View source for Xhosa language

{{short description|Nguni language of southern South Africa}}
{{EngvarB|date=May 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Xhosa
| nativename       = {{lang|xh|isiXhosa}}
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|xh|ᵏǁʰôːsa||Xhosa.ogg}}
| states           = [[South Africa]] <br /> [[Lesotho]]
| region           = eastern [[Eastern Cape]]; scattered communities elsewhere
| ethnicity        = [[Xhosa people|AmaXhosa]]
| speakers         = 8 million
| date             = 2013
| ref              = e26
| speakers2        = 11 million [[L2 speaker]]s (2002)<ref>{{cite book |last=Webb |first=Vic |date=2002 |title=Language in South Africa: the role of language in national transformation, reconstruction and development |series=Impact: Studies in language and society |number=14 |page=78 |isbn=978-9-02721-849-0}}</ref>
| familycolor      = Niger-Congo
| fam2             = [[Atlantic–Congo languages|Atlantic–Congo]]
| fam3             = [[Volta–Congo languages|Volta-Congo]]
| fam4             = [[Benue–Congo languages|Benue–Congo]]
| fam5             = [[Bantoid languages|Bantoid]]
| fam6             = [[Southern Bantoid languages|Southern Bantoid]]
| fam7             = [[Bantu languages|Bantu]]
| fam8             = [[Southern Bantu]]
| fam9             = [[Nguni languages|Nguni]]-[[Tswa-Ronga|Tsonga]]
| fam10            = [[Nguni languages|Nguni]]
| fam11            = [[Zunda languages|Zunda]]
| nation           = {{RSA}}<br />{{ZIM}}
| minority         = {{BOT}}
| script           = [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Xhosa language#Orthography|Xhosa alphabet]])<br />[[Xhosa Braille]]<br>[[Ditema tsa Dinoko]]
| sign             = [[Signed Xhosa]]<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Leila |editor-first=Monaghan |first1=Debra |last1=Aarons |first2=Louise |last2=Reynolds |name-list-style=amp |date=2003 |chapter=South African Sign Language: Changing Policies and Practice |title=Many Ways to be Deaf: International Variation in Deaf Communities |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=[[Gallaudet University Press]] |pages=194–210 |isbn=978-1-56368-234-6}}</ref>
| iso1             = xh
| iso2             = xho
| iso3             = xho
| glotto           = xhos1239
| glottorefname    = Xhosa
| guthrie          = S.41
| lingua           = [http://linguasphere.info/?page=linguascale&linguacode=99-AUT-fa 99-AUT-fa] incl.<br />varieties 99-AUT-faa<br />to 99-AUT-faj +<br />99-AUT-fb (isiHlubi)
| map              = South Africa Xhosa speakers proportion map.svg
| mapcaption       = Proportion of the South African population that speaks Xhosa at home
{{div col|colwidth=10em|content=
{{legend|#EDF8E9|0–20%}}
{{legend|#BAE4B3|20–40%}}
{{legend|#74C476|40–60%}}
{{legend|#31A354|60–80%}}
{{legend|#006D2C|80–100%}}
}}
| notice           = IPA
}}

'''Xhosa''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɔː|s|ə}} {{respelling|KAW|sə}} {{small |or}} {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|oʊ|s|ə|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Xhosa language.wav}} {{respelling|KOH|sə}},<ref>{{cite web |title=Xhosa – Definition and pronunciation |url=http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/xhosa |work=Oxford Learner's Dictionaries |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=16 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Xhosa – pronunciation of Xhosa |url=http://www.macmillandictionary.com/pronunciation/british/Xhosa |work=Macmillan Dictionary |publisher=Macmillan Publishers Limited |access-date=16 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Laurie |last=Bauer |date=2007 |title=The Linguistics Student's Handbook |location=Edinburgh |publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]] |isbn=978-0-74862-759-2}}</ref> {{IPA|xh|ᵏǁʰôːsa|lang|Xhosa.ogg}}), formerly spelled '''''Xosa''''' and also known by its [[Endonym and exonym|local name]] '''''isiXhosa''''', is a [[Nguni languages|Bantu]] language, indigenous to Southern Africa and one of the official [[languages of South Africa]] and [[Languages of Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe]].<ref name="constitution">{{cite web |url=http://www.kubatana.net/docs/legisl/constitution_zim_draft_copac_130125.pdf |title=Constitution of Zimbabwe (final draft) |website=Kubatana.net |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002110534/http://www.kubatana.net/docs/legisl/constitution_zim_draft_copac_130125.pdf |archive-date=2013-10-02 |quote=The following languages, namely Chewa, Chibarwe, English, Kalanga, Koisan, Nambya, Ndau, Ndebele, Shangani, Shona, sign language, Venda, Tonga are the officially recognised languages of Zimbabwe.}}</ref> 

Xhosa is spoken as a first language by approximately 8 million people and as a second language in South Africa, particularly in [[Eastern Cape]], [[Western Cape]], [[Northern Cape]] and [[Gauteng]], and also in parts of Zimbabwe and [[Lesotho]].<ref name="Omniglot">{{Cite web |url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/xhosa.htm |title=Xhosa alphabet, pronunciation and language|website=www.omniglot.com |access-date=2017-07-06}}</ref> It has perhaps the heaviest [[functional load]] of [[click consonant]]s in a Bantu language (approximately tied with [[Yeyi language|Yeyi]]), with one count finding that 10% of basic vocabulary items contained a click.<ref>See {{cite book |editor1-last=Clem |editor1-first=Emily |editor2-last=Jenks |editor2-first=Peter |editor3-last=Sande |editor3-first=Hannah |first1=Bonny |last1=Sands |first2=Hilde |last2=Gunnink |name-list-style=amp |date=2019 |chapter=Clicks on the fringes of the Kalahari Basin Area |title=Theory and Description in African Linguistics: Selected Papers from the 47th Annual Conference on African Linguistics |location=Berlin |publisher=Language Science Press |pages=703–724 |isbn=978-3-96110-205-1 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.3365789}}</ref>

==Classification==
Xhosa is part of the branch of [[Nguni languages]], which also include [[Zulu language|Zulu]], [[Southern Ndebele language|Southern Ndebele]] and [[Northern Ndebele language|Northern Ndebele]], called the Zunda languages.<ref name="websters">{{cite web |url=http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Xhosa-english/ |title=Xhosa-English Dictionary |first=Philip M. |last=Parker |date=2003 |website=Webster's Online Dictionary |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040413042205/http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Xhosa-english/ |archive-date=13 April 2004 }}</ref> Zunda languages effectively form a dialect continuum of variously mutually intelligible varieties.

