xerxes I |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=Collins Dictionary |access-date=2024-09-17 }}</ref>{{efn|{{langx|grc|Ξέρξης|Xérxēs}}, {{IPA|grc|ksérksɛːs|IPA}}; also '''Khshayārsha''', from {{langx|peo|[[wiktionary:𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠|𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠]]|Xšayār̥šā}}, {{IPA|fa|xaʃajaruʃa|IPA}}.<ref>Littman, R. J.. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1454354.pdf "The Religious Policy of Xerxes and the 'Book of Esther{{'"}}]. ''The Jewish Quarterly Review'', January 1975, New Series, Vol. 65, No. 3, footnote 2, accessed 30 December 2022</ref>}} {{circa|518}} – August 465 BC), commonly known as '''Xerxes the Great''',<ref name="Warfare in the Ancient World">{{cite book |first1=Brian Todd |last1=Carey |first2=Joshua |last2=Allfree |first3=John |last3=Cairns |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3OSfBwAAQBAJ&dq=persia+overran+modern+day+greece&pg=PT32 |title=Warfare in the Ancient World |publisher=Pen and Sword |date=19 January 2006 |isbn=1848846304}}</ref> was a [[List of monarchs of Persia|Persian ruler]] who served as the fourth [[King of Kings]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], reigning from 486 BC until his assassination in 465 BC. He was the son of [[Darius the Great]] and [[Atossa]], a daughter of [[Cyrus the Great]]. 

In Western history, Xerxes is best known for his [[Second Persian invasion of Greece|invasion of Greece]] in 480 BC, which ended in Persian defeat. Xerxes was designated successor by Darius over his elder brother Artobazan and inherited a large, multi-ethnic empire upon his father's death. He consolidated his power by crushing revolts in [[Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Babylonian revolts (484 BC)|Babylon]], and renewed his father's campaign to subjugate [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] and punish [[Classical Athens|Athens]] and its allies for their interference in the [[Ionian Revolt]]. In 480 BC, Xerxes personally led a large army and crossed the [[Dardanelles|Hellespont]] into Europe. He achieved victories at [[Battle of Thermopylae|Thermopylae]] and [[Battle of Artemisium|Artemisium]] before [[Achaemenid destruction of Athens|capturing and razing Athens]]. His forces gained control of mainland Greece north of the [[Isthmus of Corinth]] until their defeat at the [[Battle of Salamis]]. Fearing that the Greeks might trap him in Europe, Xerxes retreated with the greater part of his army back to Asia, leaving behind [[Mardonius (nephew of Darius I)|Mardonius]] to continue his campaign. Mardonius was defeated at [[Battle of Plataea|Plataea]] the following year, effectively ending the Persian invasion.

After returning to Persia, Xerxes dedicated himself to large-scale construction projects, many of which had been left unfinished by his father. He oversaw the completion of the [[Gate of All Nations]], the [[Apadana]] and the [[Tachara]] at [[Persepolis]], and continued the construction of the [[Palace of Darius in Susa|Palace of Darius]] at [[Susa]]. He also maintained the [[Royal Road]] built by his father. In 465 BC, Xerxes and his heir [[Darius (son of Xerxes I)|Darius]] were assassinated by [[Artabanus of Persia|Artabanus]], the commander of the royal bodyguard. He was succeeded by his third son, who took the throne as [[Artaxerxes I]].

== Etymology ==
''Xérxēs'' ({{lang|grc|[[wiktionary:Ξέρξης|Ξέρξης]]}}) is the [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] (''Xerxes'', ''Xerses'') transliteration of the [[Old Iranian]] ''Xšaya-ṛšā'' ("ruling over heroes"), which can be seen by the first part ''xšaya'', meaning "ruling", and the second ''ṛšā'', meaning "hero, man".<ref name="NAME">{{harvnb|Marciak|2017|p=80}}; {{harvnb|Schmitt|2000}}</ref> The name of Xerxes was known in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] as ''Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá'' and in [[Aramaic]] as ''ḥšyʾrš''.{{sfn|Schmitt|2000}} Xerxes would become a popular name among the rulers of the Achaemenid Empire.<ref name="NAME" />

== Early life ==
=== Parentage and birth ===
Xerxes' father was [[Darius the Great]] ({{reign|522|486|era=BC}}), the incumbent monarch of the Achaemenid Empire, albeit himself not a member of the family of [[Cyrus the Great]], the founder of the empire.{{sfn|Llewellyn-Jones|2017|p=70}}{{sfn|Waters|1996|pp=11, 18}} Xerxes' mother was [[Atossa]], a daughter of Cyrus.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=132}} Darius and Atossa married in 522 BC,{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=520}} and Xerxes was born around 518 BC.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=1}}

