View source for Yamhad

{{Short description|Semitic kingdom in Syria}}
{{good article}}
{{Infobox country
 | native_name            = Halab
 | conventional_long_name = Yamhad
 | common_name            = Yamhad
 | national_motto         =
 | era                    = Bronze Age
 | status                 =
 | government_type        = [[Absolute monarchy]]
 | year_start             = c. 1810 BC
 | year_end               = c. 1517 BC
 | event_start            =
 | event_end              =
 | p1           = Ebla
 | s1           = Mitanni
 | image_flag             =
 | flag_type              =
 | coa_size               =
 | image_map              = Yamhad and Vassals.png
 | image_map_caption      = Yamhad at its greatest extent c. 1752 BC
 | capital                = [[Halab]]
 | common_languages       = [[Amorite language|Amorite]]<br />[[Hurrian language|Hurrian]] (<small>among [[Hurrians]]</small>)
 | religion               = [[Canaanite religion|ancient Levantine religion]] ([[Hadad]] was the chief deity){{sfn|Dalley|2002|p=44}}
 | currency               =
 | title_leader           = [[King]], [[Great King]].{{sfn|Astour|1981|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1A0OgvXfHlQC&pg=PA7 7]}}{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT253 257]}}

 | leader1      = [[Sumu-Epuh]]
 | year_leader1 = c. 1810 – c. 1780 BC

 | leader2      = [[Yarim-Lim I]]
 | year_leader2 = c. 1780 – c. 1764 BC

 | leader3      = [[Ilim-Ilimma I]]
 | year_leader3 = mid. 16th century BC – c. 1524 BC

 | legislature            =

 | stat_year1   = 1750 BC est.{{sfn|Astour|1981|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1A0OgvXfHlQC&pg=PA7 7]}}
 | stat_area1   = 43000
 | stat_pop1    =

 | today = {{Plainlist|
* [[Syria]]
* [[Turkey]]
 }}
}}

'''Yamhad''' ('''Yamḫad''') was an ancient [[Semitic languages|Semitic-speaking]] kingdom centered on Ḥalab ([[Aleppo]]) in [[Syria (region)|Syria]]. The kingdom emerged at the end of the 19th century BC and was ruled by the [[Yamhad dynasty]], who counted on both military and diplomacy to expand their realm. From the beginning of its establishment, the kingdom withstood the aggressions of its neighbors [[Mari, Syria|Mari]], [[Qatna]] and the [[Old Assyrian Empire#Amorite Period in Assyria.2C 1809.E2.80.931750 BC|Old Assyrian Empire]], and was turned into the most powerful Syrian kingdom of its era through the actions of its king [[Yarim-Lim I]]. By the middle of the 18th century BC, most of Syria minus the south came under the authority of Yamhad, either as a direct possession or through vassalage, and for nearly a century and a half, Yamhad dominated northern, northwestern and eastern Syria, and had influence over small kingdoms in [[Mesopotamia]] at the borders of [[Elam]]. The kingdom was eventually destroyed by the [[Hittites]], then annexed by [[Mitanni]] in the 16th century&nbsp;BC.
 
Yamhad's population was predominately [[Amorite]], and had a typical [[Bronze Age]] Syrian culture. Yamhad was also inhabited by a substantial [[Hurrian]] population that settled in the kingdom, adding the influence of their culture. Yamhad controlled a wide trading network, being a gateway between the eastern [[Iranian plateau]] and the [[Aegean civilizations|Aegean]] region in the west. Yamhad worshiped the traditional [[Canaanite religion|Northwest Semitic]] deities, and the capital Halab was considered a holy city among the other Syrian cities as a center of worship for [[Hadad]], who was regarded as the main deity of northern Syria.