Xhosa is, to a large extent, mutually intelligible with [[Zulu language|Zulu]] and with other Nguni languages to a lesser extent. Nguni languages are, in turn, classified under the much larger abstraction of [[Bantu languages]].<ref name="ucla">{{Cite web |url=http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=21&menu=004 |title=Xhosa |website=UCLA Language Materials Project |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214071133/http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=21&menu=004 |archive-date=14 December 2007 |access-date=13 December 2006}}</ref>

==Geographical distribution==
[[File:South Africa Xhosa speakers density map.svg|thumb|Geographical distribution of the Xhosa in South Africa: density of Xhosa home-language speakers. 
{{div col|colwidth=10em|content=
{{legend|#ffffcc|<&nbsp;1 /km²}}
{{legend|#ffeda0|1–3 /km²}}
{{legend|#fed976|3–10 /km²}}
{{legend|#feb24c|10–30 /km²}}
{{legend|#fd8d3c|30–100 /km²}}
{{legend|#fc4e2a|100–300 /km²}}
{{legend|#e31a1c|300–1000 /km²}}
{{legend|#bc0026|1000–3000 /km²}}
{{legend|#800026|>&nbsp;3000 /km²}}
}}]]
[[File:Stellenbosch Magistrate's Office (entrance).JPG|thumb|Trilingual government building sign in [[Afrikaans]], [[South African English|English]] and Xhosa]]
[[File:Amazink entrance.JPG|thumb|Sign outside the AmaZink township theatre restaurant in [[Kayamandi]] welcoming visitors in Xhosa]]
Xhosa is the most widely distributed African language in South Africa, though the most commonly spoken South African language is Zulu.<ref name="ucla" /> Xhosa is the second most common Bantu home language in South Africa. {{As of|2003}} approximately 5.3&nbsp;million Xhosa-speakers, the majority, live in the [[Eastern Cape]], followed by the [[Western Cape]] (approximately 1&nbsp;million), [[Gauteng]] (671,045), the [[Free State (province)|Free State]] (246,192), [[KwaZulu-Natal]] (219,826), North West (214,461), [[Mpumalanga]] (46,553), the [[Northern Cape]] (51,228), and [[Limpopo]] (14,225).<ref name="census">{{Cite web |url=http://www.southafrica.info/ess_info/sa_glance/demographics/census-main.htm |title=South Africa Population grows to 44.8 Million |date=9 July 2003 |website=SouthAfrica.info |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050522081642/http://www.southafrica.info/ess_info/sa_glance/demographics/census-main.htm |archive-date=22 May 2005}}</ref> There is a small but significant [[Languages of Zimbabwe#Xhosa|Xhosa community]] of about 200,000 in [[Zimbabwe]].<ref>{{cite thesis |first=Hlenze Welsh |last=Kunju |date=2017 |url=http://vital.seals.ac.za:8080/vital/access/manager/Repository/vital:21250?site_name=GlobalView |title=Isixhosa Ulwimi Lwabantu Abangesosininzi eZimbabwe: Ukuphila Nokulondolozwa Kwaso |trans-title=IsiXhosa Indigenous Languages in Zimbabwe: Survival and Preservation |language=xh |type=PhD |publisher=[[Rhodes University]]}}</ref> Also, a small community of Xhosa speakers (18,000) live in [[Quthing District]], [[Lesotho]].<ref name="xho">{{Cite web |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/xho |title=Xhosa |website=Ethnologue |access-date=22 October 2019 |url-access=subscription |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190728062843/https://www.ethnologue.com/language/xho |archive-date=28 July 2019 }}</ref>

==Orthography==
===Latin script===
The Xhosa language employs 26 letters from the [[Latin alphabet]]; some of the letters have different pronunciations from English. Phonemes not represented by one of the 26 letters are written as multiple letters. Tone, stress, and vowel length are parts of the language but are generally not indicated in writing.<ref name="Thambalwam">{{cite journal |last1=Thambalwam |first1=lwam |title=IsiXhosa |journal=Second Largest Language |year=2020 |volume=367 |issue=6477 |pages=569–573 |doi=10.1126/science.aay8833 |pmid=32001654 |pmc=9558321 |issn=1095-9203}}</ref>

==Phonology==
[[File:IbalilikaNomathemba.ogg|thumb|Spoken Xhosa]]

===Vowels===
Xhosa has an inventory of ten vowels: {{IPA|[a]}}, {{IPA|[ɛ~e]}}, {{IPA|[i]}}, {{IPA|[ɔ~o]}} and {{IPA|[u]}} written ''a'', ''e'', ''i'', ''o'' and ''u'' in order, all occurring in both [[Long vowel|long]] and [[Short vowel|short]].

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Xhosa vowel phonemes
!rowspan=2|
!colspan=2| [[Front vowel|Front]]
!colspan=2| [[Back vowel|Back]]
|- class=small
! [[Short vowel|short]]
! [[Long vowel|long]]
! short
! long
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}} {{angbr|i}}
| {{IPA link|iː}} {{angbr|ii}}
| {{IPA link|u}} {{angbr|u}}
| {{IPA link|uː}} {{angbr|uu}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|ɛ}} {{angbr|e}}
| {{IPA link|eː}} {{angbr|ee}}
| {{IPA link|ɔ}} {{angbr|o}}
| {{IPA link|oː}} {{angbr|oo}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|colspan=2|
| {{IPA link|a}} {{angbr|a}}
| {{IPA link|aː}} {{angbr|aa}}
|}

===Tones===
Xhosa is a [[tonal language]] with two inherent [[phoneme|phonemic]] tones: low and high. Tones are rarely marked in the written language, but they can be indicated {{vr|a}} {{IPA|[à]}}, {{vr|á}} {{IPA|[á]}}, {{vr|â}} {{IPA|[áà]}}, {{vr|ä}} {{IPA|[àá]}}. Long vowels are [[phoneme|phonemic]] but are usually not written except for {{vr|â}} and {{vr|ä}}, which are each sequence of two vowels with different tones that are realized as long vowels with contour tones ({{vr|â}} high–low = falling, {{vr|ä}} low–high = rising).