=== Upbringing and education ===
[[File:Caylus_vase_1762.jpg|thumb|upright|The "[[Caylus vase]]", a quadrilingual [[alabaster jar]] with cuneiform and hieroglyphic inscriptions in the name of "Xerxes, the Great King". [[Cabinet des Médailles]], [[Paris]]<ref name="RMN">{{cite web |title=vase (inv.65.4695) - inv.65.4695, BnF |url=http://medaillesetantiques.bnf.fr/ws/catalogue/app/collection/record/ark:/12148/c33gbts1b |website=medaillesetantiques.bnf.fr |language=fr}}</ref>]]
According to the Greek dialogue [[First Alcibiades]], which describes typical upbringing and education of Persian princes, they were raised by [[eunuchs]]. Starting at the age of seven, they learned how to ride and hunt; after reaching the age of fourteen, they were each taught by four teachers from aristocratic backgrounds, who taught them how to be "wise, just, prudent, and brave."{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=27}} Persian princes also learned the basics of the [[Zoroastrian]] religion, and were taught to be truthful, to be courageous, and to have self-restraint.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=27}} The dialogue further added that "fear, for a Persian, is the equivalent of slavery."{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=27}} At the age of 16 or 17, they began their mandatory 10 years of national service, which included practicing archery and javelin, competing for prizes, and hunting.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=28}} Afterwards, they served in the military for around 25 years, after which they were elevated to the status of elders and advisers to the king. Families{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=28}} in this time, including Xerxes', would intermarry.

This account of education among the Persian elite is supported by [[Xenophon]]'s description of the 5th-century BC Achaemenid prince [[Cyrus the Younger]], with whom he was well-acquainted.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=28}} Stoneman suggests that this was the type of upbringing and education that Xerxes experienced.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=29}} It is unknown if Xerxes ever learned to read or write, with the Persians favoring oral history over written literature.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=29}} Stoneman suggests that Xerxes' upbringing and education was possibly not much different from that of the later Iranian kings, such as [[Abbas the Great]], king of the [[Safavid Empire]] in the 17th-century AD.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=29}} Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal palace of [[Babylon]].{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|p=183}}

===Accession to the throne===
While Darius was preparing for another war against Greece, a revolt began in Egypt in 486&nbsp;BC due to heavy taxes and the deportation of craftsmen to build the royal palaces at Susa and Persepolis. The king was required by Persian law to choose a successor before setting out on dangerous expeditions; when Darius decided to leave for Egypt (487–486&nbsp;BC), he prepared his tomb at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]] (five kilometers from his royal palace at Persepolis) and appointed Xerxes, his eldest son by [[Atossa]], as his successor. However, Darius could not lead the campaign due to his failing health; he died in October 486&nbsp;BC at the age of 64.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|pp=178–179}}

[[Artobazan]] claimed that he should take the crown as the eldest of all Darius's children, while Xerxes argued for his own claim on the grounds that he was the son of Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, and that Cyrus had won the Persians their freedom. Xerxes' claim was supported by a Spartan king in exile who was present in Persia at the time, the [[Eurypontid]] king [[Demaratus]], who also argued that the eldest son did not universally have the best claim to the crown, citing Spartan law, which stated that the first son born while the father is king was the heir to the kingship.<ref>[[Herodotus]] 7.1–5</ref> Some modern scholars also view the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne to Xerxes as a result of his consideration of the particular prestige that Cyrus the Great and his daughter Atossa enjoyed.<ref>[[#refshabani-xerxes|R. Shabani]] Chapter I, p. 15</ref> [[Artobazan]] was born to "Darius the subject", while Xerxes was the eldest son "[[born in the purple]]" after Darius' rise to the throne. Furthermore, while Artobazan's mother was a commoner, Xerxes' mother was the daughter of the founder of the Achaemenid Empire.<ref>[[#ref|Olmstead: The history of Persian empire]]</ref>

Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486&nbsp;BC<ref name=chi-v2>[[#refchi-v2|''The Cambridge History of Iran'']] vol. 2. p. 509.</ref> when he was about 32 years old.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|p=180}} The transition of power to Xerxes was smooth, due again in part to the great authority of Atossa<ref name=atossa-EI>Schmitt, R. "[[#refatossa-EI|Atossa]]". In ''[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]]''.</ref><ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Sancisi-Weerdenburg
 |first1               = Heleen
 |author-link1         = Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg
 |editor-last1         = Vignolo Munson
 |editor-first1        = Rosaria
 |year                 = 2013
 |chapter              = Exit Atossa: Images of women in Greek historiography on Persia
 |title                = Herodotus
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=9Wp4AAAAQBAJ
 |series               = Oxford Readings in Classical Studies
 |volume               = 2: Herodotus and the World
 |edition              = reprint
 |location             = Oxford
 |publisher            = Oxford University Press
 |page                 = 139
 |isbn                 = 9780199587582
 |access-date          = 17 December 2022
 |quote                = According to Herodotus (7.2-3) Atossa played a prominent role in the selection of Xerxes as heir to the throne.
}} 
</ref> and his accession to royal power was not challenged by any person at court or in the Achaemenian family, or by any subject nation.<ref>
[[#refcah-vv|''The Cambridge Ancient History'' vol. V]] p. 72.</ref>

