View source for Yuan Shikai

{{short description|First president of the Republic of China (1859–1916)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{EngvarB|date=February 2024}}
{{family name hatnote|[[Yuan (surname)|Yuan]]|lang=Chinese}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name                = Yuan Shikai
| native_name         = {{normal|袁世凱}}
| honorific_prefix    = [[Generalissimo#List of generalissimos|Generalissimo]]
| native_name_lang    = zh-Hant
| image               = YuanShikaiPresidente1915.jpg
| caption             = Yuan in 1915
| office              = [[Empire of China (1915–1916)|Emperor of China]]
| term_label          = Reign
| term_start          = 12 December 1915
| term_end            = 22 March 1916
| predecessor         = Himself, as President
| successor           = Himself, as President
| primeminister       = [[Lu Zhengxiang]]
| office1              = [[President of the Republic of China|President of China]]
| term_start1         = 10 March 1912
| term_end1           = 12 December 1915
| premier1            = {{ubl|[[Tang Shaoyi]]|[[Lu Zhengxiang]]|[[Zhao Bingjun]]|[[Duan Qirui]] (acting)|[[Xiong Xiling]]|[[Sun Baoqi]] (acting)|[[Xu Shichang]]}}
| vicepresident1      = [[Li Yuanhong]]
| predecessor1        = [[Sun Yat-sen]]
| successor1          = Himself as Emperor of China
| term_start2          = 22 March 1916
| term_end2            = 6 June 1916
| premier2             = {{ubl|[[Xu Shichang]]|[[Duan Qirui]]}}
| vicepresident2       = [[Li Yuanhong]]
| predecessor2         = Himself as Emperor of China
| successor2           = [[Li Yuanhong]]
{{Collapsed infobox section begin |cont = yes |Imperial offices
| titlestyle       = border:1px dashed lightgrey;}}{{Infobox officeholder
| embed            = yes
| order3              = 2nd
| office3             = Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet
| monarch3            = [[Xuantong Emperor]]
| term_start3         = 2 November 1911
| term_end3           = 10 March 1912
| predecessor3        = [[Yikuang, Prince Qing]]
| successor3          = ''[[Qing dynasty]] ended''<br />
[[Zhang Xun]] ([[Manchu Restoration|1917]])
| office4             = [[Grand Council (Qing dynasty)|Grand Councillor]]
| monarch4            = {{ubl|[[Guangxu Emperor]]|[[Xuantong Emperor]]}}
| term_start4         = 4 September 1907
| term_end4           = 2 January 1909
| predecessor4        = 
| successor4          = 
| office5             = [[Zongli Yamen|Secretary of Foreign Affairs]]
| monarch5            = {{ubl|[[Guangxu Emperor]]|[[Xuantong Emperor]]}}
| term_start5         = 4 September 1907
| term_end5           = 2 January 1909
| predecessor5        = [[Lu Haihuan]]
| successor5          = [[Liang Dunyan]]
{{Collapsed infobox section end}} }}
{{Collapsed infobox section begin |cont = yes |Provincial offices
| titlestyle       = border:1px dashed lightgrey;}}{{Infobox officeholder
| embed            = yes
| office6             = [[Viceroy of Zhili|Viceroy of Zhili and Minister of Beiyang]]
| monarch6            = [[Guangxu Emperor]]
| term_start6         = 7 November 1901
| term_end6           = 4 September 1907
| predecessor6        = [[Li Hongzhang]]
| successor6          = [[Yang Shixiang]]
| office7             = [[Governor of Shandong]]
| monarch7            = [[Guangxu Emperor]]
| term_start7         = 6 December 1899
| term_end7           = 7 November 1901
| predecessor7        = [[Yuxian (Qing dynasty)|Yuxian]]
| successor7          = [[Zhang Renjun]]
{{Collapsed infobox section end}} }}
| birth_date          = {{Birth date|1859|9|16|df=y}}
| birth_place         = Zangying village, [[Xiangcheng City|Xiangcheng]], Henan, [[Qing dynasty|Qing Empire]]
| death_date          = {{Death date and age|1916|6|6|1859|9|16|df=y}}
| death_place         = [[Beijing]], [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|China]]
| signature           = Yuan Shikai Sign.svg
| party               = {{ubl|[[Beiyang clique]]|[[Republican Party (China)|Republican Party]]}}
| occupation          = General, politician
| spouse              = {{ubl|Yu Yishang|Lady Shen, concubine|Lady Lee, concubine|Lady Kim, concubine|Lady O, concubine|Lady Yang, concubine|Lady Ye, concubine|Lady Zhang, concubine|Lady Guo, concubine|Lady Liu, concubine}}
| children            = {{ubl|[[Yuan Keding]]|[[Yuan Kewen]]|15 other sons|15 daughters}}
| allegiance          = {{ubl|{{Flag|Qing Dynasty}} (1881–1912)|{{Flagicon|Republic of China (1912–1949)|1912}} [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] (1912–1915, 1916)|{{Flagicon image|YuanFlag1.svg}} [[Empire of China (1915–1916)|Empire of China]] (1915–1916)}}
| branch              = [[File:Beiyang star.svg|22px]] [[Beiyang Army]]
| rank                = ''[[Da yuan shuai|Generalissimo]]''
| battles             = {{ubl|[[Imo Incident]]|[[Gapsin Coup]]|[[First Sino-Japanese War]]|[[Boxer Rebellion]]|[[Xinhai Revolution]]|[[Second Revolution (Republic of China)|Second Revolution]]|
[[Bai Lang Rebellion]]|[[National Protection War]]}}
| serviceyears        = 1881–1916
| awards              = {{ubl|[[Order of the Paulownia Flowers]]|[[Order of the Red Eagle]]}}
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| order = ts
| t = 袁世凱
| s = 袁世凯
| p = Yuán Shìkǎi
| w = {{tone superscript|Yüan2 Shih4-k}}{{wg-apos}}{{tone superscript|ai3}}
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|yuan|2|-|shi|4|.|k|ai|3}}
| gr = Yuan Shyhkae
| j = jyun4 sai3 hoi2
| y = Yùhn Sai-hói
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|j|yun|4|-|s|ai|3|-|h|oi|2}}
| tl = Uân Sì-khái
| altname = Courtesy name
| t2 = 慰亭
| s2 = 慰亭
| p2 = Wèitíng
| w2 = {{tone superscript|Wei4-t}}{{wg-apos}}{{tone superscript|ing2}}
| gr2 = Weytyng
| j2 = wai3 ting4
| y2 = Wai-tìhng
| tp = Yuán Shìh-kǎi
| mi2 = {{IPAc-cmn|wei|4|.|t|ing|2}}
| tp2 = Wèi-tíng
| ci2 = {{IPAc-yue|w|ai|3|-|t|ing|4}}
| bpmf2 = ㄨㄟˋ ㄊㄧㄥˊ
| bpmf = ㄩㄢˊ ㄕˋ ㄎㄞˇ
}}
{{Conservatism in China|Politicians}}
'''Yuan Shikai''' ({{zh|t=袁世凱|s=袁世凯|p=Yuán Shìkǎi|first=t|w=Yüan2 Shih4-k'ai3}}; 16 September 1859{{snd}}6 June 1916) was a Chinese general and statesman who served as the second [[President of the Republic of China|provisional president]] and the first [[1913 Chinese presidential election|official president]] of the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]],<ref name="Cambridge Univ">{{cite book |title=Social Transformation in Modern China: The State and Local Elites in Henan, 1900-1937 |last=Xin |first=Zhang |page=118 |year=2000 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0521642892 |location=[[Cambridge]], UK}}</ref> head of the [[Beiyang government]] from 1912 to 1916 and [[Emperor of China|Emperor]] of the [[Empire of China (1915–1916)|Chinese Empire]] from 1915 to 1916.<ref name="BNU">{{Cite book |title=中國近代史 |trans-title=Modern Chinese History |first=Shi-qu |last=Zheng |publisher=[[Beijing Normal University]] Press |language=zh-hans |location=[[Nanjing]], China |year=2018 |edition=4 |isbn=978-7303197552}}</ref> A major political figure during the late [[Qing dynasty|Qing regime]], he spearheaded a number of major modernisation programs and reforms and played a decisive role in securing the abdication of Puyi in 1912, which marked the collapse of the Qing regime and the end of imperial rule in China.

Born to an affluent [[Han Chinese|Han]] family in [[Xiangcheng City|Xiangcheng county]], Yuan began his career in the [[Huai Army]]. He was sent to [[Joseon]] to head a Qing garrison in [[Seoul]] and was appointed imperial resident and supreme adviser to the Korean government after thwarting the [[Gapsin Coup]] in 1885. He was recalled to China shortly before the outbreak of the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], and received command of the first [[New Army]], which paved the way for his rise to power. In 1898, Yuan formed an alliance with [[Empress Dowager Cixi]] and helped bring an end to the [[Guangxu Emperor]]'s [[Hundred Days' Reform]]. Promoted to [[Viceroy of Zhili]] in 1902, Yuan quickly expanded the [[Beiyang Army]] into the best trained and most effective military force in China. He played an active role in the [[Late Qing reforms]], which included the abolition of the [[imperial examination]]. Upon the death of Cixi in 1908 he fell from power and was forced into exile, but retained the loyalty of the Beiyang Army and as such remained an influential figure.