===Consonants===
Xhosa is rich in uncommon [[consonant]]s. Besides [[airstream mechanism#Types of airstream mechanism|pulmonic egressive]] sounds, which are found in all spoken languages, it has a series of [[ejective]] stops and one [[implosive]] stop. It has 36 [[click consonant]]s (3 basic clicks and 33 compound clicks (in comparison, [[Juǀʼhoan dialect|Juǀʼhoan]], spoken in [[Botswana]] and [[Namibia]], has 48, and [[Taa language|Taa]], with roughly 4,000 speakers in [[Botswana]], has 83). 

The following table lists the consonant phonemes of the language, with the pronunciation in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] on the left and the orthography on the right:

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|- 
!colspan=2 rowspan=2| 
!rowspan=2|[[Labial consonant|Labial]]
!colspan=2|[[Dental consonant|Dental]]/[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
!rowspan=2|[[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br>alveolar]]
! colspan="2" |[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
!rowspan=2|[[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- class=small
![[Central consonant|central]]
![[Lateral consonant|lateral]]
![[Central consonant|central]]
![[Lateral consonant|lateral]]
|-
!rowspan=6|[[Click consonant|Click]]
!<small>[[Tenuis consonant|tenuis]]/[[Ejective consonant|ejective]]</small><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jessen |first=Michael |date=2002 |title=An Acoustic Study of Contrasting Plosives and Click Accompaniments in Xhosa |journal=Phonetica |volume=59 |issue=2–3 |pages=150–179 |doi=10.1159/000066068 |pmid=12232465 |s2cid=13216903}}</ref><ref group=note name=ejective>These are variably tenuis pulmonic to ejective; the ejection tends to be weak even when present. With clicks, only the rear articulation is ejective.</ref>
|
|{{IPA link|ᵏǀʼ}} {{grapheme|c}}
|{{IPA link|ᵏǁʼ}} {{grapheme|x}}
|{{IPA link|ᵏǃʼ}} {{grapheme|q}}
|
|
|
|-
!<small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small>
|
|{{IPA link|ᵏǀʰ}} {{grapheme|ch}}
|{{IPA link|ᵏǁʰ}} {{grapheme|xh}}
|{{IPA link|ᵏǃʰ}} {{grapheme|qh}}
|
|
|
|-
!<small>[[slack voice]]</small>
|
|{{IPA link|ᶢ̥ǀʱ}} {{grapheme|gc}}
|{{IPA link|ᶢ̥ǁʱ}} {{grapheme|gx}}
|{{IPA link|ᶢ̥ǃʱ}} {{grapheme|gq}}
|
|
|
|-
!<small>nasal</small>
|
|{{IPA link|ᵑǀ}} {{grapheme|nc}}
|{{IPA link|ᵑǁ}} {{grapheme|nx}}
|{{IPA link|ᵑǃ}} {{grapheme|nq}}
|
|
|
|-
!<small>slack-voice nasal</small><ref group=note>These are analogous to the slack-voice nasals {{grapheme|mh, nh}} etc. They are not prenasalized, as can be seen in words such as {{grapheme|[[umngqokolo]]}} (overtone singing) and {{grapheme|[[umngqusho]]}} in which they are preceded by a nasal.</ref>
|
|{{IPA link|ᵑǀʱ}} {{grapheme|ngc}}
|{{IPA link|ᵑǁʱ}} {{grapheme|ngx}}
|{{IPA link|ᵑǃʱ}} {{grapheme|ngq}}
|
|
|
|-
!<small>prenasalized tenuis/ejective</small><ref>{{Cite book|last=Saul|first=Zandisile|title=Phonemes, Graphemes, and Democracy|publisher=University of KwaZulu-Natal|year=2020|isbn=9781869144388|location=Pietermaritzberg, South Africa|pages=87|language=English}}</ref><ref group="note">Incorrectly described as glottal clicks by {{cite book|last=Nurse|first=Derek|title=The Bantu Languages|page=616}} The isiXhosa clicks are not glottalized nasal clicks like those of Nama; they are prenasalized and tenuis/ejective, as maintained by Xhosa linguists like Saul.</ref>
|
|{{IPA link|ŋᵏǀʼ}} {{grapheme|nkc}}
|{{IPA link|ŋᵏǁʼ}} {{grapheme|nkx}}
|{{IPA link|ŋᵏǃʼ}} {{grapheme|nkq}}
|
|
|
|-
!rowspan=4|[[Plosive]]
!<small>[[Tenuis consonant|tenuis]]/[[Ejective consonant|ejective]]</small><ref group=note name=ejective/>
|{{IPA link|pʼ}} {{grapheme|p}}
|{{IPA link|tʼ}} {{grapheme|t}}
|
|{{IPA link|t̠ʲʼ}} {{grapheme|ty}}
|{{IPA link|kʼ}} {{grapheme|k}}
|
|{{IPA link|ʔ}}{{efn|The unwritten glottal stop is present in words like {{lang|xh|uku(ʔ)ayinela}} "to iron", {{lang|xh|uku(ʔ)a(ʔ)aza}} "to stutter", {{lang|xh|uku(ʔ)amza}} "to stall".}}
|-
! <small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small>
|{{IPA link|pʰ}} {{grapheme|ph}}
|{{IPA link|tʰ}} {{grapheme|th}}
|
|{{IPA link|t̠ʲʰ}} {{grapheme|tyh}}
|{{IPA link|kʰ}} {{grapheme|kh}}
|
|
|-
!<small>[[slack voice]]</small>
|{{IPA link|b̥ʱ}} {{grapheme|bh}}
|{{IPA link|d̥ʱ}} {{grapheme|d}}
|
|{{IPA link|d̠̥ʲʱ}} {{grapheme|dy}}
|{{IPA link|ɡ̊ʱ}} {{grapheme|g}}
|
|
|-
!<small>[[Implosive consonant|implosive]]</small>
|{{IPA link|ɓ}} {{grapheme|b}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!rowspan=3|[[Affricate]]
!<small>[[ejective consonant|ejective]]</small>
|
|{{IPA link|tsʼ}} {{grapheme|ts}}
|
|{{IPA link|tʃʼ}} {{grapheme|tsh}}
|{{IPA link|kxʼ}} {{grapheme|kr}}
|{{IPA link|k𝼄ʼ}} {{grapheme|kl}}{{efn|The onset cluster {{IPA|/kl/}} from phonologized loanwords such as {{lang|xh|ikliniki}} "the clinic" can be realized as a single consonant {{IPA|[kʟ̥ʼ]}}.}}
|
|-
!<small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small>
|
|{{IPA link|tsʰ}} {{grapheme|ths}}
|
|{{IPA link|tʃʰ}} {{grapheme|thsh}}
|{{IPA link|kxʰ}} {{grapheme|krh}}
|
|
|-
!<small>[[slack voice]]</small>
|
|{{IPA link|d̥zʱ}} {{grapheme|dz}}{{efn|These two consonants, {{IPA|[dz]}} and {{IPA|[dz̤]}}, are found in loans. Both are spelled {{vr|dz}}, the same as the consonant {{IPA|[d̥zʱ]}}.}}
|
|{{IPA link|d̥ʒʱ}} {{grapheme|j}}
|
|
|
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Fricative]]
!<small>[[voiceless]]</small>
|{{IPA link|f}} {{grapheme|f}}
|{{IPA link|s}} {{grapheme|s}}
|{{IPA link|ɬ}} {{grapheme|hl}}
|{{IPA link|ʃ}} {{grapheme|sh}}
|{{IPA link|x}} {{grapheme|rh}}
|
|{{IPA link|h}} {{grapheme|h}}
|-
!<small>[[slack voice]]</small>
|{{IPA link|v̤}} {{grapheme|v}}{{efn|In informal writing, this murmured consonant can sometimes be seen spelled as {{vr|vh}} as in {{lang|xh|ukuvha}}, but this is non-standard.}}
|{{IPA link|z̤}} {{grapheme|z}}
|{{IPA link|ɮ̈}} {{grapheme|dl}}
|{{IPA link|ʒ̈}} {{grapheme|zh}}{{efn|These two consonants, {{IPA|[ʒ]}} and {{IPA|[ʒ̈]}}, are found in borrowings. Both are spelled {{vr|zh}}.}}
|{{IPA link|ɣ̈}} {{grapheme|gr}}
|
|{{IPA link|ɦ}} {{grapheme|hh}}
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|fully voiced]]</small>
|{{IPA link|m}} {{grapheme|m}}
|{{IPA link|n}} {{grapheme|n}}
|
|{{IPA link|n̠ʲ}} {{grapheme|ny}}
|{{IPA link|ŋ}} {{grapheme|ngʼ}}
|
|
|-
!<small>[[slack voice]]</small>
|{{IPA link|m̤}} {{grapheme|mh}}
|{{IPA link|n̤}} {{grapheme|nh}}
|
|{{IPA link|n̠̈ʲ}} {{grapheme|nyh}}
|{{IPA link|ŋ̈}} {{grapheme|ngh}}{{efn|This consonant, {{IPA|[ŋ̈]}}, is found in loans. It is spelled {{vr|ngh}}.}}
|
|
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|fully voiced]]</small>
|
|{{IPA link|r}} {{grapheme|r}}{{efn|name=Rnote|These two consonants, {{IPA|[r]}} and {{IPA|[r̤]}}, are found in borrowings. Both are spelled {{vr|r}}.}}
|{{IPA link|l}} {{grapheme|l}}
|
|
|
|
|-
!<small>[[breathy voice]]d</small>
|
|{{IPA link|r̤}} {{grapheme|r}}{{efn|name=Rnote}}
|{{IPA link|l̤}} {{grapheme|lh}} 
|
|
|
|
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Semivowel]]
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|fully voiced]]</small>
|
|
|
|{{IPA link|j}} {{grapheme|y}}{{efn|Sequences of {{IPA|/jw/}} as in {{lang|xh|ukushiywa}} "abandonment" are phonologically realized {{IPA|[ɥ]}}, but this sound is non-phonemic.}}
|{{IPA link|w}} {{grapheme|w}}
|
|
|-
!<small>[[slack voice]]</small>
|
|
|
|{{IPA link|j̤}} {{grapheme|yh}}
|{{IPA link|w̤}} {{grapheme|wh}}
|
|
|}
{{notelist}}