==History==
Little of Halab has been excavated by archaeologists, as Halab was never abandoned during its long history and the modern city is situated above the ancient site.{{sfn|Pioske|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IrKgBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA188 188]}} Therefore, most of the knowledge about Yamhad comes from tablets discovered at [[Alalakh]] and [[Mari, Syria|Mari]].{{sfn|Grabbe|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IvfTAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 58]}}

===Establishment===
The name Yamhad was likely an Amorite tribal name and is used synonymously with Halab when referring to the kingdom.{{sfn|Astour|1981|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1A0OgvXfHlQC&pg=PA7 7]}}{{sfn|Hawkins|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6TwiY96cunQC&pg=PA388 388]}}{{sfn|Pfälzner|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=P5q7DDqMbF0C&pg=PA781 781]}} The city of Halab was a religious center in northern Syria, and was mentioned by the name Ha-lam,{{sfn|Archi|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hFRwonqqNCUC&pg=PA250 250]}} as a vassal of the [[Ebla]]ite empire, which controlled most of Syria in the middle of the third millennium BC.{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT240 242]}} Halab's fame as a [[Holy City]] contributed to its later prominence;{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IN9_IRYKKUMC&pg=PA192 192]}}{{sfn|Oldenburg|1969|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hM8UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA65 65]}} the main temple of the north Syrian storm god [[Hadad]] was located in the city,{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 111]}} which was known as the "City of Hadad".{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IN9_IRYKKUMC&pg=PA192 192]}}

The name Halab as well as that of Yamhad appeared for the first time during the [[Babylonia#First Babylonian dynasty – Amorite dynasty, 1894–1595 BC|Old Babylonian]] period,{{sfn|Hawkins|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6TwiY96cunQC&pg=PA388 388]}} when [[Sumu-Epuh]], the first Yamhadite king, was attested in a seal from [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] as the ruler of the land of Yamhad,{{sfn|Frayne|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PA780 780]}} which included, in addition to Halab, the cities of [[Alalakh]] and [[Umm el-Marra|Tuba]].{{sfn|Miller|1995|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=74JI2UlcU8AC&pg=PA10 10]}}{{sfn|Schwartz|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2aq43z3at0wC&pg=PA376 376]}} Sumu-Epuh consolidated the kingdom and faced [[Yahdun-Lim]] of Mari who had a [[Royal intermarriage|dynastic alliance]] with Yamhad to oppose Assyria,{{sfn|Liverani|2013|pp= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA225 225], 226}} but eventually campaigned in the north threatening the kingdom.{{sfn|Wossink|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Oy4xUpsa7DkC&pg=PA128 128]}} The Yamhadite king supported the [[Mari, Syria#People.2C language and government|Yaminite tribes]] and formed an alliance with other Syrian states including [[Urshu]], [[Khashshum|Hassum]] and [[Carchemish]],{{sfn|Sasson|1969|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KYxxmRoTfsQC&pg=PA45 45]}}{{sfn|Wu|1994|p=131}} against the Mariote king who defeated his enemies,{{sfn|Frayne|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PA606 606]}} who was eventually killed by his own son Sumu-Yamam.{{sfn|Pitard|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PA39 39]}}

===Rivalry with Assyria and expansion===
[[File:Cuneiform legal tablet in case from Aleppo.jpg|thumb|160px|Legal case from [[Niqmi-Epuh]] of Yamhad, to the king of Alalakh.]]
The rise of [[Shamshi-Adad I]] of Assyria proved more dangerous to Yamhad than Mari. The Amorite king of Assyria was an ambitious conqueror with the aim to rule Mesopotamia and the Levant, and styled himself as "king of the world".{{sfn|Schwartz|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0H0EpSm8aioC&pg=PA9 9]}} Shamshi-Adad surrounded Yamhad by way of alliances with Charchemish, Hassum and Urshu to the north and by conquering Mari to the east, forcing [[Zimri-Lim]] the heir of Mari to flee. Sumu-Epuh welcomed Zimri-Lim and aimed to use him against Assyria since he was the legitimate heir of Mari.{{sfn|Pitard|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PA39 39]}}