Following the outbreak of the [[Wuchang Uprising]] in October 1911, the Qing court, desperate to maintain control as revolutionary forces seized key provinces, recalled Yuan from retirement and appointed him [[Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet]]. Leveraging his position as commander of the Beiyang Army, Yuan engaged in brief fighting with [[Sun Yat-sen]]'s revolutionaries before opening negotiations, brokering a deal that led to the abdication of the child emperor Puyi in early 1912, effectively ending over two thousand years of imperial rule. In return, Yuan was chosen as the first official president of the Republic of China after Sun voluntarily stepped aside in his favor.

Yuan's desire for dictatorial power brought him into conflict with the [[National Assembly (Beiyang government)|National Assembly]] and the [[Kuomintang]] (KMT), provoking a [[Second Revolution (Republic of China)|second revolution]] which was decisively crushed. He then outlawed the KMT and dissolved the National Assembly. In December 1915, in an attempt to further secure his rule, Yuan [[Empire of China (1915–1916)|restored the monarchy]] and proclaimed himself as the '''Hongxian Emperor''' ({{zhi|c=洪憲}}). The move was met with widespread opposition from the general populace, many of his closest supporters in the Beiyang Army, as well as foreign governments. Several military governors and provinces [[National Protection War|rose in open rebellion]]. In March 1916, Yuan formally abdicated and restored the Republic, having been emperor for only 83 days. He died of [[kidney failure]] in June at the age of 56, leaving behind a significantly weakened Beiyang government and a fragmented political landscape, which soon plunged China into a [[Warlord Era|period of warlordism]].

== Early life ==
On 16 September 1859, Yuan Shikai was born in the village of Zhangying ({{lang|zh-hant|張營村}}) to the [[Yuan (surname)|Yuan Clan]] which later moved 16 kilometres southeast of [[Xiangcheng City|Xiangcheng]] to a hilly area that was easier to defend against bandits. There, the Yuan family had built the fortified village of Yuanzhaicun ({{zhi|c=袁寨村}}).<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.scribd.com/document/321659858/Yuan-Shikai |title = Yuan Shikai {{!}} Qing Dynasty {{!}} International Politics |via=Scribd |access-date=23 May 2018 }}</ref> He was the fourth of six sons, and in 1866 was adopted by his father's younger brother, until he died in 1873. From that point Yuan was raised by several other uncles, before returning to Xiangcheng in 1878. During those years he had lived in the province of [[Shandong]], and then in [[Nanjing]] and [[Beijing]].{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=79}} Yuan's family was affluent enough to provide Yuan with a traditional [[Confucian education]].{{sfn|Bonavia|1995|p=34}} As a young man he enjoyed riding, hunting with dogs, boxing, and entertainment with friends. Though hoping to pursue a career in the civil service, he failed the imperial examinations twice, in 1876 and 1879, leading him to decide on an entry into politics through the [[Huai Army]], where many of his relatives served. His career began with the purchase of a minor official title in 1880, which was a common method of official promotion in the late Qing.<ref name="Spence, Jonathan D. 1999 p. 274">[[Jonathan Spence|Spence, Jonathan D.]] (1999) ''[[The Search for Modern China]]'', [[W.W. Norton and Company]]. p.&nbsp;274. {{ISBN|0-393-97351-4}}.</ref>{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=79}}

Between 1877 and 1878, Yuan accompanied one of his uncles who was sent to assist relief efforts after a drought in the province of [[Henan]], and Yuan was praised by officials there for his role in helping manage the response, including in punishing those who embezzled relief funds. It was during that time that he began learning about leadership and politics, and made connections with senior government officials. After seeing the conditions in Henan as a result of the natural disaster there, Yuan wrote that he wanted to dedicate himself to "serving the country".{{sfn|Shan|2018|pages=28–29}} Using his father's connections, Yuan traveled to [[Tengzhou]], Shandong, and received a post on the military staff of the commander of the province's coastal defenses, Wu Changching,{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=79}} in 1881.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=20}} Wu had owed a debt to Yuan's foster father, and also provided Yuan with tutors to help him study for another attempt at the imperial examination. Yuan planned to retake it, but this never happened because his deployment to Korea in 1882. Around this time he expressed his willingness to fight to defend China from foreign powers.{{sfn|Shan|2018|pages=29–30}} Yuan's interest in military history and martials arts made him want to join the army, though he was disillusioned when he saw how poorly the soldiers were paid.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=31}} Yuan's first marriage was in 1876 to a woman of the Yu family who bore him a first son, [[Yuan Keding|Keding]], in 1878. Yuan Shikai married nine more [[concubines]] throughout the course of his life.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://history.news.163.com/08/0606/09/4DODJOQB00011KUQ.html | script-title = zh:袁世凯：一妻九妾 | website = 163.com | date = 6 June 2008 | access-date = 2 May 2011 | language = zh | archive-date = 21 October 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181021014541/http://history.news.163.com/08/0606/09/4DODJOQB00011KUQ.html | url-status = dead }}</ref>

== Years in Joseon Korea ==
In the early 1870s, [[Korea]] under the [[Joseon dynasty]] was in the midst of a struggle between isolationists under [[Gojong of Korea|King Gojong]]'s father [[Heungseon Daewongun]], and progressives, led by [[Empress Myeongseong]], who wanted to open trade. After the [[Meiji Restoration]], Japan had adopted an aggressive foreign policy, contesting Chinese domination of the peninsula. Under the [[Treaty of Ganghwa]], which the Koreans signed with reluctance in 1876, Japan was allowed to send diplomatic missions to [[Seoul|Hanseong]], and opened trading posts in [[Incheon]] and [[Wonsan]]. Amidst an [[Imo Incident|internal power struggle]] in 1882 which resulted in the queen's exile, the [[Viceroy of Zhili]], [[Li Hongzhang]], sent 3,000 men of the [[Huai Army]] under Wu Changqing into Korea to restore stability, which became Yuan Shikai's first military deployment.{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=79}}{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=73}} Yuan distinguished himself during his service on Wu's staff in Korea, including both in battle and in his administrative ability, and was recommended for promotion to the rank of subprefect by Wu.{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=79}}{{sfn|Shan|2018|pages=35–36}} Yuan also became known for enforcing strict discipline among the Chinese troops in Korea.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=35}} In the spring of 1884, after Wu returned to China, Yuan became the commander of the Chinese forces in his place. The Korean king proposed that some of his troops be trained by the Chinese, and Yuan Shikai was put in charge of training the Korean royal guard,{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=79}} as the head of a new Capital Guard Command.{{sfn|Paine|2003|page=56}}

China's reassertion of [[suzerain]]ty over Korea aggravated the split between pro-Japanese Korean progressives and pro-Chinese conservatives. In December 1884 the progressives attempted to form a new government with Japanese backing during the [[Gapsin Coup]], and the conservatives led by Queen Min turned to the Chinese garrison for help. Yuan led his troops to defeat the outnumbered Japanese and recover King Gojong. The 26-year-old Yuan established himself as a resourceful leader, and from that point Viceroy Li Hongzhang gave him a critical role in regaining Chinese control of Korea.{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=80}} In October 1885, Yuan was appointed Chinese imperial resident in Korea by Li,{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=80}}<ref name=Busky>Busky, Donald F. (2002) ''Communism in History and Theory'', Praeger/Greenwood. {{ISBN|0-275-97733-1}}.</ref> restoring a custom that dated back to the Mongol [[Yuan dynasty]].{{sfn|Paine|2003|page=60}} Yuan Shikai spent the next nine years in that position{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=80}} and operated as if he were above the law.{{sfn|Paine|2003|page=60}} He ended any attempts at reform, changed the composition of the Korean government, and worked to minimize any other foreign influence, especially Japanese. Yuan was allied to the corrupt Min oligarchy, and historians have characterized his reign in Korea as a "dark age".{{sfn|Paine|2003|page=60}} His behavior and rule created a lot of antagonism against him and China among Koreans.{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=80}}{{sfn|Paine|2003|pages=56, 60}} However, during those years China was able to maintain its control over Korea and contain Japanese and Russian influence.{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=80}}{{sfn|Paine|2003|page=60}}{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=55}} He wanted to remove Gojong from the throne on several occasions, but was prevented from doing so by Li Hongzhang.{{sfn|Paine|2003|page=58}}{{sfn|Paine|2003|page=76}}