== Consolidation of power ==
[[Image:Histoire universelle depuis le commencement du monde jusqu'à présent (1742) (14598039057).jpg|thumb|Engraving of [[Babylon]] by H. Fletcher, 1690]]
At the time of Xerxes' accession, trouble was brewing in some of his domains. A revolt occurred in [[Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt|Egypt]], which seemed dangerous enough for Xerxes to personally lead the army to restore order (which also gave him the opportunity to begin his reign with a military campaign).{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=525}} Xerxes suppressed the revolt in January 484 BC and appointed his full-brother [[Achaemenes (satrap)|Achaemenes]] as [[satrap]] of Egypt, replacing the previous satrap [[Pherendates]], who was reportedly killed during the revolt.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1983|p=414}}{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|p=183}} The suppression of the Egyptian revolt expended the army, which had been mobilized by Darius over the previous three years.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=525}} Xerxes, therefore, had to raise another army for his expedition into Greece, which took another four years.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=525}} There was also unrest in Babylon, which revolted at least twice against Xerxes during his reign. The first revolt broke out in June or July of 484 BC and was led by a rebel of the name [[Bel-shimanni]]. Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived; Babylonian documents written during his reign only account for a period of two weeks.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}}

Two years later, Babylon produced another rebel leader, [[Shamash-eriba]]. Beginning in the summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba seized Babylon itself and other nearby cities, such as [[Borsippa]] and [[Dilbat]], and was only defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy siege of Babylon.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}} The precise cause of the unrest in Babylon is uncertain.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=525}} It may have been due to tax increases.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=111}} Prior to these revolts, Babylon had occupied a special position within the [[Achaemenid Empire]]; the Achaemenid kings had held the titles of "[[King of Babylon]]" and "[[King of the Lands]]," implying that they perceived [[Babylonia]] as a somewhat separate entity within their empire, united with their own kingdom in a [[personal union]]. After the revolts, however, Xerxes dropped "King of Babylon" from his titulature and divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]]'s territory) into smaller sub-units.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1989|pp=185–186}}

Based on texts written by classical authors, it is often assumed that Xerxes enacted a brutal vengeance on Babylon following the two revolts. According to ancient writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications and damaged the temples in the city.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}} The [[Esagila]] was allegedly subject to great damage, and Xerxes allegedly carried the [[statue of Marduk]] away from the city,{{sfn|Sancisi-Weerdenburg|2002|p=579}} possibly bringing it to Iran and melting it down (classical authors hold that the statue was made entirely of gold, which would have made melting it down possible).{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}} Modern historian [[Amélie Kuhrt]] considers it unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story of him doing so may derive from an [[anti-Iranian sentiment|anti-Persian sentiment]] among the Babylonians.{{sfn|Deloucas|2016|p=39}} It is doubtful if the statue was removed from Babylon at all{{sfn|Dandamayev|1993|p=41}} and some have even suggested that Xerxes did remove a statue from the city, but that this was the golden statue of a man rather than the statue of the god [[Marduk]].{{sfn|Waerzeggers|Seire|2018|p=3}}{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=544}} Though mentions of it are lacking considerably compared to earlier periods, contemporary documents suggest that the Babylonian [[Akitu|New Year's Festival]] continued in some form during the Achaemenid period.{{sfn|Deloucas|2016|p=40}} Because the change in rulership from the Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to the replacement of the city's elite families by Xerxes following its revolt, it is possible that the festival's traditional rituals and events had changed considerably.{{sfn|Deloucas|2016|p=41}}

==Campaigns==
===Invasion of the Greek mainland===
{{Main|Second Persian invasion of Greece}}
[[File:Xerxes all ethnicities.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The soldiers of Xerxes I, of all ethnicities,<ref>[http://www.iranicaonline.org/uploads/files/Clothing/v5f7a014_f1_300.jpg Soldiers with names], after Walser</ref> on the tomb of Xerxes I, at [[Naqsh-e Rostam]]<ref>The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas [https://repository.brynmawr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1082&context=arch_pubs p. 713]</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Naqš-e-Rostam – Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/naqs-e-rostam |language=en}}</ref>]]
Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the [[Athens|Athenians]], [[Naxos Island|Naxians]], and [[Eretria]]ns for their interference in the [[Ionian Revolt]], the burning of [[Sardis]], and their victory over the Persians at [[Battle of Marathon|Marathon]]. Xerxes initially wanted to avoid a major war with Greece, but was convinced otherwise by his fathers generals headed by his cousin [[Mardonius (nephew of Darius I)|Mardonius]], who accused him of timidity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=shahbazi |first=shapur |title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0199390427 |editor-last=Daryaee |editor-first=Touraj |pages=128 |chapter=4, THE ACHAEMENID PERSIAN EMPIRE (550–330  bce )}}</ref> From 483&nbsp;BC, Xerxes prepared his expedition: The [[Xerxes Canal]] was dug through the [[isthmus]] of the peninsula of [[Mount Athos]], provisions were stored in the stations on the road through [[Thrace]], and two [[pontoon bridge]]s later known as [[Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges]] were built across the [[Hellespont]]. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes from all over his multi-ethnic    massive sized empire and beyond, including the [[Medes]], [[Saka]], [[Elamites]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Phoenicia]]ns, [[Babylonians]], [[Egyptians]], [[Jews]], [[Arabs]]<ref>Farrokh, Kaveh (2007). ''Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War''. Oxford, UK: Osprey. {{ISBN|1846031087}}, p. 77</ref> [[Macedon]]ians, [[Thrace|Thracians]], [[Paionia|Paeonians]], [[Achaeans (tribe)|Achaean]] [[Greeks]], [[Ionians|Ionian]] [[Greeks]], [[Aegean Islands|Aegean]] [[Greeks]], [[Aeolis|Aeolian]] [[Greeks]], [[Greeks|Greeks from]] [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]], [[Colchians]], [[Sindhis]] and many more.