In addition to the ejective affricate {{IPA|[tʃʼ]}}, the spelling {{vr|tsh}} may also be used for either of the aspirated affricates {{IPA|[tsʰ]}} and {{IPA|[tʃʰ]}}.

The breathy voiced glottal fricative {{IPA|[ɦ]}} is sometimes spelled {{vr|h}}.

The ejectives tend to be ejective only in careful pronunciation or in salient positions and, even then, only for some speakers. Otherwise, they tend to be [[tenuis consonant|tenuis]] (plain) stops. Similarly, the tenuis (plain) clicks are often glottalised, with a long [[voice onset time]], but that is uncommon.{{Inconsistent|date=June 2025|reason=how is it 'often' if it is 'uncommon'}}

The murmured clicks, plosives and affricates are only partially voiced, with the following vowel murmured for some speakers. That is, {{lang|xh|da}} may be pronounced {{IPA|[dʱa̤]}} (or, equivalently, {{IPA|[d̥a̤]}}). They are better described as [[slack voice]]d than as breathy voiced. They are truly voiced only after nasals, but the oral occlusion is then very short in stops, and it usually does not occur at all in clicks. Therefore, the absolute duration of voicing is the same as in tenuis stops. (They may also be voiced between vowels in some speaking styles.) The more notable characteristic is their [[depressor consonant|depressor]] effect on the tone of the syllable.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jessen |first1=Michael |first2=Justus C. |last2=Roux |year=2002 |title=Voice quality differences associated with stops and clicks in Xhosa |journal=[[Journal of Phonetics]] |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=1–52 |doi=10.1006/jpho.2001.0150}}</ref>