In the early 1890s, the Japanese protested that China was obstructing Japan's trade with Korea, but more importantly a rebel movement that threatened Chinese interests, the [[Donghak Rebellion|Donghak Society]], emerged in the Korean countryside.{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=80}}{{sfn|Paine|2003|pages=112–113}} It existed for many years and held sporadic protests against corruption and foreign influence, but in early 1894 it had spread rapidly in opposition to the government's taxation policy. The rebels agreed to a ceasefire on 1 June 1894 to remove any pretext for foreign intervention, and on 2 June the Japanese cabinet decided to deploy troops to Korea only if China did so. The Min faction, not being aware of the latter and feeling threatened by the rebels, requested China to send reinforcements on 3 June. They were also advised in this by Yuan Shikai. Japan started military preparations immediately.{{sfn|Paine|2003|page=113}} Within days, over 2,000 Japanese troops landed in Korea and marched to Seoul, and additional troops and warships arrived during the following weeks.{{sfn|Paine|2003|page=114}} They quickly outnumbered the Chinese force in Korea.{{sfn|Paine|2003|page=116}} Yuan requested Li Hongzhang for permission to leave Korea in late June, but this was not granted for twenty days, and he left Seoul on 19 July by disguising himself as a Chinese servant of the Russian military attaché on his way to Beijing.{{sfn|Paine|2003|pages=114–115}} This ended his twelve years in Korea.{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=80}}

Yuan Shikai had three Korean concubines, one of whom was Korean Princess Li's relative, concubine Kim. 15 of Yuan's children came from these three Korean women.<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gzVCDwAAQBAJ&q=yuan+korean+concubines&pg=PA52 |page=52 |title = The Revival of China, Volume 1 |last = Mao |first = Min |year=2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XGrNgHpMWkMC&q=yuan+korean+concubines&pg=PA97 |page=97 |title=Thorny Road to Dignity: Surviving Mao: A Chinese Psychiatrist Embraces a Miracle in America |author=Zhong Liu |publisher=iUniverse |year=2004 |isbn=0595319777 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=WU43AQAAIAAJ&q=yuan+korean+concubines |page=92 |title=Beijing Odyssey: Based on the Life and Times of Liang Shiyi, a Mandarin in China's Transition from Monarchy to Republic |author=Steven T. Au |edition=illustrated |publisher=Mayhaven Publishing |year=1999 |isbn = 1878044680 }}</ref>

==Late Qing dynasty==
{{more citations needed|section|date=December 2019}}
[[File:Yuan Shikai as governor of shandong.jpg|left|thumb|Yuan Shikai as Governor of Shandong]]
[[File:Chinese generals 1910.jpg|left|thumb|Yuan Shikai and [[Tieliang]]（铁良) in 1906<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.orangenews.hk/author/1141924/伯爵茶跡-北洋元首的文化背景.shtml |title=伯爵茶跡｜北洋元首的文化背景 |date=25 March 2022 }}Per [[Orange News]] (in Chinese)</ref>]]
After returning to China, Yuan was appointed to a post in [[Zhejiang]], but he did not take it up.{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=80}} The [[First Sino-Japanese War]] officially began on 1 August 1894 with Japan declaring war on China,{{sfn|Paine|2003|page=135}} and he spent the conflict assisting with the provision of supplies to the Chinese forces in Korea and northeast China, at the request of Li Hongzhang.{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=80}} At this point Yuan also had a positive reputation outside of China, due to his actions in Korea. [[Prime Minister of Japan|Japanese Prime Minister]] [[Itō Hirobumi]] had asked Li Hongzhang about Yuan during their negotiations at the end of the war, and remarked that he was talented.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=58}} Shortly before the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]] ended the Sino-Japanese war in April 1895, [[U.S. Secretary of State]] [[John W. Foster]] attempted to convince Yuan to lead a military coup against the Qing dynasty.{{sfn|Crean|2024|page=44}}

After China's best force, the Huai Army, had been defeated in the war with Japan, the Qing imperial court was willing to create units that were organized entirely along the European model.{{sfn|McCord|1993|pages=33–34}} There were increasing calls after the war to reorganize the Chinese armed forces.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=58}} Around this time, Yuan had the confidence of senior Qing officials, including [[Ronglu]], the Minister of War, and [[Yikuang, Prince Qing]].{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=80}}{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=75}} Several high-ranking officials, including Yikuang, [[Weng Tonghe]], and [[Wang Wenshao]], signed [[memorial to the throne|memorials to the throne]] in the fall of 1895 asking the [[Guangxu Emperor]] to appoint Yuan to oversee military modernization.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=58}} He was known for having organized Korean forces, defeating the Japanese during the 1880s, and displaying management skills as a logistics officer during the most recent war.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=59}} After a private meeting with the emperor on 2 August 1895 he was made a member of the council for military issues.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=59}} Within days, he presented the emperor with a lengthy document on his proposal for creating a Western-style army under centralized Qing control.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=60}} On 8 December 1895 Yuan was appointed as the commander of the Newly Created Army, which was created on the basis of the Pacification Army that had been raised during the war at the Huai Army training camp in [[Xiaozhan]], near [[Tianjin]].{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=81}}{{sfn|Powell|1955|pages=75–76}}

Yuan immediately set about organizing the [[brigade]]-sized Newly Created Army,{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=76}} and spent the next three years{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=57}} developing a force at Xiaozhan that was different from any previous Chinese military, being not only equipped but also organized along the lines of the [[Imperial German Army|German Army]], and funded by the central government. Particular attention was given to the recruitment and training of the soldiers and officers. It was organized into combat arms and several technical branches, and a [[Staff (military)|staff officer system]] was also set up with German assistance.{{sfn|McCord|1993|pages=33–34}}{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=77}} The unit was equipped with German weapons and supplies.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=63}} The Newly Created Army became the basis for his rise to power,{{sfn|Shan|2018|pages=56–57}} and in addition to Yuan, the brigade's officer corps included many other future leaders, including several [[President of the Republic of China|presidents of the Republic of China]] and provincial governors.{{sfn|Powell|1955|pages=79–80}} Already in 1896, Yuan's troops received praise from Ronglu, and in July 1897 Yuan was made the provincial judge of Zhili.{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=81}} Between 1895 and 1898 the emperor, being impressed with his efforts at modernizing the military, had several meetings with Yuan, which was rare for an official of his level.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=80}} Yuan was seen as a member of the reform movement and supported it, though he was focused on his military service and was not involved in their political machinations.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=80}}{{sfn|Shan|2018|pages=72–73}} At the same Yuan maintained good relations with the conservative Manchu princes, notably Ronglu.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=81}}

The Qing Court at the time was divided between progressives under the leadership of the [[Guangxu Emperor]] and conservatives under [[Empress Dowager Cixi]],{{sfn|Shan|2018|pages=72–73}} who had withdrawn to her Summer Palace and allowed the emperor to lead the government. In June 1898 the Guangxu Emperor launched the [[Hundred Days' Reform]] and started issuing dozens of edicts to make changes to China's culture, economy, military, and education system, with the support of reform-minded officials like [[Kang Youwei]].{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=81}} He encountered a lot of resistance from the conservative nobles, who wanted Cixi to return, and his supporters, having no military power of their own, decided to ask Yuan Shikai for help.{{sfn|Shan|2018|pages=81–84}} Yuan's role in these events continues to be debated by historians.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=80}} The most widely held interpretation has been that the reform advocate [[Tan Sitong]] met with Yuan Shikai on 18 September 1898 and asked Yuan to use his troops to kill the conservatives and to arrest Cixi. Yuan betrayed them by giving this information to Ronglu on the evening of 20 September, and based on this, the next morning the conservatives launched a coup d'état that ended the Hundred Days' Reform and placed the Guangxu Emperor into confinement. Yuan's conversation with Ronglu has been accepted as the cause of the coup. However, more recently available evidence has led some historians to conclude that the coup was already being planned by the time Yuan had his conversation with Ronglu, and he was not the reason why it occurred. Yuan most likely knew that his troops would be no match for the larger forces around Beijing and wanted to protect his own position. His report to Ronglu was later used by Cixi to purge many reformers from the government.{{sfn|Shan|2018|pages=81–84}}