Shamshi-Adad's most dangerous alliance was with [[Qatna]], whose king [[Ishi-Addu]] became Assyria's agent at Yamhad's borders and married his daughter to [[Yasmah-Adad]], the son of the Assyrian king who was installed by his father as king of Mari.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 234]}} Sumu-Epuh was apparently killed during his fight with Shamshi-Adad and was succeeded by his son [[Yarim-Lim I]],{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E1aF0hq1GR8C&pg=PA773 773]}} who consolidated his father's kingdom and turned it into the most powerful kingdom in Syria and northern Mesopotamia.{{sfn|Dalley|2002|p=44}}{{sfn|Matthiae|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kiWD_5PRQBUC&pg=PA383 383]}}{{sfn|Pitard|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PA40 40]}} Yarim-Lim surrounded Shamshi-Adad by alliances with [[Hammurabi]] of Babylon and [[Ibal-pi-el II]] of [[Eshnunna]],{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT254 259]}} then in 1777 BC he advanced to the east conquering [[Tuttul]] and installing Zimri-Lim as governor of the city.{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT254 259]}} The death of the Assyrian king came a year later.{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT254 259]}} Yarim-Lim then sent his army with Zimri-Lim, to restore his ancestor's throne as an ally-vassal to Yamhad,{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT254 259]}} cementing the relationship through a dynastic marriage between the new Mariote king and [[Shibtu]], the daughter of Yarim-Lim.{{sfn|Charpin|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Nvgz3NOuo5EC&pg=PA257 257]}}
{{Quote box|width=30em|align=left|quote="There is no king who is mighty by himself. Ten or fifteen kings follow [[Hammurabi]] the ruler of [[Babylon]], a like number of [[Rim-Sin I|Rim-Sin]] of [[Larsa]], a like number of Ibal-pi-el of [[Eshnunna]], a like number of Amud-pi-el of [[Qatna|Qatanum]], but twenty follow Yarim-Lim of Yamhad."|source= A tablet sent to Zimri-Lim of Mari, describing Yarim-Lim I authority.{{sfn|Dalley|2002|p=44}}}}
Yarim-Lim spent the next years of his reign expanding the kingdom, which reached [[Mamma (kingdom)|Mamma]] in the north.{{sfn|Dodd|2007|p=[https://www.academia.edu/925021/Strategies_for_Future_Success_Remembering_the_Hittites_during_the_Iron_Age 210]}} The Syrian city-states were subdued through alliances or force; Mamma, [[Ebla]] and [[Ugarit]] became vassals of Yamhad,{{sfn|Astour|1981|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1A0OgvXfHlQC&pg=PA7 7]}}{{sfn|Thuesen|2000|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qvY8pxVxcwC&pg=PA61 61]}} while [[Qatna]] remained independent but came to peace with Yamhad following the death of its ally, the late Shamshi-Adad I.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 234]}} A sample of Yarim-Lim policy of diplomacy and war can be read in a tablet discovered at Mari, that was sent to the king of [[Der (Sumer)|Dēr]] in southern Mesopotamia, which included a declaration of war against Der and its neighbor [[Diniktum]],{{sfn|Sasson|1969|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KYxxmRoTfsQC&pg=PA2 2]}} the tablet mentions the stationing of 500 Yamhadite warships for twelve years in Diniktum, and the Yamhadite military support of Der for 15 years.{{sfn|Sasson|1969|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KYxxmRoTfsQC&pg=PA2 2]}} Yarim-Lim's accomplishments elevated Yamhad into the status of a Great Kingdom and the Yamhadite king title became the [[Great King]].{{sfn|Astour|1981|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1A0OgvXfHlQC&pg=PA7 7]}}{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 234]}}

Yarim-Lim I was succeeded by his son [[Hammurabi I]] who had a peaceful reign.{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT254 259]}} He was able to force Charchemish into submission,{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT254 259]}} and sent troops to aid Hammurabi of Babylon against [[Larsa]] and [[Elam]].{{sfn|Charpin|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eCO17x85ymgC&pg=PA102 102]}} The alliance ended after the Babylonian king sacked Mari and destroyed it.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 234]}} Babylon did not attack Yamhad, however, and the relations between the two kingdoms remained peaceful in later years;{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 234]}} the power vacuum caused by Mari's fall opened the way for Hammurabi to extend Yamhad's hegemony over the upper [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur]] valley in the east, where the ruler of [[Tell Leilan|Shubat Enlil]] became his vassal.{{sfn|Lauinger|2015|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=xDq2CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 6]}} Hammurabi I was succeeded by his son [[Abba-El I]], whose reign witnessed the rebellion of the city [[Irridu]], which was under the authority of prince [[Yarim-Lim of Alalakh|Yarim-Lim]], Abba-El's brother.{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT255 260]}} The king responded to the rebellion by destroying Irridu, and compensating his brother by giving him the throne of Alalakh, thus creating a cadet branch of the dynasty.{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT255 260]}}