====Consonant changes with prenasalisation====
{{Main|Fortition}}
When consonants are [[prenasalized stop|prenasalised]], their pronunciation and spelling may change. The murmur no longer shifts to the following vowel. Fricatives become affricated and, if voiceless, they become ejectives as well: ''mf'' is pronounced {{IPA|[ɱp̪fʼ]}}, ''ndl'' is pronounced {{IPA|[ndɮ]}}, ''n+hl'' becomes ''ntl'' {{IPA|[ntɬʼ]}}, ''n+z'' becomes ''ndz'' {{IPA|[ndz]}}, ''n''+''q'' becomes [n͡ŋǃʼ] ''etc.'' The orthographic ''b'' in ''mb'' is the voiced plosive {{IPA|[mb]}}. Prenasalisation occurs in several contexts, including on roots with the class 9 prefix /iN-/, for example on an adjective which is feature-matching its noun:

/iN- + ɬɛ/ ''→'' intle"beautiful" (of a class 9 word like ''inja'' "dog")

When aspirated clicks ({{vr|ch, xh, qh}}) are prenasalised, the silent letter {{vr|k}} is added ({{vr|nkc, nkx, nkq}}) to prevent confusion with the nasal clicks {{vr|nc, nx, nq}}, and are actually distinct sounds. The prenasalized versions have a very short voicing at the onset which then releases in an ejective, like the prenasalized affricates, while the phonemically nasal clicks have a very long voicing through the consonant. When plain voiceless clicks ({{vr|c, x, q}}) are prenasalized, they become slack voiced nasal ({{vr|ngc, ngx, ngq}}).

{| class="wikitable"
|+List of consonant changes with prenasalisation
! Phoneme
! Prenasalised
!Examples (roots with class 10 /iiN-/ prefix)
! Rule
|-
|{{IPA|/pʰ/}}, {{IPA|/tʰ/}}, {{IPA|/t̠ʲʰ/}}, {{IPA|/kʰ/}}, /ǀʰ/, /ǁʰ/, /ǃʰ/
|[mpʼ], [ntʼ], [n̠t̠ʲʼ], [ŋkʼ], [n̪͡ŋǀʼ], [n͡ŋǁʼ], [n̠͡ŋǃʼ]
|
* ''phumla'' "to rest" ''→ iimpumlo'' "noses"
* ''thetha'' "to speak" ''→ iintetho'' "speeches"
* ''tyhafa'' "to weaken" ''→ iintyafo'' "weaknesses"
* ''khathala'' "care about" ''→ iinkathalo'' "cares"
*''chazela'' "explain" ''→ inkcazelo'' "information"
*''xhasa'' "to support" ''→ inkxaso'' "support"
*''qhuba'' "to drive" ''→ inkqubo'' "process"
| Aspiration is lost on obstruents; ejection is added on voiceless consonant.
|-
|{{IPA|/t̠ʲ/}}
|{{IPA|/n̠d̠ʲ/}}
|
* ''tyeba'' "to be rich" ''→ iindyebo'' "wealths"
| Voiceless palatal plosive becomes voiced.
|-
|{{IPA|/ǀ/}}, {{IPA|/ǁ/}}, {{IPA|/ǃ/}}
|{{IPA|/ŋǀʱ/}}, {{IPA|/ŋǁʱ/}}, {{IPA|/ŋǃʱ/}}
|
* ''ucango'' "door" ''→ iingcango'' "doors"
* ''uxande'' "rectangle" ''→ iingxande'' "rectangles"
* ''uqeqesho'' "training" ''→ iingqeqesho'' "trainings"
| Voiced clicks become slack voiced nasal.
|-
|{{IPA|/kǀʰ/}}, {{IPA|/kǁʰ/}}, {{IPA|/kǃʰ/}}
|{{IPA|/ŋǀʼ/}}, {{IPA|/ŋǁʼ/}}, {{IPA|/ŋǃʼ/}}
|
* ''chaza'' "to explain" ''→ iinkcazo'' "descriptions"
* ''xhasa'' "to support" ''→ iinkxaso'' "supports"
* ''qhuba'' "to continue" ''→ iinkqubo'' "processes"
| Aspirated clicks become prenasalized ejective clicks.
|-
|{{IPA|/ɓ/}}
|{{IPA|/mb̥ʱ/}}
|
* ''ibali'' "story" ''→ iimbali'' "histories"
| Implosive becomes slack voiced.
|-
|{{IPA|/f/}}, {{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/ɬ/}}, {{IPA|/x/}}<br />{{IPA|/v/}}, {{IPA|/z/}}, {{IPA|/ɮ/}}, {{IPA|/ɣ/}}
|{{IPA|[ɱp̪f]}}, {{IPA|/nts/}}, {{IPA|/ntʃ/}}, {{IPA|/ntɬ/}}, {{IPA|/ŋkx/}}<br />{{IPA|[ɱb̪̊vʱ]}}, {{IPA|[nd̥zʱ]}}, {{IPA|[nd̥ɮʱ]}}, {{IPA|[ŋɡ̊ɣʱ]}}?<!-- no examples yet -->
|
* ''fuya'' "to breed" ''→ iimfuyo'' "breeds"
* ''usana'' "child" ''→ iintsana'' "children"
* ''shumayela'' "to preach" ''→ iintshumayelo'' "sermons"
* ''isihloko'' "title" ''→ iintloko'' "heads"
* ''vuma'' "approve" ''→ iimvume'' "approvals"
* ''zama'' "try" ''→ iinzame'' "attempts"
* ''ukudleka'' "wear and tear" ''→ iindleko'' "costs"
| Fricatives become affricates. Only phonemic, and thus reflected orthographically, for {{IPA|/nts/}}, {{IPA|/ntʃ/}}, {{IPA|/ntɬ/}} and {{IPA|/ŋkx/}}.
|-
|{{IPA|/m/}}, {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/n̠ʲ/}}, {{IPA|/ŋ/}}
{{IPA|/ǀ̃/}}, {{IPA|/ǁ̃/}}, {{IPA|/ǃ̃/}}
|{{IPA|/m/}}, {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/n̠ʲ/}}, {{IPA|/ŋ/}}
{{IPA|/ǀ̃/}}, {{IPA|/ǁ̃/}}, {{IPA|/ǃ̃/}}
|
* ''umeyile'' "Mr. Mule (as a storybook character) ''→ iimeyile'' "mules"
* ''inoveli'' "novel" ''→ iinoveli'' "novels"
* ''ngena'' "bring in" ''→ ingeniso'' "profit"
* ''unyawo'' "foot" ''→ iinyawo'' "feet"
* ''ncokola'' "to chat" ''→ incoko'' "conversation"
* ''unxweme'' "sea shore" ''→ iinxweme'' "sea shores"
* ''nqula'' "worship" ''→ iinqula'' "adam's apple"
| No change when the following consonant is itself a nasal.
|}