Yuan was appointed as acting [[Viceroy of Zhili]] and [[Beiyang]] Trade Minister for ten days after the coup, which may have been an effort by the conservative faction to keep him away from his troops at Xiaozhan. Ronglu saw Yuan Shikai as reliable subordinate and his support allowed Yuan to not be punished, unlike the other reformers.{{sfn|Shan|2018|page=85}} Later that year several military units in northern China were placed under Ronglu's command as the [[Wuwei Corps]], which also called the Guards Army. Yuan's Newly Created Army became the Right Division of the Guard Army. It was seen as the best trained and equipped among the five divisions of the army,{{sfn|Boorman|Howard|1971|page=81}} and his success opened the way for his rise to the top in both military and political sectors.<ref>Hong Zhang, "Yuan Shikai and the Significance of his Troop Training at Xiaozhan, Tianjin, 1895–1899". ''Chinese Historical Review'' 26.1 (2019): 37–54.</ref> During 1899 he wrote several proposals to the Qing court in military reform. In June 1899, he was made the junior vice president of the [[Ministry of Works (imperial China)|Ministry of Works]] by Empress Dowager Cixi. As tensions increased between the locals and foreigners in the province of [[Shandong]], beginning the [[Boxer Rebellion]], Yuan was sent there in December 1899 as the acting provincial governor. He was confirmed as governor in March 1900.{{sfn|Powell|1955|pages=122–123}}

During his three-year tenure the Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901) erupted; Yuan ensured the suppression of Boxers in the province, though his troops took no active part outside Shandong itself. Yuan took the side of the pro-foreign faction in the imperial court. He refused to side with the Boxers and attack the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]] forces, joining with other Chinese governors who commanded substantial modernized armies like [[Zhang Zhidong]] not participating in the Boxer Rebellion. He and Zhang ignored Cixi's declaration of war against the foreign powers and continued to suppress the Boxers. This clique was known as the [[Mutual Defence Pact of Southeast China]].{{sfn|Powell|1955|pages=122–123}}<ref name="Luo2015">{{cite book |first=Zhitian |last = Luo |title = Inheritance within Rupture: Culture and Scholarship in Early Twentieth Century China |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=avlyBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 |date= 2015|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-28766-2|pages=19–}}</ref> In addition to suppressing the Boxers in Shandong, Yuan and his army (the Right Division) also helped the Eight-Nation Alliance suppress them in Zhili after [[Battle of Peking (1900)|captured Peking]] in August 1900. Yuan Shikai's forces massacred tens of thousands of people in their anti-Boxer campaign in Zhili.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Edgerton |first=Robert B. |url=http://archive.org/details/warriorsofrising00edge |title=Warriors of the Rising Sun: A History of the Japanese Military |date=1997 |publisher=New York : Norton |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-393-04085-2 |pages=94}}</ref> Yuan operated out of [[Baoding]] during the campaign, which ended in 1902.{{sfn|Ch'en|1961|pages=76–77}} The Boxer Rebellion decimated the other divisions of the Guards Army, and after it was over the Qing court wanted rebuild the defenses of the Beijing area, appointing Yuan to oversee this task.{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=126}} In late 1901 he was made the acting Viceroy of Zhili and Beiyang Trade Minister after the death of Li Hongzhang, so he was also in charge of the foreign and military affairs of northern China. These appointments to powerful positions in the capital region showed the trust that the empress dowager had in Yuan Shikai.{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=138}} He was confirmed as viceroy in June 1902.{{sfn|Bonavia|1995|page=35}}{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=138}} Yuan was given several other offices around that time, including as director of the northern railways and director of telegraphs.{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=138}}

[[File:Yuan Shikai in uniform.jpg|thumb|Yuan Shikai in Qing dynasty uniform, 1912]]
Having gained powerful allies that included Empress Dowager Cixi, and being appointed as the Viceroy of Zhili and Beiyang Trade Minister, Yuan was in a position that allowed him to expand his army and increase its funding.{{sfn|Powell|1955|pages=138–139}} It was at this time that Yuan established the [[Beiyang Army]],{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=140}} with the creation of the Left Division of the Beiyang Standing Army in October 1902.{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=143}} In December 1902 he was also ordered to train several thousand [[Eight Banners|Manchu Bannermen]], and these later became the 1st Division of the Beiyang Army, while the Left Division was renamed the 2nd Division.{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=143}} It was meant to become the core of a Chinese [[regular army]],{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=140}} and although Yuan had a lot of influence over it, the central government had administrative control and provided the army's funding.{{sfn|Mackinnon|1973|page=406}} In 1904 Yuan used the [[Russo-Japanese War]] to convince Cixi to authorize the creation of more divisions. Because of this the Beiyang Army reached a strength of 60,000 men.{{sfn|Mackinnon|1973|page=406}} In mid-1902 he established a military staff to assist him in his role as Beiyang Army commander, and its two most prominent members were [[Feng Guozhang]] and [[Duan Qirui]].{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=141}} The "Beiyang clique" became the origin of the majority of warlords in northern China during the warlord period in the 1910s and 1920s.{{sfn|Powell|1955|page=140}} As one historian wrote, "the [Beiyang] Army was the most significant military development in China between the [Xiang] and Huai Armies which suppressed the Taiping and [Nian] rebellions in the 1860's and the [[National Revolutionary Army|army]] that [[Chiang Kai-shek]] raised and employed in the [[Northern Expedition|northern expedition]] of 1926-27."{{sfn|Mackinnon|1973|page=405}}

In 1905, acting on Yuan's advice, Dowager-Empress Cixi issued a decree ending the traditional Confucian examination system that was formalized in 1906. She ordered the Ministry of Education to implement a system of primary and secondary schools and universities with state-mandated curriculum, modelled after the educational system of [[Meiji period|Meiji-era]] Japan. On 27 August 1908, the Qing court promulgated "Principles for a Constitution", which Yuan helped to draft. This document called for a [[constitutional government]] with a strong monarchy (modelled after Meiji Japan and Bismarck's Germany), with a constitution to be issued by 1916 and an elected parliament by 1917.<ref>Tanner, Harold Miles. ''China: A History''. Hackett Publishing (2009) {{ISBN|0872209156}} pp.&nbsp;408–410.</ref>

{{Quote box
|align = right
|width = 60%
|quote = In the hunting-park, three miles to the south of Peking, is quartered the Sixth Division, which supplies the Guards for the Imperial Palace, consisting of a battalion of infantry and a squadron of cavalry. With this Division Yuan Shi Kai retains twenty-six modified Krupp guns, which are the best of his artillery arm, and excel any guns possessed by the foreign legations in Peking.

The Manchu Division moves with the Court and is the pride of the modern army.

By his strategic disposition Yuan Shi Kai completely controls all the approaches to the capital, and holds a force which he may utilize either to protect the Court from threatened attack or to crush the Emperor should he himself desire to assume Imperial power. Contrary to treaty stipulations made at the settlement of the Boxer trouble, the Chinese have been permitted to build a great tower over the Chien Men, or central southern gate, which commands the foreign legations and governs the Forbidden City. In the threatening condition of Chinese affairs it might be assumed that this structure had been undermined by the foreign community, but this has not been done, and if trouble again arise in Peking the fate of the legations will depend upon the success of the first assault which will be necessary to take it. The foreign legations are as much in the power of Yuan Shi Kai's troops in 1907 as they were at the mercy of the Chinese rabble in 1900.

The ultimate purpose of the equipped and disciplined troops is locked in the breast of the Viceroy of Chihli. Yuan Shi Kai's yamen in Tientsin is connected by telegraph and telephone with the Imperial palaces and with the various barracks of his troops. In a field a couple of hundred yards away is the long pole of a wireless telegraph station, from which he can send the message that any day may set all China ablaze.
|source = ''To-morrow in the East'', Douglas Story, pp.&nbsp;224–226.<ref>{{cite book |title = To-morrow in the East |first= Douglas |last = Story |year = 1907 |publisher= G. Bell & Sons |url = https://archive.org/details/tomorrowineast02storgoog |pages = [https://archive.org/details/tomorrowineast02storgoog/page/n240 224]–226 |access-date= 1 April 2013 |ref = {{harvid|}} }}</ref>
}}

Yuan Shikai's Han-dominated New Army was primarily responsible for the defence of Beijing, as most of the modernized Eight Banner divisions were destroyed in the Boxer Rebellion and the new modernized Banner forces were token in nature.

The Empress Dowager and the Guangxu Emperor died within a day of each other in November 1908.<ref name="Busky" /> Sources indicate that the will of the emperor ordered Yuan's execution. Nonetheless, he avoided death. In January 1909, he was relieved of all his posts by the regent, [[Zaifeng, Prince Chun|Prince Chun]]. The public reason for Yuan's resignation was that he was returning to his home in the village of Huanshang ({{lang|zh|洹上村}}), the [[prefecture-level city]] of [[Anyang]], due to a foot disease.

During his three years of effective exile, Yuan kept contact with his close allies, including [[Duan Qirui]], who reported to him regularly about army proceedings. Yuan had arranged for the marriage of his niece (whom he had adopted) to Duan as a means to consolidate power. The loyalty of the Beiyang Army was still undoubtedly behind him. Having this strategic military support, Yuan held the balance of power between various revolutionaries (like [[Sun Yat-sen]]) and the Qing court. Both wanted Yuan on their side.