According to the Greek historian [[Herodotus]], Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the [[flax]] and [[papyrus]] cables of the bridges. In retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times, and had [[fetters]] thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful.<ref>Bailkey, Nels, ed. ''Readings in Ancient History'', p. 175. D.C. Heath and Co., 1992.</ref> The [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] [[Sicilian Wars#The First Sicilian War (480 BC)|invasion of Sicily]] deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] and [[Agrigentum]]; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical.<ref>G. Mafodda, ''La monarchia di Gelone tra pragmatismo, ideologia e propaganda'', (Messina, 1996) pp. 119–136</ref> Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially [[Thessaly]], [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] and [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]]. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles.

Xerxes set out in the spring of 480&nbsp;BC from [[Sardis]] with a fleet and army which [[Herodotus]] estimated was roughly one million strong along with 10,000 elite warriors named the [[Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)|Immortals]]. More recent estimates place the Persian force at around 60,000 combatants.<ref>Barkworth, 1993. "The Organization of Xerxes' Army." ''Iranica Antiqua'' Vol. 27, pp. 149–167</ref>

===Battle of Thermopylae and destruction of Athens===
[[File:Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite.jpg|thumb|Achaemenid king killing a Greek [[hoplite]]. Impression from a [[cylinder seal]], sculpted c. 500–475 BC, at the time of Xerxes I [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]]]
At the [[Battle of Thermopylae]], a small force of Greek warriors led by King [[Leonidas I|Leonidas]] of [[Sparta]] resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan [[phalanx]] after a Greek man called [[Ephialtes of Trachis|Ephialtes]] betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. At [[Battle of Artemisium|Artemisium]], large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated.

[[File:Foundations of the Old Athena Temple (foreground).jpg|thumb|Foundations of the [[Old Temple of Athena]], destroyed by the armies of Xerxes I during the [[Destruction of Athens]] in 480 BC]]
After Thermopylae, [[Athens]] was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of [[Salamis Island|Salamis]] before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the [[Athenian Acropolis]], but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the [[Destruction of Athens]] and burnt the city, leaving an archaeologically attested [[destruction layer]], known as the [[Perserschutt]].<ref>Martin Steskal, ''Der Zerstörungsbefund 480/79 der Athener Akropolis. Eine Fallstudie zum etablierten Chronologiegerüst'', Verlag Dr. Kovač, Hamburg, 2004</ref> The Persians thus gained control of all of mainland Greece to the north of the [[Isthmus of Corinth]].<ref name="Warfare in the Ancient World"/>

===Battles of Salamis and Plataea===
Xerxes was induced, by the message of [[Themistocles]] (against the advice of [[Artemisia I of Caria|Artemisia]] of [[Halicarnassus]]), to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the [[Peloponnesus]] and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The [[Battle of Salamis]] (September, 480&nbsp;BC) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in [[Thessaly]].

According to Herodotus, fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the [[Hellespont]] and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back to Asia, taking the greater part of the army with him.<ref name=VIII97>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231406;layout=;loc=8.96.1 VIII, 97]</ref> Another cause of the retreat might have been that the continued unrest in [[Babylon]], a key province of the [[Achaemenid Empire|empire]], required the king's personal attention.<ref name="livius">{{cite web|url=https://www.livius.org/saa-san/samas-eriba/samas-eriba.html|publisher=livius.org|title=Bêl-šimânni and Šamaš-eriba – Livius|access-date=7 September 2016|archive-date=22 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622163614/http://www.livius.org/saa-san/samas-eriba/samas-eriba.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
He left behind a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under [[Mardonius (general)|Mardonius]], who according to Herodotus had suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated the following year at [[Battle of Plataea|Plataea]] by the combined forces of the Greek city states, ending the Persian offensive on Greece for good.

==Construction projects==
[[File:Xerxes tomb at Naqsh-e Rostam (4615488322).jpg|thumb|right|The rock-cut tomb at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]] north of [[Persepolis]], copying that of [[Darius the Great|Darius]], is usually assumed to be that of Xerxes]]
After his military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at [[Susa]] and [[Persepolis]]. He oversaw the building of the [[Gate of All Nations]] and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He oversaw the completion of the [[Apadana]], the [[Tachara]] (Palace of Darius) and the Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having his own palace built which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale.<ref>Ghirshman, ''Iran'', p. 172</ref> He had colorful enameled brick laid on the exterior face of the [[Apadana]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fergusson|first1=James|title=A History of Architecture in All Countries, from the Earliest Times to the Present Day: 1. Ancient architecture. 2. Christian architecture. xxxi, 634 p. front., illus|pages=211}}</ref> He also maintained the [[Royal Road]] built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a [[Palace of Darius in Susa|palace in Susa]].<ref>Herodotus VII.11</ref>

==Death and succession==
[[File:Clay tablet. The cuneiform text mentions the murder of Xerxes I (r. 485-465 BCE) by his son and a lunar eclipse (609-447 BCE). From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum.jpg|thumb|left|This cuneiform text mentions the murder of Xerxes I by his son. From Babylon, Iraq. British Museum]]
In August 465&nbsp;BC, likely between 4 and 8 August,{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=}}{{pn|date=June 2025}} [[Artabanus of Persia|Artabanus]], the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a [[eunuch]], Aspamitres.{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|pp=195–209}} Although the [[Hyrcanian]] Artabanus bore the same name as the [[Artabanus (son of Hystaspes)|famed uncle of Xerxes]], his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenids]].<ref>[[#refkhshayayrsha|Iran-e-Bastan/Pirnia book 1 p. 873]]</ref>