====Consonant changes with palatalisation====

[[Palatalization (sound change)|Palatalisation]] is a change that affects labial consonants whenever they are immediately followed by {{IPA|/j/}}. While palatalisation occurred historically, it is still productive, as is shown by palatalization before the passive suffix /-w/ and before diminutive suffix /-ana/. This process can skip rightwards to non-local syllables (i.e. uku-sebenz-is-el + wa -> ukusetyenziselwa "be used for"), but does not affect morpheme-initial consonants (i.e. uku-bhal+wa -> ukubhalwa "to be written", instead of illicit *ukujalwa). The palatalization process only applies once, as evidenced by ukuphuphumisa+wa -> ukuphuphunyiswa "to be made to overflow", instead of the illicit alternative, *ukuphutshunyiswa.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ List of consonant changes with palatalisation
! Original<br/>consonant
! Palatalised<br/>consonant
! Examples
|-
| {{IPA|p}}
| {{IPA|tʃ}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
*''uku-'' + ''kopa'' + ''-wa'' ''→ ukukotshwa'' [ukukot͡ʃʷa] (to be copied)
|-
| {{IPA|pʰ}}
| {{IPA|tʃʰ}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
*''uku-'' + ''phuph'' + ''-wa → ukuphutshwa'' [ukupʰut͡ʃʰʷa] (to be dreamt)
|-
| {{IPA|b̥ʱ}}
| {{IPA|d̥ʒʱ}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
*''uku- + gab + wa → ukugajwa'' [ukuga{{IPA|d̥ʒʱ}}ʷa] (to be thrown up)
|-
| {{IPA|ɓ}}
| {{IPA|t̠ʲ}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
* ''ubu-'' + ''-ala'' → ''utywala'' [ut̠ʲʷala] (alcohol)
*sebenz + -is + -el +wa -> setyenziselwa [set̠ʲenziselwa] (used for)
|-
| {{IPA|m}}
| {{IPA|n̠ʲ}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
*''uku-'' + ''zam + -wa → zanywa'' [ukuzan̠ʲʷa] (to be tried on)
|-
| {{IPA|mp}}
| {{IPA|ntʃ}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
*''uku-'' + ''krwemp'' + ''wa → ukukrwentshwa'' [ukukχʷ'ɛntʃʷa] (to be scratched)
|-
| {{IPA|mb̥ʱ}}
| {{IPA|nd̥ʒʱ}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
*''uku'' + ''bamb'' + ''wa'' ''→ ukubanjwa'' [ukuɓa{{IPA|nd̥ʒʱ}}ʷa] (to be caught)
|}

==Morphology==
In keeping with many other [[Bantu languages]], Xhosa is an [[agglutinative]] language, with an array of [[prefixes]] and [[suffixes]] that are attached to [[root word]]s. As in other Bantu languages, nouns in Xhosa are classified into [[Noun class|morphological classes]], or [[Gender (grammar)|genders]] (15 in Xhosa), with different prefixes for both singular and plural. Various parts of speech that qualify a [[noun]] must agree with the noun according to its gender. Agreements usually reflect part of the original class with which the word agrees. The [[word order]] is [[subject–verb–object]], like in English.

The [[verb]] is modified by affixes to mark subject, object, tense, aspect and mood. The various parts of the sentence must agree in both class and number.<ref name="ucla" />

===Nouns===

The Xhosa noun consists of two essential parts, the prefix and the stem. Using the prefixes, nouns can be grouped into noun classes, which are numbered consecutively, to ease comparison with other Bantu languages. Which they call 'amahlelo'


The following table gives an overview of Xhosa noun classes, arranged according to singular-plural pairs.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Class
!Singular
!Plural
! Example 
|-
|1/2
|um-
|aba-, abe-
|umntu , abantu
|-
|1a/2a
|u-
|oo-
|utitshala , ootitshala
|-
|3/4
|um-
|imi-
|umthi , imithi
|-
|5/6
|i-, ili-<sup>1</sup>
|ama-, ame-
|ilitye , amatye 
|-
|7/8
|is(i)-<sup>2</sup>
|iz(i)-<sup>2</sup>
|isitya , izitya
|-
|9/10
|iN-<sup>3</sup>
|iiN-<sup>3</sup>, iziN-<sup>4</sup>
|inja , izinja
|-
|11/10
|u-, ulu-<sup>1</sup>, ulw-, ul-
|iiN-<sup>3</sup>, iziN-<sup>4</sup>
| uluthi 
|-
|14
|ubu-, ub-, uty-
|
|ubuthi
|-
|15
|uku-
|
|ukutya
|}

<sup>1</sup> Before monosyllabic stems, e.g. {{lang|xh|'''<u>ili</u>so'''}} (eye), {{lang|xh|'''<u>ulu</u>hlu'''}} (list).

<sup>2</sup> '''is'''- and '''iz'''- replace '''isi'''- and '''izi'''- respectively before stems beginning with a vowel, e.g. {{lang|xh|'''<u>is</u>andla'''}}/{{lang|xh|'''<u>iz</u>andla'''}} (hand/hands).

<sup>3</sup> The placeholder '''N''' in the prefixes '''iN'''- and '''iiN'''- is a nasal consonant which assimilates in place to the following consonant (producing an '''im-''' before vowels), but is typically absent in loanwords.