== Wuchang Uprising and Republic ==

[[File:Yuan Shikai2.jpg|thumb|left|Yuan Shikai in uniform]]

The [[Wuchang Uprising]] took place on 10 October 1911 in [[Hubei]] province. The southern provinces subsequently declared their independence from the Qing court, but neither the northern provinces nor the Beiyang Army had a clear stance for or against the rebellion. Both the Qing court and Yuan were fully aware that the Beiyang Army was the only Qing force powerful enough to quell the revolutionaries. The court requested Yuan's return on 27 October, but he repeatedly declined offers from the Qing court for his return, first as the [[Viceroy of Huguang]], and then as [[Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet]]. Time was on Yuan's side, and Yuan waited, using his "foot ailment" as a pretext to his continual refusal.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rhoads |first1=Edward J. M. |title=Manchus and Han: ethnic relations and political power in late Qing and early Republican China, 1861–1928 |date=2000 |publisher=University of Washington Press |location=Seattle |isbn=0-295-97938-0 |page=175 |url=https://archive.org/details/manchushanethnic0000rhoa |access-date=31 July 2023}}</ref>

After further pleas by the Qing Court, Yuan agreed and eventually left his village for Beijing on 30 October, becoming prime minister on 1 November 1911. Immediately after that he asked the regent to withdraw from politics, which forced Zaifeng to resign as regent. This made way for Yuan to form a new, predominantly Han [[Yuan Shikai's Cabinet|cabinet]] of confidants, with only one Manchu as Minister of Suzerainty. To further reward Yuan's loyalty to the court, the [[Empress Dowager Longyu]] offered Yuan the noble title Marquis of the First Rank ({{lang|zh|一等侯}}), an honour previously given only to 19th-century General [[Zeng Guofan]] for his raising of the [[Xiang Army]] to suppress the [[Taiping Rebellion]]. Meanwhile, in the [[Battle of Yangxia]], Yuan's forces recaptured [[Hankou District|Hankou]] and [[Hanyang District|Hanyang]] from the revolutionaries. Yuan knew that complete suppression of the revolution would end his usefulness to the Qing regime. Instead of attacking [[Wuchang, Hubei|Wuchang]], he began to negotiate with the revolutionaries.

=== Abdication of child emperor ===
[[File:Yuan Shikai sworn in as Provisional President - 10 March 1912.jpg|thumb|Yuan Shikai sworn in as Provisional President of the Republic of China, in Beijing, 10 March 1912]]

[[File:Ztysk (2).jpg|thumb|Yuan Shikai pictured with ambassadors from foreign countries on 10 October 1913]]

The revolutionaries had elected [[Sun Yat-sen]] as the first Provisional [[President of the Republic of China]], but they were in a weak position militarily, so they negotiated with the Qing, using Yuan as an intermediary. Yuan arranged for the abdication of the child emperor [[Puyi]] in return for being granted the position of President of the Republic of China.<ref name=Busky /> Puyi recalled in his autobiography the meeting between Longyu and Yuan:

{{blockquote|[[Empress Dowager Longyu|The Dowager Empress]] was sitting on a kang [platform] in a side room of the Mind Nature Palace, wiping her eyes with a handkerchief as a fat old man [Yuan] knelt before her on a red cushion, tears streaming down his face. I was sitting to the right of the widow and wondering why both adults were crying. There was no one in the room other than the three of us and everything was very quiet; the fat man snorted as he spoke and I couldn't understand what he was saying&nbsp;... This was the time when Yuan directly raised the question of abdication.<ref>Behr, 1987 p. 69</ref>}}

Sun agreed to Yuan's presidency after some internal bickering, but asked that the capital be situated in [[Nanjing]]. Yuan, however, wanted the geographic advantage of having the nation's capital close to his base of military power. Many theorized that [[Cao Kun]], one of his trusted subordinate Beiyang military commanders, fabricated a coup d'état in Beijing and Tianjin, apparently under Yuan's orders, to provide an excuse for Yuan not to leave his [[sphere of influence]] in Zhili (present-day [[Hebei]] province). However, the claim that the coup was organized by Yuan has been challenged by others.<ref>Joseph W.; Wei, C.X. George (2013). ''China: How the Empire Fell''. New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 239–241. {{ISBN|978-0-415-83101-7}}</ref> The revolutionaries compromised again, and the capital of the new republic was established in Beijing. Yuan Shikai was elected Provisional President of the Republic of China by the Nanjing Provisional Senate on 14 February 1912, and sworn in on 10 March of that year.<ref name=Zhengyuan>Zhengyuan Fu. (1994) ''Autocratic Tradition and Chinese Politics'', [[Cambridge University]] Press. pp. 153–154. {{ISBN|0-521-44228-1}}.</ref><ref>Spence, 1999 pp. 277–278.</ref>

=== Democratic elections ===
In February 1913, democratic elections were held for the [[National Assembly of the Republic of China|National Assembly]] in which the KMT scored a significant victory. [[Song Jiaoren]] zealously supported a cabinet system and was widely regarded as a candidate for prime minister.

One of Song's main political goals was to ensure that the powers and independence of China's Parliament be properly protected from the influence of the office of the president. Song's goals in curtailing the office of the president conflicted with the interests of Yuan, who, by mid-1912, clearly dominated the provisional cabinet and was showing signs of a desire to hold overwhelming executive power. During Song's travels through China in 1912, he had openly and vehemently expressed the desire to limit the powers of the president in terms that often appeared openly critical of Yuan's ambitions. When the results of the 1913 elections indicated a clear victory for the KMT, it appeared that Song would be in a position to exercise a dominant role in selecting the premier and cabinet, and the party could have proceeded to push for the election of a future president in a parliamentary setting. On 20 March 1913, Song Jiaoren was shot by a lone gunman in Shanghai, and died two days later. The trail of evidence led to the secretary of the cabinet and the provisional premier of Yuan's government. Although Yuan was considered by contemporary Chinese media sources as the man most likely behind the assassination, the main conspirators investigated by authorities either were themselves assassinated or disappeared mysteriously. For lack of evidence, Yuan was not implicated.<ref>Spence, 1999 pp. 275–277.</ref>

== Becoming emperor ==
{{See also|Empire of China (1915–1916)}}

[[File:1 dollar Yuan Shikai 1914 - 3.png|thumb|left|300px|The [[Yuan Shikai coinage|Yuan Shikai dollar]] ([[Chinese yuan|yuan]] in Chinese), issued for the first time in 1914, became a dominant coin type of the Republic of China.]]

[[File:5 Yuan - Bank of China (1914) 01.jpg|thumb|left|300px| A banknote from the early Republic of China depicting the face of President Yuan Shikai.]]

Tensions between the KMT and Yuan continued to intensify. After arriving in Peking, the elected Parliament attempted to gain control over Yuan, to develop a permanent constitution, and to hold a legitimate, open presidential election. Because he had authorized $100 million of "[[Reorganisation loan affair|reorganization loans]]" from a variety of foreign banks, the KMT in particular were highly critical of Yuan's handling of the national budget.  Yuan's crackdown on the KMT began in 1913, with the suppression and bribery of KMT members in the two legislative chambers. Anti-Yuan revolutionaries also claimed Yuan orchestrated the collapse of the KMT internally and dismissed governors interpreted as being pro-KMT.<ref>Spence, 1999 p. 277.</ref>

=== Second revolution ===
Seeing the situation for his party worsen, Sun Yat-sen fled to Japan in August 1913, and called for a Second Revolution, this time against Yuan Shikai.<ref>Albert A. Altman, and Harold Z. Schiffrin, "Sun Yat-sen and the Japanese: 1914–16". ''Modern Asian Studies'' 6.4 (1972): 385–400.</ref> Subsequently, Yuan gradually took over the government, using the military as the base of his power. He dissolved the national and provincial assemblies, and the House of Representatives and Senate were replaced by the newly formed "Council of State", with [[Duan Qirui]], his trusted Beiyang lieutenant, as prime minister. He relied on the American-educated [[Tsai Tingkan]] for English translation and connections with western powers. Finally, Yuan had himself elected president to a five-year term, publicly labelled the KMT a seditious organization, ordered the KMT's dissolution, and evicted all its members from Parliament. The KMT's "Second Revolution" ended in failure as Yuan's troops achieved complete victory over revolutionary uprisings. Provincial governors with KMT loyalties who remained willingly submitted to Yuan. Because those commanders not loyal to Yuan were effectively removed from power, the Second Revolution cemented Yuan's power.{{sfn|Bonavia|1995|p=36}}<ref>Norman D. Palmer, "Makers of Modern China: II. The Strong Man: Yuan Shih-kai" ''Current History''   (Sep 1948): 15#85 pp. 149–55.</ref>

In January 1914, China's Parliament was formally dissolved. To give his government a semblance of legitimacy, Yuan convened a body of 66 men from his cabinet who, on 1 May 1914, produced a "constitutional compact" that effectively replaced China's provisional constitution. The new legal status quo gave Yuan, as president, practically unlimited powers over China's military, finances, foreign policy, and the rights of China's citizens. Yuan justified these reforms by stating that representative democracy had been proven inefficient by political infighting.<ref>Spence, Jonathan D. (1999) ''The Search for Modern China'', W.W. Norton and Company. p. 279. {{ISBN|0-393-97351-4}}.</ref>

After his victory, Yuan reorganized the provincial governments. Each province was supported by a military governor ({{lang|zh|都督}}) as well as a civil authority, giving each governor control of his own army. This helped lay the foundations for the [[warlord]]ism that crippled China over the next two decades.