Greek historians give differing accounts of events. According to [[Ctesias]] (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes]], to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to [[Aristotle]] (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.<ref>[[#refartabanus-ei|Dandamayev]]</ref> Participating in these intrigues was the general [[Megabyzus]], whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control of the Persian throne.<ref>[[##refartaxerxes|''History of Persian Empire'', Olmstead pp. 289/90]]</ref>

==Religion==
While there is no general consensus in scholarship as to whether Xerxes and his predecessors had been influenced by [[Zoroastrianism]],{{sfn|Malandra|2005}} it is well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in [[Ahura Mazda]], whom he saw as the supreme deity.{{sfn|Malandra|2005}} However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the [[Indo-Iranians|(Indo-)Iranian]] religious tradition.{{sfn|Malandra|2005}}{{sfn|Boyce|1984|pp=684–687}} On his treatment of other religions, Xerxes followed the same policy as his predecessors: he appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=549}}

==Wives and children==
[[File:Designation of Xerxes I.jpg|thumb|Xerxes being designated by Darius I. Tripylon, [[Persepolis]]. The ethnicities of the Empire are shown supporting the throne. [[Ahuramazda]] crowns the scene.]]
'''By queen [[Amestris]]''':

* [[Darius (son of Xerxes I)|Darius]], the first born son, murdered by [[Artaxerxes I]] or [[Artabanus of Persia|Artabanus]].
* [[Hystaspes (son of Xerxes I)|Hystaspes]], murdered by [[Artaxerxes I]].
* [[Artaxerxes I]]
* [[Rhodogune]]
* [[Amytis of Persia|Amytis]], wife of [[Megabyzus]].

'''By unknown wives or mistresses''':
* [[Artarius]], satrap of [[Babylon]].
* [[Tithraustes (son of Xerxes I)|Tithraustes]]
* [[Parysatis (daughter of Xerxes I)|Parysatis]]<ref>Ctesias</ref>
* Ratashah<ref>M. Brosius, ''Women in ancient Persia''.</ref>

== Reception ==
[[File:Trilingual inscription of Xerxes, Van, 1973.JPG|thumb|[[Xerses I's inscription at Van|Trilingual inscription of Xerxes at Van]] (present-day Turkey)]]
Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Roman sources is largely negative and this set the tone for most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition. Xerxes is a central character of [[Aeschylus]]' play ''[[The Persians]]'', first performed in Athens in 472 BC, only seven years after his invasion of Greece. The play presents him as an effeminate figure and his hubristic effort to bring both Asia and Europe under his control leads to the ruin of both himself and his kingdom.{{sfn|Hall|1993|p=118-127}}

[[Herodotus]]'s ''Histories'', written later in the fifth century BC, centre on the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure. Some of Herodotus' information is spurious.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=57}}{{sfn|Radner|2013|p=454}} Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=158, 516}} Richard Stoneman regards his portrayal of Xerxes as nuanced and tragic, compared to the vilification that he suffered at the hands of the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian]] king [[Alexander the Great]] ({{reign|336|323|era=BC}}).{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=2}}

Xerxes is identified with the king [[Ahasuerus]] in the biblical [[Book of Esther]],{{sfn|Stoneman|2015|p=9}} which some scholars, including [[Eduard Schwartz]], [[William Rainey Harper]], and [[Michael V. Fox]], consider to be historical romance.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fox |first1=Michael V. |title=Character and ideology in the book of Esther |date=2010 |publisher=[[Wipf and Stock]] |location=Eugene, OR |isbn=9781608994953 |page=145}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Book of Esther between Judaism and Christianity |last=Kalimi |first=Isaac |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2023 |isbn=9781009266123 |page=130 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HvnAEAAAQBAJ}}</ref> There is nothing close to a consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the basis for the story.<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Book-of-Esther|title = Book of Esther &#124; Summary & Facts| date=8 August 2023 }}</ref><ref name="Encyclopædia Iranica 1984">{{cite web | first=W. S. | last=McCullough | title=Ahasureus | website=Encyclopædia Iranica | date= 28 July 2011 | orig-year=15 December 1984 | url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahasureus | access-date=3 April 2020 | quote=There may be some factual nucleus behind the Esther narrative, but the book in its present form displays such inaccuracies and inconsistencies that it must be described as a piece of historical fiction.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Barton |editor-first1=John |editor-last2=Muddiman |editor-first2=John |first=Carol|last=Meyers|title=The Oxford Bible Commentary |date=2007 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780199277186 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DWUTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA325 |language=en | page=325 | quote=Like the Joseph story in Genesis and the book of Daniel, it is a fictional piece of prose writing involving the interaction between foreigners and Hebrews/Jews.}}</ref><ref name="JewishEncyclopedia.com">{{cite web | author-first1=Emil G.|author-last1=Hirsch|author-first2=John|author-last2=Dyneley Prince|author-first3=Solomon|author-last3=Schechter|editor-first1=Isidor|editor-last1=Singer|editor-first2=Cyrus|editor-last2=Adler|title=Esther | website=Jewish Encyclopedia | year=1906 | url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5872-esther | access-date=25 April 2020 | quote=The vast majority of modern expositors have reached the conclusion that the book is a piece of pure fiction, although some writers qualify their criticism by an attempt to treat it as a historical romance.}}</ref>

Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera ''[[Serse]]'' by the German-English [[Baroque]] composer [[George Frideric Handel]]. It was first performed in the [[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]] London on 15 April 1738. The famous [[aria]] {{lang|it|italic=no|"[[Ombra mai fù]]"}} opens the opera.