===Decline and end===
[[File:God Head Djabul Louvre AO10831.jpg|thumb|160px|God head, discovered near [[Sabkhat al-Jabbul|Jabbul]] (c. 1600 BC).{{sfn|Claire|2017}}]]
The era of Abba-El I's successors is poorly documented,{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT255 260]}} and by the time of [[Yarim-Lim III]] in the mid-17th century BC, the power of Yamhad declined due to internal dissent.{{sfn|Wiseman|1967|p=121}}{{sfn|Miller|1995|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=74JI2UlcU8AC&pg=PA12 12]}} Yarim-Lim III ruled a weakened kingdom, and although he imposed Yamhadite hegemony over Qatna,{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT255 260]}} the weakening was obvious as Alalakh had become all but independent under the self-declared king [[Ammitakum]].{{sfn|Wiseman|1967|p=121}} In spite of this regression, the king of Yamhad remained the strongest king of the Syrian states, as he was referred to as a [[Great King]] by the Hittites,{{sfn|Pitard|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PA40 40]}} the diplomatic equal of the Hittite king.{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT254 258]}}

The rise of the [[Hittites|Hittite]] kingdom in the north posed the biggest threat to Yamhad,{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 27]}} although Yarim-Lim III and his successor [[Hammurabi III]] were able to withstand the aggressions of the Hittite king [[Hattusili I]] through alliances with the Hurrian principalities.{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT255 260]}} Hattusili chose not to attack Halab directly and began with conquering Yamhad's vassals and allies, starting with Alalakh in the second year of his Syrian campaigns c. 1650 BC ([[Middle chronology]]) or slightly later.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA260 260]}}{{sfn|Collon|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RTGc9YH-C38C&pg=PA97 97]}} Hattusili then turned to attack the Hurrians in [[Urshu]] northeast of Halab, and won in spite of military support from Halab and Carchemish for the Hurrians.{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT289 298], 299}} The Hittite king then defeated Yamhad in the battle of Mount Atalur,{{sfn|Bryce|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Agg5-lpVI2MC&pg=PA83 83]}} and sacked Hassum along with several other Hurrian cities in the sixth year of his Syrian wars.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA260 260]}} After many campaigns, Hattusili I finally attacked Halab during the reign of Hammurabi III. The attack ended in a defeat, the wounding of the Hittite king and his later death c. 1620 BC.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29]}}{{sfn|Burney|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=azPl5Jzv930C&pg=PA107 107]}} Hattusili's campaigns considerably weakened Yamhad, causing it to decline in status: the monarch ceased to be styled a Great King.{{sfn|Bryce|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Agg5-lpVI2MC&pg=PA152 152]}}

Hattusili was succeeded by his grandson [[Mursili I]], who conquered Halab c. 1600 BC and destroyed Yamhad as a major power in the [[Levant]].{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT256 260]}} Mursili then left for [[Babylon]] and sacked it, but was assassinated upon his return to his capital [[Hattusa]], and his empire disintegrated.{{sfn|Payne|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tb4mzSQ2nJoC&pg=PA3 3]}} Halab was rebuilt and the kingdom expanded to include Alalakh again.{{sfn|Bryce|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Agg5-lpVI2MC&pg=PA126 126]}} The reestablished kingdom was ruled by kings of whom nothing but their names is known; the first is [[Sarra-El]], who might have been the son of Yarim-Lim III.{{sfn|Astour|1969|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CMR5C12GOF8C&pg=PA382 382]}} The last king of the dynasty to rule as king of Halab was [[Ilim-Ilimma I]],{{sfn|Drower|1973|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FF5-7JVj4jYC&pg=PA433 433]}} whose reign ended c. 1524 when he was killed during a rebellion orchestrated by king [[Parshatatar]] of [[Mitanni]] who annexed Halab.{{sfn|Collon|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RTGc9YH-C38C&pg=PA109 109]}}{{sfn|Astour|1989|p= 92}} Ilim-Ilimma's son, [[Idrimi]], fled to [[Emar]] then conquered Alalakh c. 1517 BC.{{sfn|Collon|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RTGc9YH-C38C&pg=PA109 109]}}{{sfn|Astour|1989|p= 92}} Seven years following his conquest of Alalakh, Idrimi made peace with Mitanni and was acknowledged as a vassal,{{sfn|Podany|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_ez3ih5JgzUC&pg=PA136 136]}} and allowed to control Halab, though he had to relocate the dynasty's residence to Alalakh and relinquish the title of "King of Halab"; the use of the name Yamhad also ended.{{sfn|Astour|1981|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1A0OgvXfHlQC&pg=PA9 9]}}