During Yuan's presidency, [[Yuan Shikai coinage|silver coinage featuring his portrait]] was introduced. This coin type was the first "dollar" coin of the central authorities of the Republic of China to be minted in large quantities. It became a staple silver coin type during the first half of the 20th century and was struck for the last time as late as the 1950s. The coins were also extensively forged.<ref>{{cite book |last=Meyerhofer |first=Adi |title=袁大头. Yuan Shi-kai Dollar: 'Fat Man Dollar' Forgeries and Remints |url=http://zenwort.lima-city.de/YuanShikai-FatManDollar.pdf |year=2013 |location=Munich |access-date=25 April 2013 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223113/http://zenwort.lima-city.de/YuanShikai-FatManDollar.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Japan's 21 demands ===
{{Main|Twenty-One Demands}}
In 1914, Japan captured the German colony at [[Qingdao]]. In January 1915, Japan sent a secret ultimatum, known as the [[Twenty-One Demands]], to Beijing.{{sfn|Crean|2024|page=45}} Japan demanded an extension of [[extraterritoriality]], the sale of businesses in debt to Japan and the cession of Qingdao to Japan, and virtual control of finance and the local police. When these demands were made public, hostility within China was expressed in nationwide anti-Japanese demonstrations and an effective national boycott of Japanese goods.  With support from Britain and the United States Yuan secured Japan's dropping part five of the demands, which would have given Japan a general control of Chinese affairs. However he did accept the less onerous terms and that led to a decline in the popularity of Yuan's government.<ref>Zhitian Luo, "National humiliation and national assertion-The Chinese response to the twenty-one demands" ''Modern Asian Studies'' (1993) 27#2 pp. 297–319 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/312771 online]</ref>

=== Revival of hereditary monarchy ===
{{Infobox monarchy
|native_name= {{nobold|{{lang|zh|中華帝國皇帝}}}}
|residence=[[Forbidden City]], [[Beijing]]
|border=imperial
|began=12 December 1915
|caption=The President dressed in the traditional ''chaofu'' attire, before his subsequent coronation. 1915.
|image=袁世凱祭天.jpg
|coatofarms=Twelve Symbols national emblem of China.svg
|coatofarmscaption='''Imperial Emblem'''
|coatofarmssize=120px
|ended=22 March 1916
|first_monarch=Hongxian
|last_monarch=
|royal_title=Emperor
|realm=China
|style=[[Imperial Majesty (style)|His Imperial Majesty]]|Era=}}

To build up his own authority, Yuan began to re-institute elements of state [[Confucianism]]. As the main proponent of reviving Qing state religious observances, Yuan effectively participated as emperor in rituals held at the Qing [[Temple of Heaven]]. In late 1915, rumours were floated of a popular consensus that the hereditary monarchy should be revived. With his power secure, many of Yuan's supporters, notably monarchist [[Yang Du]], advocated for a revival of the hereditary monarchy, asking Yuan to take on the title of Emperor. Yang reasoned that the Chinese masses had long been used to monarchic rule, the Republic had been effective only as a transitional phase to end Manchu rule, and China's political situation demanded the stability that only a dynastic monarchy could ensure. The American political scientist [[Frank Johnson Goodnow]] suggested a similar idea. Negotiators representing Japan had also offered to support Yuan's ambitions as one of the rewards for Yuan's support of the Twenty-One Demands.<ref>Barnouin, Barbara and Yu Changgen. ''Zhou Enlai: A Political Life''. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2006. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NztlWQeXf2IC&pg=PA14 p. 14] retrieved 12 March 2011.</ref>

On 20 November 1915, Yuan held a specially convened "Representative Assembly" which voted unanimously to offer Yuan the throne. On 12 December 1915, Yuan "accepted" the invitation and proclaimed himself Emperor of the Chinese Empire ({{zh|s=中华帝国大皇帝|t=中華帝國大皇帝|p=Zhōnghuá Dìguó Dà Huángdì}}) under the [[Chinese era name|era name]] of Hongxian ({{zh|s=洪宪|t=洪憲|p=Hóngxiàn}}; i.e. ''Constitutional Abundance''). The new [[Empire of China (1915–16)|Empire of China]] was to formally begin on 1 January 1916, when Yuan intended to conduct the accession rites. Soon after becoming emperor, the Yuan placed an order with the former imperial potters for a 40,000-piece porcelain set costing 1.4 million yuan, a large jade seal, and two imperial robes costing 400,000 yuan each.<ref name="Spence, Jonathan D. 1999 p. 274" /><ref name="Zhengyuan" />

=== Public and international reactions to dynastic monarchy's revival ===
Yuan expected widespread domestic and international support for his reign. British diplomats and bankers had previously worked hard to help him succeed. They had set up a [[China Consortium|banking consortium]] that loaned Yuan's government £25 million in April 1913.<ref>Hirata Koji. "Britain's Men on the Spot in China: John Jordan, Yuan Shikai, and the Reorganization Loan, 1912–1914". ''Modern Asian Studies'' 47.3 (2013): 895–934.</ref> However, he and his supporters had badly miscalculated. Many of the emperor's closest supporters abandoned him, and the solidarity of the emperor's Beiyang clique of military protégés dissolved. There were open protests throughout China denouncing Yuan. Foreign governments, including Japan, suddenly proved indifferent or openly hostile to him, not giving him the recognition anticipated.<ref name="Spence3">Spence, Jonathan D. (1999) ''The Search for Modern China'', p. 282.</ref> Rebels bombed the presidential palace from the air in 1916.{{sfn|Crean|2024|page=45}} Sun Yat-sen, who had fled to Tokyo and set up a base there, organized efforts to overthrow Yuan. The emperor's sons publicly fought over the title of "Crown Prince", and formerly loyal subordinates such as [[Duan Qirui]] and [[Xu Shichang]] left him to create their own factions.

=== Abandonment of monarchy and death ===
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Faced with widespread opposition, Yuan repeatedly delayed the accession rites in order to appease his foes, but his prestige was irreparably damaged and province after province continued to voice disapproval. On 25 December 1915, [[Yunnan]]'s military governor, [[Cai E]], rebelled, launching the [[National Protection War]]. The governor of [[Guizhou]] followed in January 1916, and [[Guangxi]] declared independence in March. Funding for Yuan's accession ceremony was cut on 1 March.

Yuan formally abdicated and restored the Republic on 22 March 1916 after being emperor for only 83 days; primarily due to these mounting revolts as well as declining health from [[kidney failure]]. This was not enough for his enemies, who called for his resignation as president, causing more provinces to rebel. Yuan died of kidney failure at 10 a.m. on 6 June 1916, at the age of fifty-six.<ref name="Zhengyuan" /><ref name="Spence3" />

Yuan's remains were moved to [[Henan|his home province]] and placed in a large mausoleum in [[Anyang]]. In 1928, the tomb was looted by [[Feng Yuxiang]] and his soldiers during the [[Northern Expedition]].

Yuan had a wife and nine concubines, who bore him 17 sons and 15 daughters, but only three were prominent: Prince [[Yuan Keding]], Prince [[Yuan Kewen]], and Prince Yuan Keliang.