The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (''Artabano''), execution of crown prince Darius (''Dario''), revolt by Megabyzus (''Megabise''), and subsequent succession of [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]] is romanticised by the Italian poet [[Metastasio]] in his opera libretto ''[[Artaserse]]'' (1730), which was first set to music by [[Leonardo Vinci]], and subsequently by other composers such as [[Johann Adolf Hasse]] and [[Johann Christian Bach]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johann-Adolph-Hasse|title=Johann Adolph Hasse {{!}} German composer|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oxfordwesternmusic.com/view/Volume2/actrade-9780195384826-div1-04005.xml|title=Metastasio's Musicians: Music In The Seventeenth And Eighteenth Centuries|website=Oxford Western Music|access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://christermalmberg.se/documents/musik/klassiskt/bach_johann_christian/bach_johann_christian_verk_uvertyrer_cpo.php|title=Christer Malmbergs värld - Musik – Klassisk musik – Johann Christian Bach|website=christermalmberg.se|access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref>

The historical novel ''Xerxes of de Hoogmoed'' (1919) by Dutch writer [[Louis Couperus]] describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes. Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on an extensive study of Herodotus. The English translation ''Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes'' by Frederick H. Martens appeared in 1930.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bibliotheek.nl/catalogus/titel.110734645.html/xerxes--of-de-hoogmoed/|title=Xerxes, of De hoogmoed|website=www.bibliotheek.nl|access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Classe|first1=O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=myLDA0_brhcC&q=Arrogance%3A+The+Conquests+of+Xerxes+by+Frederick+H.+Martens&pg=PA315|title=Encyclopedia of Literary Translation Into English: A–L|last2=AC02468681|first2=Anonymus|date=2000|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-36-7|language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Esther haram.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The Persian king in the Biblical [[Book of Esther]] is commonly thought to be Xerxes]]
Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, particularly the [[Battle of Thermopylae]], has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of [[popular culture]]. He was played by [[David Farrar (actor)|David Farrar]] in the film ''[[The 300 Spartans]]'' (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novels ''[[300 (comics)|300]]'' and ''[[Xerxes: The Fall of the House of Darius and the Rise of Alexander]]'' by [[Frank Miller]], as well as the film adaptation ''[[300 (film)|300]]'' (2007) and its sequel ''[[300: Rise of an Empire]]'' (2014), as portrayed by [[Brazil]]ian actor [[Rodrigo Santoro]], in which he is represented as a giant man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king. This portrayal attracted controversy, especially in [[Iran]].<ref>Boucher, Geoff. [http://herocomplex.latimes.com/2010/06/01/xerxes-300-frank-miller-300-zack-snyder-300/ "Frank Miller returns to the '300' battlefield with 'Xerxes': 'I make no apologies whatsoever{{'"}}]. ''The Los Angeles Times''. 1 June 2010. Retrieved 14 May 2010.</ref> [[Ken Davitian]] plays Xerxes in ''[[Meet the Spartans]]'', a parody of the first ''300'' movie replete with sophomoric humour and deliberate [[anachronisms]]. Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based on his portrayal in ''300'' appears in the ''[[South Park]]'' episode "[[D-Yikes!]]"

Other works dealing with the Persian Empire or the Biblical story of [[Esther]] have also featured or alluded to Xerxes, such as the video game ''[[Assassin's Creed Odyssey]]'' and the film ''[[One Night with the King]]'' (2006), in which [[Ahasuerus]] (Xerxes) was portrayed by British actor [[Luke Goss]]. He is the leader of the Persian Empire in the video game ''[[Civilization II]]'' and ''[[Civilization III|III]]'' (along with [[Scheherazade]]), although ''[[Civilization IV]]'' replaces him with [[Cyrus the Great]] and [[Darius I]].{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} He reappears as a Leader in ''[[Civilization VII]]''. In the ''[[Age of Empires (video game)|Age of Empires]]'', Xerxes featured as a short swordsman.