===Kings of Yamhad===
Dates are estimated and given by the [[Middle chronology]].{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT254 258]}}
[[File:Abba-El I seal.jpg|thumb|Abba-El I seal.]]
[[File:Niqmi-Epuh Seal.jpg|thumb|Niqmi-Epuh seal.]]
{| class="nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" rules="all" style="background:#fbfbfb; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px; font-size:90%; empty-cells:show; border-collapse:collapse"
|- style="background:#f6e6ae;"
! King !! Reigned !! Title !! Relation to Previous King
|-
| [[Sumu-Epuh]] || c. 1810 BC – c. 1780 BC || King ||
|-
| [[Yarim-Lim I]] || c. 1780 BC – c. 1764 BC || Great King || Son.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 234]}}
|-
| [[Hammurabi I]] || c. 1764 BC – c. 1750 BC || Great King || Son.{{sfn|Frayne|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PA783 783]}}
|-
| [[Abba-El I]] || c. 1750 BC – c. 1720 BC || Great King || Son.{{sfn|Teissier|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oiSoxUE_Vn0C&pg=PA28 28]}}
|-
| [[Yarim-Lim II]] || c. 1720 BC – c. 1700 BC || Great King || Son.{{sfn|Frayne|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PA788 788]}}
|-
| [[Niqmi-Epuh]] || c. 1700 BC – c. 1675 BC || Great King || Son.{{sfn|Frayne|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PA792 792]}}
|-
| [[Irkabtum]] || c. 1675 BC – Mid-17th century BC || Great King || Son.{{sfn|Teissier|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oiSoxUE_Vn0C&pg=PA26 26]}}
|-
| [[Hammurabi II]] || Mid-17th century BC || Great King || Possible brother.{{sfn|van Soldt|2000|p=106}}
|-
| [[Yarim-Lim III]] || Mid-17th century BC – c. 1625 BC || Great King ||Brother of Irkabtum.{{sfn|Frayne|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PA795 795]}}
|-
| [[Hammurabi III]] || c. 1625 BC – c. 1600 BC || King || Son.{{sfn|van Soldt|2000|p=107}}
|-
| [[Sarra-El]] || Early 16th century BC || King || Possible son of Yarim-Lim III.{{sfn|Astour|1969|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CMR5C12GOF8C&pg=PA382 382]}}
|-
| [[Abba-El II]] || Mid-16th century BC || King || Son.{{sfn|Astour|1969|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CMR5C12GOF8C&pg=PA382 382]}}
|-
| [[Ilim-Ilimma I]] || c. 1524 – c. 1517 BC || King || Possible son.{{sfn|Astour|1989|p= 19}}
|}

==People and culture==
[[File:Abba-El II seal.jpg|thumb|Seal of Abba-El II: the Egyptian [[ankh]] was a replacement for the cup usually held by the deity.]]
The people of Yamhad were Amorites and spoke the [[Amorite language]], and apart from a few Mesopotamian, [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] and [[Aegean civilizations|Aegean]] influences,{{sfn|Schwartz|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0H0EpSm8aioC&pg=PA3 3]}}{{sfn|Schwartz|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0H0EpSm8aioC&pg=PA10 10]}} Yamhad belonged mainly to middle Bronze Age Syrian culture.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA232 232]}} This culture influenced the architecture and the functions of the temples, which were mainly cultic, while political authority was invested in the royal palace, in contrast to the important political role of the temples in Mesopotamia.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA232 232]}}