== Evaluation and legacy ==
[[File:The villa of Yuan Shikai in Tianjin.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The residence of Yuan in [[Tianjin]]]]
[[File:1915年讽刺袁世凯和古德诺的漫画.jpg|thumb|Satirical political cartoon of Yuan Shikai from 1915.]]
[[File:047 Yuan Shikai's Flag Used to Proclaim Himself Emperor and Garments Used to Worship Heaven.jpg|thumb|Imperial ''[[mianfu]]'' of Yuan Shikai.]]
Historians in China have considered Yuan's rule mostly negatively. He introduced far-ranging modernizations in law and social areas, and trained and organized one of China's first modern armies; but the loyalty Yuan had fostered in the armed forces dissolved after his death, undermining the authority of the central government. Yuan financed his regime through large foreign loans, and is criticized for weakening Chinese morale and international prestige, and for allowing the Japanese to gain broad concessions over China.{{sfn|Bonavia|1995|p=40}}<ref>Shan, (2018) pp. 3–9</ref>

[[Jonathan Spence]], however, notes in his influential survey that Yuan was "ambitious, both for his country and for himself", and that "even as he subverted the constitution, paradoxically he sought to build on late-Qing attempts at reforms and to develop institutions that would bring strong and stable government to China." To gain foreign confidence and end the hated system of extraterritoriality, Yuan strengthened the court system and invited foreign advisers to reform the penal system.<ref>Spence, Jonathan D. (1999). ''The Search for Modern China'', W. W. Norton and Company. pp. 269–270. {{ISBN|0-393-97351-4}}.</ref>

After Yuan's death, there was an effort by [[Li Yuanhong]] to revive the Republic by recalling the legislators who had been ejected in 1913, but this effort was confused and ineffective in asserting central control. Li lacked any support from the military. There was a short-lived effort in 1917 to [[Manchu Restoration|revive the Qing dynasty]] led by the loyalist general [[Zhang Xun (Qing loyalist)|Zhang Xun]], but his forces were defeated by rival warlords later that year.<ref>Spence, pp. 287–288.</ref>

After the collapse of Zhang's movement, all pretence of strength from the central government collapsed, and China descended into a period of warlordism. Over the next several decades, the offices of both the president and parliament became the tools of militarists, and the politicians in Peking became dependent on regional governors for their support and political survival. For this reason, Yuan is sometimes called "the Father of the Warlords". However, it is not accurate to attribute China's subsequent [[Warlord Era|age of warlordism]] as a personal preference, since in his career as a military reformer he had attempted to forge a modern army based on the Japanese model. Throughout his lifetime, he demonstrated an understanding of staffing, military education, and regular transfers of officer personnel, combining these skills to create China's first modern military organisation. After his return to power in 1911, however, he seemed willing to sacrifice his legacy of military reform for imperial ambitions, and instead ruled by a combination of violence and bribery that destroyed the idealism of the early Republican movement.<ref>Spence, pp. 282–283.</ref>

In the CCTV Production ''[[Towards the Republic]]'', Yuan is portrayed through most of his early years as an able administrator, although a very skilled manipulator of political situations. His self-proclamation as Emperor is largely depicted as being influenced by external forces, especially that of his son, prince [[Yuan Keding]].

A ''[[bixi (tortoise)|bixi]]'' stone tortoise with a stelae in honour of Yuan Shikai, which was installed in [[Anyang]]'s Huanyuan Park soon after his death, was (partly) restored in 1993.<ref>{{Cite web |title=有关袁林的几则小故事 |trans-title=The tortoise with a broken mouth in Huanyuan Park |url=http://www.aynews.net.cn/jray/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=3736 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204042433/http://www.aynews.net.cn/jray/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=3736 |archive-date=2012-02-04 |access-date=2025-10-06 |website=www.aynews.net.cn}}</ref>

== Names ==
Chinese men before 1949 customarily used and were referred to by various names. Yuan's [[courtesy name]] was "Weiting" ([[Wade-Giles]] spelling: Wei-ting; {{zh |c = 慰亭 |p = Wèitíng |w = ''Wei<sup>4</sup>-t'ing<sup>2</sup>''}}), and he used the pseudonym "Rong'an" ([[Wade-Giles]] spelling: Jung-an; {{zh |c = 容庵 |p = Róng'ān |w = ''Jung<sup>2</sup>-an<sup>1</sup>''}}). He was sometimes referred to by the name of his birthplace, "Xiangcheng" ({{zh |t = 項城 |s = 项城 |p = Xiàngchéng |w = ''Hsiang<sup>4</sup>-ch'eng<sup>2</sup>''}}), or by a title for tutors of the crown prince, "Kung-pao" ({{zh |t = 宮保 |s = 宫保 |p = Gōngbǎo |w = ''Kung<sup>1</sup>-pao<sup>3</sup>''}}).

== Awards and honours ==
* [[Order of the Paulownia Flowers]] ([[Empire of Japan|Japan]])
* [[Order of the Red Eagle]] ([[German Empire|Germany]])

== Family ==
[[File:Yuan Shikai and his kids.jpg|thumb|Yuan and his children]]
; Paternal grandfather
* Yuan Shusan ({{lang|zh|袁澍三}})

; Father
* Yuan Baozhong ({{lang|zh|袁保中}}) (1823–1874), [[courtesy name]] Shouchen ({{lang|zh|受臣}})

; Uncle
* Yuan Baoqing ({{lang|zh|袁保慶}}) (1825–1873), [[courtesy name]] Duchen ({{lang|zh|篤臣}}), [[Art name|pseudonym]] Yanzhi ({{lang|zh|延之}}), Yuan Baozhong's younger brother

; Wife
* Yu Yishang ({{lang|zh|于義上}}), daughter of Yu Ao ({{lang|zh|於鰲}}), a wealthy man from [[Shenqiu County]], Henan; married Yuan Shikai in 1876; mother of [[Yuan Keding]].<ref>Patrick Fuliang Shan, "Unveiling China's Relinquished Marital Mode: A Study of Yuan Shikai's Polygamous Household", ''Frontiers of History in China'', (Vol. 14, No. 2, July 2019), pp. 185–211
</ref>

; Concubines
* Lady Shen ({{lang|zh|沈氏}}), previously a [[courtesan]] from [[Suzhou, Jiangsu|Suzhou]]
* Lady Lee ({{lang|zh|李氏}}), of [[Korean people|Korean]] origin; mother of Yuan Bozhen, Yuan Kequan, Yuan Keqi, Yuan Kejian, and Yuan Kedu
* Lady Kim ({{lang|zh|金氏}}), of [[Korean people|Korean]] origin; mother of [[Yuan Kewen]], Yuan Keliang, Yuan Shuzhen, Yuan Huanzhen, and Yuan Sizhen
* Lady O ({{lang|zh-hant|吳氏}}), of [[Korean people|Korean]] origin; mother of Yuan Keduan, Yuan Zhongzhen, Yuan Cizhen, and Yuan Fuzhen
* Lady Yang ({{lang|zh-hant|楊氏}}), mother of Yuan Kehuan, Yuan Kezhen, Yuan Kejiu, Yuan Ke'an, Yuan Jizhen, and Yuan Lingzhen
* Lady Ye ({{lang|zh|葉氏}}), previously a prostitute in [[Nanjing]]; mother of Yuan Kejie, Yuan Keyou, Yuan Fuzhen, Yuan Qizhen, and Yuan Ruizhen
* Lady Zhang ({{lang|zh-hant|張氏}}), originally from [[Henan]]
* Lady Guo ({{lang|zh|郭氏}}), originally a prostitute from [[Suzhou, Jiangsu|Suzhou]]; mother of Yuan Kexiang, Yuan Kehe, and Yuan Huzhen
* Lady Liu ({{lang|zh-hant|劉氏}}), originally a maid to Yuan Shikai's fifth concubine Lady Yang; mother of Yuan Kefan and Yuan Yizhen

; 17 sons
# [[Yuan Keding]] ({{lang|zh|袁克定}}) (1878–1958), [[courtesy name]] Yuntai ({{lang|zh|雲台}})
# [[Yuan Kewen]] ({{lang|zh|袁克文}}) (1889–1931), [[courtesy name]] Baocen ({{lang|zh|豹岑}})
# Yuan Keliang ({{lang|zh|袁克良}}), married a daughter of [[Zhang Baixi]]
# Yuan Keduan ({{lang|zh|袁克端}}), married He Shenji (何慎基, daughter of He Zhongjing ({{lang|zh|何仲璟)}})
# Yuan Kequan ({{lang|zh|袁克權}}) (1898–1941), [[courtesy name]] Gui'an ({{lang|zh|規庵}}), [[Art name|pseudonym]] Baina ({{lang|zh|百衲}}), married a daughter of Toteke Duanfang ({{lang|zh|托忒克·端方}})
# Yuan Kehuan ({{lang|zh|袁克桓}}), married Chen Zheng (陳徵, daughter of Chen Qitai ({{lang|zh-hant|陳啟泰}}))
# Yuan Keqi ({{lang|zh-hant|袁克齊}}), married a daughter of [[Sun Baoqi]]
# Yuan Kezhen ({{lang|zh|袁克軫}}), married Zhou Ruizhu (周瑞珠, daughter of [[Zhou Fu]] ({{lang|zh|周馥)}})
# Yuan Kejiu ({{lang|zh|袁克玖}}), married Li Shaofang (黎紹芳, 1906–1945, second daughter of [[Li Yuanhong]]) in 1934
# Yuan Kejian ({{lang|zh|袁克堅}}), married a daughter of Lu Jianzhang ({{lang|zh|陸建章}})
# Yuan Ke'an ({{lang|zh|袁克安}}), married Li Baohui ({{lang|zh|李寶慧}}) (daughter of Li Shiming ({{lang|zh|李士銘)}})
# Yuan Kedu ({{lang|zh|袁克度}}), married a daughter of the wealthy Luo Yunzhang ({{lang|zh-hant|羅雲章}})
# Yuan Kexiang ({{lang|zh|袁克相}}), married firstly Zhang Shoufang (張壽芳, granddaughter of Na Tong ({{lang|zh|那桐)}}), married secondly Chen Sixing (陳思行, daughter of [[Chen Bingkun]])
# Yuan Kejie ({{lang|zh|袁克捷}}), married Lady Wang ({{lang|zh|王氏}})
# Yuan Kehe ({{lang|zh|袁克和}}), married a daughter of Zhang Diaochen ({{lang|zh-hant|張調宸}})
# Yuan Kefan ({{lang|zh|袁克藩}}), died young
# Yuan Keyou ({{lang|zh|袁克友}}), married a daughter of Yu Yunpeng ({{lang|zh|於雲鵬}})

; 15 daughters
{{See also|List of people with the most children}}

; Famous grandsons and great-grandsons
* Yuan's grandson, [[Luke Chia-Liu Yuan]] (1912–2003) was a Chinese-American physicist and husband of famed physicist [[Chien-Shiung Wu]].
* Yuan's great-grandson, [[Li-Young Lee]] (1957–), is an Indonesian-born Chinese-American writer and poet.