[[File:Ahasuerus by Ernest Normand.jpg|thumb|upright|Xerxes ([[Ahasuerus]]) by [[Ernest Normand]], 1888 (detail)]]
[[Gore Vidal]], in his historical fiction novel ''[[Creation (novel)|Creation]]'' (1981), describes at length the rise of the Achaemenids, especially Darius I, and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. Vidal's version of the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek histories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet [[Zoroaster]]. Thanks to his family connection, Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes, and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access to many leading historical figures of the period.<ref>Gore Vidal, ''Creation: A Novel'' (Random House, 1981)</ref>

Xerxes ([[Ahasuerus]]) is portrayed by [[Richard Egan (actor)|Richard Egan]] in the 1960 film ''[[Esther and the King]]'' and by [[Joel Smallbone]] in the 2013 film, ''[[The Book of Esther (film)|The Book of Esther]]''. In at least one of these films, the events of the Book of Esther are depicted as taking place upon Xerxes' return from Greece.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}

Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in two short works of [[alternate history]] taking place generations after his complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by [[Harry Turtledove]] in his anthology ''[[Departures (collection)|Departures]]'' and "The Craft of War" by [[Lois Tilton]] in ''Alternate Generals'' volume 1 (edited by Turtledove).{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}

==See also==
* [[List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
===Ancient sources===
* {{ws | [[s:History of Herodotus/Book 6|The Sixth Book, Entitled Erato]] in ''History of Herodotus''}}
* {{ws | [[s:History of Herodotus/Book 7|The Seventh Book, Entitled Polymnia]] in ''History of Herodotus''}}