<sup>4</sup> Before monosyllabic stems in some words.

===Verbs===

Verbs use the following prefixes for the subject and object:

{| class="wikitable" 
|-
! Person/<br/>Class
! Subject
! Object
|-
| 1st sing.
| ndi-
| -ndi-
|-
| 2nd sing.
| u-
| -ku-
|-
| 1st plur.
| si-
| -si-
|-
| 2nd plur.
| ni-
| -ni-
|-
| 1
| u-
| -m-
|-
| 2
| ba-
| -ba-
|-
| 3
| u-
| -wu-
|-
| 4
| i-
| -yi-
|-
| 5
| li-
| -li-
|-
| 6
| a-
| -wa-
|-
| 7
| si-
| -si-
|-
| 8
| zi-
| -zi-
|-
| 9
| i-
| -yi-
|-
| 10
| zi-
| -zi-
|-
| 11
| lu-
| -lu-
|-
| 14
| bu-
| -bu-
|-
| 15
| ku-
| -ku-
|-
| reflexive
| —
| -zi-
|}

===Examples===
: uku'''dlala''' – to play
: uku'''bona''' – to see
: '''um'''ntwana – a child
: '''aba'''ntwana – children

: '''um'''ntwana '''u'''yadlala – the child is playing
: '''aba'''ntwana '''ba'''yadlala – the children are playing

: '''in'''doda – a man
: '''ama'''doda – men

: '''in'''doda '''i'''ya''m''bona ''um''ntwana – the man sees the child
: '''ama'''doda '''a'''ya''ba''bona ''aba''ntwana – the men see the children

== Sample phrases and text ==
The following is a list of phrases that can be used when one visits a region whose primary language is Xhosa:
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Xhosa
!English
|-
|Molo
|Hello
|-
|Molweni
|hello, to a group of people
|-
|Unjani?
|how are you?
|-
|Ninjani?
|How are you?, to a group of people
|-
|Ndiphilile
|I'm okay
|-
|Siphilile
|We're okay
|-
|Ndiyabulela (kakhulu)
|Thank you (a lot)
|-
|Enkosi (kakhulu)
|Thanks (a lot)
|-
|Ngubani igama lakho?
|What is your name?
|-
|Igama lam ngu....
|My name is....
|-
|Ngubani ixesha?
|What is the time?
|-
|Ndingakunceda?
|Can I help you?
|-
|Hamba kakuhle
|Goodbye/go well/safe travels
|-
|Nihambe kakuhle
|Goodbye/go well/safe travels
(said to a group of people)
|-
|Ewe
|Yes
|-
|Hayi
|No
|-
|Andiyazi
|I don't know
|-
|Uyakwazi ukuthetha isiNgesi?
|Can you speak English?
|-
|Ndisaqala ukufunda isiXhosa
|I've just started learning Xhosa
|-
|Uthetha ukuthini?
|What do you mean?
|-
|Ndicela ukuya ngasese?
|May I please go to the bathroom?
|-
|Ndiyakuthanda
|I love you
|-
|Uxolo
|Sorry
|-
|Usapho
|Family
|-
|Thetha
|Talk/speak 
|}

==History==
{{main|Xhosa people}}
{{expand section|date=August 2019}}
[[Image:Henry Hare Dugmore (ca. 1890).jpg|thumb|English missionary [[Henry Hare Dugmore]] helped translate the Bible into Xhosa in 1859]]
[[Image:Nelson Mandela.jpg|thumb|[[Nelson Mandela]] was a Xhosa and was a member of the royal family of the Thembu tribe]]

Xhosa-speaking people have inhabited coastal regions of southeastern Africa since before the 16th century. They refer to themselves as the ''[[Xhosa people|amaXhosa]]'' and their language as ''isiXhosa''. Ancestors of the Xhosa migrated to the east coast of Africa and came across [[Khoisan]]-speaking people; "as a result of this contact, the Xhosa people borrowed some Khoisan words along with their pronunciation, for instance, the click sounds of the Khoisan languages".<ref name="XhosaAboutWorldLanguages">{{Cite web |url=http://aboutworldlanguages.com/xhosa |title=Xhosa |website=About World Languages |language=en-US |access-date=2017-12-11}}</ref> The Bantu ancestor of Xhosa did not have clicks, which attests to a strong historical contact with a [[Khoisan language]] that did. An estimated 15% of Xhosa vocabulary is of Khoisan origin.<ref name="xho" />

[[John Bennie (missionary)|John Bennie]] was a Scottish Presbyterian missionary and early Xhosa linguist. Bennie, along with John Ross (another missionary), set up a printing press in the [[Tyhume River|Tyhume]] Valley and the first printed works in Xhosa came out in 1823 from the [[Lovedale (South Africa)|Lovedale]] Press in the Alice region of the Eastern Cape. But, as with any language, Xhosa had a rich history of oral traditions from which the society taught, informed, and entertained one another. The first Bible translation was in 1859, produced in part by [[Henry Hare Dugmore]].<ref name="xho" />

==Role in modern society==
{{see also|Xhosa literature}}
The role of [[languages of Africa|indigenous languages]] in South Africa is complex and ambiguous. Their use in education has been governed by legislation, beginning with the [[Bantu Education Act, 1953]].<ref name="ucla" />

At present, Xhosa is used as the main language of instruction in many primary schools and some secondary schools, but is largely replaced by English after the early primary grades, even in schools mainly serving Xhosa-speaking communities. The language is also studied as a subject in such schools.

The language of instruction at [[List of universities in South Africa|universities in South Africa]] is English (or Afrikaans, to a diminishing extent<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.languagemagazine.com/2019/04/18/afrikaans-phased-out |title=Afrikaans Phased Out |date=April 18, 2019 |magazine=[[Language Magazine]]}}</ref>), and Xhosa is taught as a subject, both for native and for non-native speakers.

Literary works, including prose and poetry, are available in Xhosa, as are newspapers and magazines. The [[South African Broadcasting Corporation]] broadcasts in Xhosa on both radio (on Umhlobo Wenene FM) and television, and films, plays and music are also produced in the language. The best-known performer of Xhosa songs outside South Africa was [[Miriam Makeba]], whose ''[[The Click Song|Click Song #1]]'' (Xhosa ''Qongqothwane'') and "Click Song #2" (''Baxabene Ooxam'') are known for their large number of click sounds.