Since the capital Halab has not been excavated, the architecture of the kingdom is archaeologically best represented by the city of Alalakh,{{sfn|Feldman|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_7kP_hNKHxIC&pg=PA55 55]}} which was subordinate to Halab and ruled by a king belonging to the Yamhadite royal house.{{sfn|van Soldt|2000|p=109}} The Amorites in general built large palaces that bear architectural similarities to old Babylonian-era palaces. They were adorned with grand central courtyards, throne rooms, tiled floors, drainage systems and plastered walls, which suggest the employment of specialized labor.{{sfn|Burke|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5H4fAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT434 409]}} Evidence exists for the presence of Minoan Aegean fresco artists who painted elaborate scenes on the walls of the palaces in Alalakh.{{sfn|Burke|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5H4fAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT434 409]}}

Yamhad had a distinctive Syrian iconography, which is clear in the seals of the kings that gave prominence to the Syrian gods. Egyptian influence was minimal and limited to the [[ankh]], which cannot be interpreted as an emulation of Egyptian rituals but rather as merely a substitute for the cup held by the deity elsewhere.{{sfn|Teissier|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oiSoxUE_Vn0C&pg=PA38 38]}} Yamhad had a special pattern of trim called the Yamhad style, which was favored in Mari during the reign of king Zimri-Lim, whose queen Shibtu was the daughter of Yarim-Lim I.{{sfn|Dalley|2002|p=51}}

After the fall of the [[Akkadian Empire]], [[Hurrians]] began to settle in the city and its surroundings,{{sfn|Owen|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&pg=PA618 618]}} and by c. 1725 BC they constituted a sizable portion of the population.{{sfn|Nathanson|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=odCmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 72]}} The presence of a large Hurrian population brought Hurrian culture and religion to Halab, as evidenced by the existence of certain religious festivals that bear Hurrian names.{{sfn|Kupper|1973|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FF5-7JVj4jYC&pg=PA41 41]}}

==Economy==
Halab's location has always been a factor in its prominence as an economic center.{{sfn|Zohar|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ledLAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA95 95]}} Yamhad's economy was based on trade with the [[Iranian Plateau]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Cyprus]] and [[Anatolia]],{{sfn|Sicker|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=jcHDu8hwvyEC&pg=PA32 32]}} with the city of [[Emar]] as its port on the [[Euphrates]],{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 234]}}{{sfn|Pruzsinszky|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_7kP_hNKHxIC&pg=PA23 23]}} and Alalakh with its proximity to the sea as its port on the [[Mediterranean]].{{sfn|Miller|1995|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=74JI2UlcU8AC&pg=PA10 10]}}

The actions of Yarim-Lim I and his alliance with Babylon proved vital for the kingdom's economy, for they secured the trade between Mesopotamia and northern Syria, with the king of Mari protecting the caravans crossing from the [[Persian Gulf]] to [[Anatolia]].{{sfn|van Koppen|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=akYorRIWPBEC&pg=PA212 212]}} Emar attracted many Babylonian merchants, who lived in the city and had a lasting impact on the local scribal conventions. As late as the 14th century BC, texts of the so-called Syrian type from Emar preserve distinct Babylonian traits.{{sfn|van Koppen|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=akYorRIWPBEC&pg=PA212 212]}}

The markets of Yamhad became a source of copper, which was imported from the mountains (probably Anatolian) and Cyprus.{{sfn|van Koppen|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=akYorRIWPBEC&pg=PA213 213]}} However, the Babylonian invasion of Mari had a negative impact on the trade between the two kingdoms,{{sfn|van Koppen|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=akYorRIWPBEC&pg=PA212 212]}} as the road became dangerous because of the loss of Mari's protection to the caravans.{{sfn|van Koppen|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=akYorRIWPBEC&pg=PA212 212]}} This led the Babylonian king [[Samsu-iluna]] to build many strongholds up the river valley, and to establish colonies of mercenaries known as the "Kassite Houses" to protect the middle Euphrates area.{{sfn|van Koppen|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=akYorRIWPBEC&pg=PA212 212]}} Those colonies later evolved into semi-independent polities that waged a war against the Babylonian king [[Ammi-Saduqa]] and caused the trade temporarily to stop.{{sfn|van Koppen|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=akYorRIWPBEC&pg=PA212 212]}}