===Modern sources===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal|last=Barkworth|first=Peter R.|title=The Organization of Xerxes' Army|year=1993|journal=Iranica Antiqua|volume=27|pages=149–167|doi=10.2143/ia.27.0.2002126|ref=refbarkworth}}
* {{cite book|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1988|isbn=0-521-22804-2|volume=V|ref=refcah-vv|first1=John|last1=Boardman}}
* {{cite encyclopaedia |last=Boyce |first=Mary |title=Achaemenid Religion |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-religion |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 1 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refachaemenidr-EI}}
* {{cite book | title = Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices | year = 1979 | publisher = Psychology Press | last = Boyce | first = Mary | author-link = Mary Boyce | pages = 1–252 | isbn = 9780415239028 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=a6gbxVfjtUEC&q=false }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Ahura Mazdā | last = Boyce | first = Mary | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahura-mazda | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7 | pages = 684–687 | year = 1984 }}
* Bridges, Emma (2014). Imagining Xerxes: Ancient Perspectives on a Persian King. Bloomsbury. {{ISBN|978-1472511379}}
* {{cite book | title = From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire | year = 2002 | publisher = Eisenbrauns | last = Briant | first = Pierre | author-link = Pierre Briant | pages = 1–1196 | isbn = 9781575061207 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lxQ9W6F1oSYC&q=false }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |article=Women i. In Pre-Islamic Persia |last=Brosius |first=Maria |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/women-i |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |location=London et al. |year=2000}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Dandamayev |first=M.A. |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |title=Artabanus |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/artabanus-achaemenid |access-date=25 February 2009 |year=1999 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Pau |ref=refartabanus-ei}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Achaemenid taxation |last=Dandamayev |first=Muhammad A. |author-link=Muhammad Dandamayev |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-taxation |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |year=2000}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ms30qA6nyMsC&q=shamash-eriba&pg=PA185|title=A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire|last=Dandamayev|first=Muhammad A.|publisher=BRILL|year=1989|isbn=978-9004091726|author-link=Muhammad Dandamayev}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Dandamayev|first=Muhammad A.|date=1993|title=Xerxes and the Esagila Temple in Babylon|journal=[[Bulletin of the Asia Institute]]|volume=7|pages=41–45|jstor=24048423}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Cambyses II | last = Dandamayev | first = Muhammad A. | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cambyses-opers | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 7 | pages = 726–729 | year = 1990 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Achaemenes | last = Dandamayev | first =  Muhammad A. | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenes-greek | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 4 | pages = 414 | year = 1983 }}
* {{cite book |last=Frye |first=Richard N. |title=The Heritage of Persia |publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson |year=1963 |isbn=0-297-16727-8 |page=301 |ref=reffrye-hop}}
* {{Cite thesis|last=Deloucas|first=Andrew Alberto Nicolas|date=2016|title=Balancing Power and Space: a Spatial Analysis of the Akītu Festival in Babylon after 626 BCE|type=Master's thesis|publisher=Universiteit Leiden|url=https://studenttheses.universiteitleiden.nl/handle/1887/42888|hdl=1887/42888 }}
* {{cite book |title=The Cambridge history of Iran |volume=2 |first1=Ilya |last1=Gershevitch |first2=William |last2=Bayne Fisher |first3=J. |last3=A. Boyle |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0-521-20091-1 |year=1985 |ref=refchi-v2}}
*{{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Edith |author-link=Edith Hall |editor1-last=Rich |editor1-first=John |editor2-last=Shipley |editor2-first=Graham |title=War and Society in the Greek World |date=1993 |publisher=Routledge |pages=108–133 |chapter=Asia Unmanned: Images of Victory in Classical Athens}}
* {{cite book |last=Klinkott|first=Hilmar|title=Xerxes. Der Großkönig in Griechenland|publisher=Kohlhammer|year=2023|isbn=978-3-17-040114-3}}
* {{cite book |first=Lloyd|last=Llewellyn-Jones|editor1-last=Daryaee |editor1-first=Touraj |title=King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE) |date=2017 |publisher=UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies |chapter=The Achaemenid Empire|pages=1–236|isbn=9780692864401|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=unTjswEACAAJ}}
* {{cite book |url=https://www.academia.edu/77573163|first=Ian|last=Macgregor Morris|editor1-last=Konecny |editor1-first=Andreas |editor2-last=Sekunda |editor2-first=Nicholas |title= The Battle of Plataiai 479 BC |date=2022 |publisher=Phoibos Verlag |chapter=Xerxes: Ideology and Practice|pages=13–69|isbn=9783851612714}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Zoroastrianism i. Historical review up to the Arab conquest | last = Malandra | first = William W. | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/zoroastrianism-i-historical-review | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica | year = 2005 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Macaulay |first1=G.C. |title=The Histories |publisher=Spark Educational Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=1-59308-102-2 |ref=refherodotus-macaulay}}
* {{cite book|last=Marciak|first=Michał|title=Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene: Three Regna Minora of Northern Mesopotamia Between East and West|date=2017|publisher=Brill|isbn=9789004350724|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hwEtDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite encyclopaedia |last=McCullough |first=W.S |title=Ahasuerus |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahasureus |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 1 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refMcCullough-EI}}
* {{cite journal |last=Schmeja |first=H. |title=Dareios, Xerxes, Artaxerxes. Drei persische Königsnamen in griechischer Deutung (Zu Herodot 6,98,3) |year=1975 |journal=Die Sprache |volume=21 |pages=184–188 |ref=refschmeja}}
* {{cite book |last1=Radner|first1=Karen|editor-last=Potts|editor-first=Daniel T.|title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199733309 |chapter=Assyria and the Medes}}
* {{Cite book|chapter-url=https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004217584/BP000026.xml|title=Brill's Companion to Herodotus|last=Sancisi-Weerdenburg|first=Heleen|publisher=BRILL|year=2002|isbn=9789004217584|pages=579–590|chapter=The Personality of Xerxes, King of Kings|doi=10.1163/9789004217584_026}}
* {{cite encyclopaedia |last=Schmitt |first=Rüdiger |title=Achaemenid dynasty |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 3 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refachaemenids-EI}}
* {{cite encyclopaedia |last=Schmitt |first=Rüdiger |title=Atossa |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/atossa-achaemenid-queen |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 3 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refatossa-EI}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Xerxes i. The Name | last = Schmitt| first = Rüdiger | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/xerxes-1-name | encyclopedia  = Encyclopaedia Iranica | year = 2000 }}
* {{cite book |last=Shabani |first=Reza |title=Khshayarsha (Xerxes) |series=What do I know about Iran? No. 75 |publisher=Cultural Research Bureau |isbn=978-964-379-109-4 |year=2007 |language=fa |page=120 |ref=refshabani-xerxes}}
* {{cite encyclopaedia |last=Shahbazi |first=A. Sh. |title=Darius I the Great |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/darius-iii |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 7 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=refdariusithegreat-EI}}
* {{cite book |title=Xerxes: A Persian Life |year=2015 |publisher=Yale University Press |last=Stoneman |first=Richard |isbn=978-0300180077|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WqtJCgAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |title=History of the Persian Empire |first1=A.T. |last1=Olmstead|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0226497648 |year=1979 |orig-year=1948 |ref=#refartaxerxes}}
* {{cite journal |last1=van Rookhuijzen |first1=Jan Zacharias |title=How not to Appease Athena: A Reconsideration of Xerxes' Purported Visit to the Troad (Hdt. 7.42–43) |journal=Klio |date=2017 |volume=99 |issue=2 |pages=464–484 |doi=10.1515/klio-2017-0033|s2cid=199060163 }}
* {{Cite book|last1=Waerzeggers|first1=Caroline|last2=Seire|first2=Maarja|title=Xerxes and Babylonia: The Cuneiform Evidence |publisher=Peeters Publishers|year=2018|isbn=978-90-429-3670-6 |url=http://www.peeters-leuven.be/pdf/9789042938090.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209234806/http://www.peeters-leuven.be/pdf/9789042938090.pdf |archive-date=2019-12-09 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Waters|first1=Matt|title=Darius and the Achaemenid Line |date=1996 |journal=Ancient History Bulletin |volume=10 |pages=11–18 |location=London |url=https://www.academia.edu/1040688 |url-access=registration}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Xerxes I}}
* {{Cite EB1911|short=x|wstitle=Xerxes}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid dynasty]]||{{circa|519 BC}}||465 BC}}
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[Darius the Great]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of kings of Persia|King of Kings of Persia]]|years=486–465 BC}}
{{s-aft|rows=2|after=[[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of pharaohs|Pharaoh of Egypt]]|dynasty=[[Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt|XXVII Dynasty]]|years=486–465 BC}}
{{s-end}}

{{Median and Achaemenid kings}}
{{Pharaohs}}
{{Achaemenid rulers}}
{{Babylonian kings}}
{{Persepolis}}

{{Authority control}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}}

[[Category:Xerxes I| ]]
[[Category:510s BC births]]
[[Category:465 BC deaths]]
[[Category:5th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire]]
[[Category:5th-century BC murdered monarchs]]
[[Category:5th-century BC pharaohs]]
[[Category:Book of Esther]]
[[Category:Battle of Salamis]]
[[Category:Battle of Thermopylae]]
[[Category:Family of Darius the Great]]
[[Category:Kings of the Achaemenid Empire]]
[[Category:Murdered Persian monarchs]]
[[Category:Persian people of the Greco-Persian Wars]]
[[Category:Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt]]
[[Category:Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]