{{As of|1996|alt=In 1996}}, the literacy rate for first-language Xhosa speakers was estimated at 50%.<ref name = "xho"/>

===Anthem===

{{lang|xh|[[Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika]]}} is part of the [[national anthem of South Africa]], national anthem of [[Tanzania]] and [[Zambia]], and the former anthem of [[Zimbabwe]] and [[Namibia]]. It is a hymn written in Xhosa by [[Enoch Sontonga]] in 1897. The single original stanza was:

{{verse translation|lang1=xh|lang2=en
|Nkosi, sikelel' iAfrika
Maluphakanyis' uphondo lwayo,
Yizwa imithandazo yethu,
Nkosi sikelela, thina lusapho lwayo.
|God bless Africa
Raise high her glory
Hear our prayers
God bless us, we her children<ref name="National Anthem">{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.za/about-sa/national-anthem-0 |title=National Anthem |website=South African Government |access-date=2025-07-12}}</ref>}}

Additional stanzas were written later by Sontonga and other writers, and the original verse was translated into Sotho<ref name="National Anthem"/> and Afrikaans, as well as English.

==In popular culture==
In ''[[The Lion King (1994 film)|The Lion King]]'' and [[The Lion King (2019 film)|its reboot]], [[Rafiki (The Lion King)|Rafiki]], the sagely [[mandrill]] chants in Xhosa.
 
In the [[Marvel Cinematic Universe]] films ''[[Captain America: Civil War]]'', ''[[Black Panther (film)|Black Panther]]'', ''[[Avengers: Infinity War]]'', ''[[Avengers: Endgame]]'', ''[[Black Panther: Wakanda Forever]]'', and the TV show ''[[The Falcon and the Winter Soldier]]'', the language spoken in the fictional African nation of [[Wakanda]] is Xhosa. This came about because South African actor [[John Kani]], a native of the Eastern Cape province who plays Wakandan King T'Chaka, speaks Xhosa and suggested that the directors of the fictional ''Civil War'' incorporate a dialogue in the language. For ''Black Panther'', director [[Ryan Coogler]] "wanted to make it a priority to use Xhosa as much as possible" in the script, and provided dialect coaches for the film's actors.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/16/us/wakanda-black-panther.html |title=Wakanda Is a Fake Country, but the African Language in 'Black Panther' is Real|last=Eligon|first=John |date=2018-02-16 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=2018-05-07|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|South Africa|Languages}}
* ''[[I'solezwe lesiXhosa]]'', the first Xhosa-language newspaper
* ''[[U-Carmen eKhayelitsha]]'', a 2005 Xhosa film adaptation of Bizet's ''Carmen''
* [[Xhosa calendar]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |last1=Boyce |first1=William B. |title=A Grammar of the Kafir Language |date=1834 |publisher=Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society |location=Graham's Town}}
* {{cite book |last1=Davis |first1=William J. |title=A Grammar of the Kaffir Language |date=1872 |publisher=Printed for the Wesleyan missionary Society |location=London}}
* {{cite book |last1=Crawshaw |first1=C. J. |title=A First Kafir Course |date=1888 |publisher=Missionary Press |location=Lovedale}}
* {{cite book |last1=McLaren |first1=J. |editor1-last=Welsh |editor1-first=G. H. |title=A Xhosa Grammar: Revised and rewritten in the New Orthography |date=1955 |publisher=Longmans, Green and Co. |location=Cape Town |edition=4th}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mncube |first1=F. S. M. |title=Xhosa Manual |date=1957 |publisher=Juta & Company |location=Johannesburg}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fischer |first1=Arnold |title=English-Xhosa Dictionary |date=1985 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Cape Town |isbn=0195702905}}
* {{cite book |last1=Einhorn |first1=E. |last2=Siyengo |first2=L. |title=Xhosa: a concise manual |date=1990 |publisher=Faircape Books ; Thorold's Africana Books [distributor] |location=Cape Town : Johannesburg |isbn=9780798507509}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kaschula |first1=Russell |title=Xhosa |date=1997 |publisher=Rosen Publishing Group |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8239-2013-6 |edition=1st}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kirsch |first1=Beverley |last2=Skorge |first2=Silvia |title=Complete Xhosa |date=2010 |publisher=Teach Yourself |location=London |isbn=9780071759625}}
* {{cite book |last1=Motinyane-Masoko |first1=Mantoa |last2=Mawadza |first2=Aquilina |title=Xhosa-English/English-Xhosa dictionary & phrasebook |date=2017 |publisher=Hippocrene Books, Inc |location=New York |isbn=9780781813631 |url=https://archive.org/details/xhosadictionaryp0000moti}}

==External links==
{{interWiki|code=xh}}
{{wiktionary|Xhosa}}
{{wikivoyage|Xhosa phrasebook|Xhosa|a phrasebook}}
{{commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071214071133/http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=21&menu=004 Xhosa language profile ][https://web.archive.org/web/20060720065425/http://www.pavelicpapers.com/documents/odpor/index.html (at UCLA Language Materials Project)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311094133/http://www.panafril10n.org/wikidoc/pmwiki.php/PanAfrLoc/Xhosa PanAfrican L10n page on Xhosa]
* [http://learn101.org/xhosa.php Learn Xhosa]
* [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\bco\bns&first=0 Xhosa basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database]
* [[Paradisec]] has a collections of [[Arthur Capell]]'s materials ([http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/AC1 AC1]), which include Xhosa language materials

{{Languages of Lesotho}}
{{Languages of South Africa}}
{{Languages of Zimbabwe}}
{{Narrow Bantu languages (Zones N–S)}}

{{Authority control}}

<!--Categories, from closest/narrowest to farthest/most generic:-->[[Category:Xhosa language| ]]
[[Category:Xhosa culture|Language]]
[[Category:Nguni languages]]
[[Category:Subject–verb–object languages]]
[[Category:Languages of South Africa]]
[[Category:Click languages]]