==Religion==
[[File:Udgravning (Citadellet Aleppo).jpg|thumb|Hadad Temple, [[Aleppo Citadel]].]]
The people of Yamhad practiced the [[Canaanite religion|Amorite religion]],{{sfn|Foster|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=pR3RJwwCW2YC&pg=PA148 148]}} and mainly worshiped the [[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]] deities. The most important of these were [[Dagon]], who was considered the father of the gods,{{sfn|Fleming|2000|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=mN6pOFeouXIC&pg=PA90 90]}} and [[Hadad]], who was the most important deity and the head of the [[Pantheon (gods)|pantheon]].{{sfn|Taracha|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=xTE7o8aKI7IC&pg=PA121 121]}} The kingdom was known as the "land of Hadad", who was famous as the Storm-God of Halab beginning in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC.{{sfn|Taracha|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=xTE7o8aKI7IC&pg=PA121 121]}} His main temple was located on the citadel hill in the center of the city and remained in use from the 24th century BC,{{sfn|Gonnella|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=s9_lGE6jHawC&pg=PA166 166]}} until at least the 9th century BC.{{sfn|Gonnella|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=hs1YQ-RO7lwC&pg=PA114 114]}}

The title "Beloved of Hadad" was one of the king's titles.{{sfn|Taracha|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=xTE7o8aKI7IC&pg=PA121 121]}}{{sfn|Oldenburg|1969|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hM8UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA67 67]}} Hadad was the kingdom's patron god, and all treaties were concluded in his name, which was also used to threaten other kingdoms,{{sfn|Oldenburg|1969|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hM8UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA160 160]}} and to declare wars.{{sfn|Green|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZGjcLBYTUUgC&pg=PA181 181]}} As the Hurrian presence grew, so did Hurrian religious influences and some of the Hurrian deities found a place in the Yamhadite pantheon.{{sfn|Kupper|1973|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FF5-7JVj4jYC&pg=PA41 41]}} King Abba-El I mentioned receiving the support of the Hurrian goddess [[Hebat]] in one of the Alalakh tablets (Hebat was the spouse of the Hurrian main deity [[Teshub]], but in Abba-El I's tablet, she is associated with Hadad).{{sfn|Kupper|1973|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FF5-7JVj4jYC&pg=PA41 41]}} Later, the Hurrians started to identify Teshub with Hadad, who became Teshub the Storm-God of Halab.{{sfn|Green|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZGjcLBYTUUgC&pg=PA170 170]}}

Beside the general gods, the kings had a "head god", that is, a deity who had an intimate connection for the worshiper. King Yarim-Lim I described Hadad as the god of the state, but the Mesopotamian deity [[Sin (mythology)|Sin]] as the god of his head. His son Hammurabi I did likewise.{{sfn|van der Toorn|1996|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VSJWkrXfbLQC&pg=PA77 77], [https://books.google.com/books?id=VSJWkrXfbLQC&pg=PA88 88]}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Asia}}
* [[Armi (Syria)|Armi]]
* [[Yamhad dynasty]]
* [[List of rulers of Aleppo]]

==References==

===Citations===
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{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://archive.archaeology.org/0911/features/syria_aleppo_temple_storm_god_citadel.html Hadad temple discovery.] Kay Kohlmeyer, an archaeologist at Berlin's University of Applied Sciences and the excavation co-director explain about the temple.
*[http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/syria_0039-7946_1987_num_64_3_7005 Ansari- ancient Halab.]

{{Syria topics}}
{{Aleppo landmarks}}
{{Ancient states and regions of the Levant |state=collapsed}}
{{Rulers of the Ancient Near East}}
[[Category:Yamhad| ]]
[[Category:Ancient Syria]]
[[Category:History of Aleppo]]
[[Category:Amorite cities]]
[[Category:2nd-millennium BC establishments]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 19th century BC]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 16th century BC]]
[[Category:2nd-millennium BC disestablishments]]
[[Category:Former kingdoms]]