== See also ==
{{Portal|China|History|Biography}}
* [[Beiyang Army]]
* [[History of the Republic of China]]
* [[Republic of China Armed Forces]]
* [[Sino-German cooperation (1926–1941)]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* Barnouin, Barbara and Yu Changgen. ''Zhou Enlai: A Political Life''. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2006. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NztlWQeXf2IC&pg=PA14 p. 14] retrieved 12 March 2011
* {{Cite book |last=Bonavia |first=David |title=China's Warlords |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1995 |isbn=0-19-586179-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Crean |first=Jeffrey |title=The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History |date=2024 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |isbn=978-1-350-23394-2 |edition= |series=New Approaches to International History series |location=London, UK }}
* {{Cite book |editor-last1=Boorman |editor-first1=Howard L. |editor-last2=Howard |editor-first2=Richard C. |title=Biographical Dictionary of Republican China |volume=IV |year=1971 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |location=New York |isbn=0-231-08957-0 }}
* {{cite book |last = Ch'en |first = Jerome |year = 1961 |title = Yuan Shih-K'ai, 1859–1916: Brutus Assumes the Purple |publisher = George Allen & Unwin; Reprinted: Stanford University Press, 1971 |location = London }} [https://archive.org/details/yuanshihkai0000unse online free to borrow]
*{{Cite journal |last=Mackinnon |first=Stephen R. |title=The Peiyang Army, Yuan Shih-K'ai, and the Origins of Modern Chinese Warlordism |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=32 |issue=3 |year=1973 |pages=405–23 |doi=10.2307/2052681 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2052681 |jstor=2052681 |url-access=subscription }}
*{{Cite book |last=McCord |first=Edward A. |title=The Power of the Gun: The Emergence of Modern Chinese Warlordism |year=1993 |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-08128-4 |url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft167nb0p4;brand=ucpress }}
*{{cite book |last = Paine |first = S.C.M. |title = The Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895: Perceptions, Power, and Primacy |publisher = Cambridge University Press |year = 2003 |isbn = 978-0-521-81714-1 }}
*{{cite book |last=Powell|first=Ralph L.|title=The Rise of Chinese Military Power 1895–1912|place=Princeton|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1955|isbn=978-0-8046-1645-4 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Shan |first=Patrick Fuliang |year=2018 |title=Yuan Shikai: A Reappraisal |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |location=Vancouver |isbn=978-0-7748-3778-1}}
* {{cite book |last = Spence |first = Jonathan D. |year = 1999 |title = The Search for Modern China |publisher = W.W. Norton & Company |page = 282 |location = New York }}
* Zhang, Hong. "Yuan Shikai and the Significance of his Troop Training at Xiaozhan, Tianjin, 1895–1899". ''Chinese Historical Review'' 26.1 (2019): 37–54
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* Clubb, O. Edmund. ''20th century China'' (1965) [https://archive.org/details/20thcenturychina00oedm online] pp.&nbsp;40–60.
* Koji, Hirata. "Britain's Men on the Spot in China: John Jordan, Yuan Shikai, and the Reorganization Loan, 1912–1914". ''Modern Asian Studies'' 47.3 (2013): 895–934.
* Lowe, Peter. "Great Britain, Japan and the Fall of Yuan Shih-K'ai, 1915–1916" ''Historical Journal'' 13#4 (1970), pp.&nbsp;706–20 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2637712 online]
* {{cite book |last=MacKinnon |first= Stephen R. |year = 1992|title = Power and Politics in Late Imperial China: Yuan Shikai in Beijing and Tianjin, 1901–08 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn = 0520040252 }}
* Palmer. Norman D. "Makers of Modern China: II. The Strong Man: Yuan Shih-kai" ''Current History''   (Sep 1948): 15#85 pp.&nbsp;149–55. in Proquest.
* Paulès, Xavier, ''The Republic of China, 1912-1949'', Cambridge: Polity, 2023, chapter one.
* Putnam Weale, B. L. ''The Fight For The Republic In China'' (1917) [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/4522 online]
* Rankin, Mary Backus. "State and society in early republican politics, 1912–18". ''China Quarterly'' 150 (1997): 260–281. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/655337 online]
* Yim, Kwanha. "Yüan Shih-k'ai and the Japanese". ''Journal of Asian Studies'' 24.1 (1964): 63–73 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2050414 online].
* {{cite book |last = Young |first = Ernest P. |year = 1977 |title = The Presidency of Yuan Shih-K'ai: Liberalism and Dictatorship in Early Republican China |publisher = University of Michigan Press |location = Ann Arbor |isbn = 0472089951 }}
* Zhang, Hong. "Yuan Shikai and the Significance of his Troop Training at Xiaozhan, Tianjin, 1895–1899". ''Chinese Historical Review'' 26.1 (2019): 37–54.

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |c = Yuan Shikai |s = 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Yuan Shih-k'ai |voy = no |wikt=no |d=Q210329|n=no|b=no|v=no|m=no|mw=no|species=no }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060514033146/http://www.press.uillinois.edu/epub/books/chen/ch2.html Early support for Yuan among overseas Chinese]
* {{Gutenberg|no=4522|name=The Fight for the Republic in China by Bertram Lenox Simpson}} This etext first published in 1917 contains a detailed account of Yuan Shikai, his rise and fall.
* [https://picasaweb.google.com/GaryLeeTodd/YuanShikaiTombAnyang#5481771022947013490 Map of Yuan's mausoleum.]
* {{PM20|FID=pe/040724}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|(House of Yuan)|16 September|1859|6 June|1916}}
|-
{{S-off}}
|-
{{S-bef
| before = [[Yuxian (Qing dynasty)|Yuxian]]
}}
{{S-ttl
| title = [[Governor of Shandong Province|Governor of Shandong]]|
| years = 1900–1901
}}
{{S-aft
| after = [[Zhang Renjun]]
}}
|-
{{S-bef
| before = [[Li Hongzhang]]
}}
{{S-ttl
| title = [[Viceroy of Zhili]]<br />Minister of Běiyáng
| years = 1901–1907
}}
{{S-aft
| after = Yang Shixiang
}}
|-
{{S-bef
| before = Lu Haihuan
}}
{{S-ttl
| title = [[Zongli Yamen|Secretary of Foreign Affairs]]
| years = 1907–1908
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Liang Dunyan]]
}}
|-
{{S-bef
| before = [[Yikuang]]
}}
{{S-ttl
| title = [[Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet]]
| years = 2 November 1911 – 10 March 1912
}}
{{S-aft
| after = [[Tang Shaoyi]]<br />(Premier)
}}
|-
{{S-bef
| before = [[Sun Yat-sen]]<br /><span style="font-size:90%">'''([[Sun Yat-sen]])'''</span>
}}
{{S-ttl
| title = [[Beiyang Government|President of China]]
| years = 10 March 1912 – 12 December 1915
}}
{{S-non
| reason = Monarchy restored
| reason2 = [[Empire of China (1915–1916)|Monarchy restored]]
}}
|-
{{S-vac|last=Himself}}
{{S-ttl
| title = [[Beiyang Government|President of China]]
| years = 22 March 1916 – 6 June 1916
}}
{{S-aft
| after = [[Li Yuanhong]]
}}
|-
{{S-reg}}
|-
{{S-vac|last=[[Puyi|Xuantong]]}}
{{S-ttl
| title = [[Empire of China (1915–1916)|Emperor of China]]
| years = 1 January&nbsp;– 22 March 1916<br /><span style="font-size:90%">[[Empire of China (1915–1916)|Empire]] declared on 12 December 1915</span>
}}
{{S-vac|next=[[Puyi|Xuantong]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Presidents of the Republic of China}}
{{Warlord era}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Yuan, Shikai}}
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