View source for Zaire

{{Short description|Country in Central Africa (1971–1997)}}
{{About|the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1965 to 1997|the present-day country|Democratic Republic of the Congo|other uses|Zaire (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Zaire
| native_name            = {{resize|100%|{{native name|fr|République du Zaïre}}}}<br />{{resize|80%|{{native name|ktu|Repubilika ya Zaïre}}}}<br />{{resize|80%|{{native name|ln|Republíki ya Zaïre}}}}<br />{{resize|80%|{{native name|sw|Jamhuri ya Zaïre}}}}<br />{{resize|80%|{{native name|lua|Ditunga dia Zaïre}}}}
| common_name            = Zaire
| era                    = Cold War
| title_deputy           = [[List of prime ministers of the Democratic Republic of the Congo#Republic of Zaire (1971–1997)|Prime Minister]]
| year_deputy1           = 1977–1979 (first)
| deputy1                = [[Mpinga Kasenda]]
| year_deputy2           = 1997 (last)
| deputy2                = [[Likulia Bolongo]]
| event_pre              = [[Second Mobutu coup d'état|Coup d'état]]
| date_pre               = 24 November 1965
| event_start            = 
| year_start             = 1971
| date_start             = 27 October
| event1                 = [[Constitution of Zaire|Constitution promulgated]]
| date_event1            = 15 August 1974
| year_end               = 1997
| date_end               = 17 May
| event_end              = [[First Congo War|Mobutu overthrown]]
| event_post             = Death of Mobutu
| date_post              = 7 September 1997
| p1                     = Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville){{!}}Congo-Léopoldville
| flag_p1                = Flag of Congo-Kinshasa (1966-1971).svg
| s1                     = Democratic Republic of the Congo
| flag_s1                = Flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (1997–2003).svg
| s2                     = 
| flag_s2                = 
| image_flag             = Flag of Zaire (1971–1997).svg
| image_flag2            = 
| flag_type              = [[Flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Flag]]
| image_coat             = Coat of arms of Zaire (1971–1997).svg
| symbol_type            = [[Emblem of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Emblem]]
| image_map              = Republic of Zaire (orthographic projection).svg
| national_motto         = {{lang|fr|Paix — Justice — Travail}}<ref>''Constitution de la République du Zaïre'', article 5: "Sa devise est : Paix — Justice — Travail" Source: ''Journal Officiel de la République du Zaïre'' (N. 1 du 1<sup>er</sup> janvier 1983)</ref>{{nbsp|2}}<br/>"Peace — Justice  — Work"
| national_anthem        = {{lang|fr|[[La Zaïroise]]|italic=yes}}<br/>"The Zairian"<br/>{{center|[[File:Zaire National Anthem.ogg]]}}
| official_languages     = [[French language|French]]
| national_languages     = {{Plainlist| [[Lingala]]{{·}}[[Kituba language|Kikongo ya leta]]{{efn|The term "Kikongo" in the Constitution was actually referring to the Kituba language – which is known as ''Kikongo ya leta'' by its speakers – not the [[Kongo language]] proper. The confusion arose from the fact that the government of the Zaire officially recognized and referred  to the language simply as "Kikongo".}}{{·}}[[Swahili language|Swahili]]{{·}}[[Luba-Kasai language|Tshiluba]]}}
| ethnic_groups          = ''See [[Demographics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Ethnic groups]] section below''
| religion               = {{ublist|item_style=white-space:nowrap;
  |50% [[Catholic Church in the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Roman Catholic]]
  |20% [[Christianity in the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Protestant]]
  |10% [[Kimbanguism]]
  |10% [[Islam in the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Islam]]
  |10% Others ([[Baluba mythology|Baluba]], [[Bantu mythology|Bantu]])
}}
| religion_year          = 1986
| religion_ref           = <ref name=CIA>{{cite book |url=https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP08-00534R000100170001-4.pdf |title=The World Factbook 1986 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |location=Springfield, Virginia |date=1986 |page=271 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413095623/https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP08-00534R000100170001-4.pdf |archive-date=13 April 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| demonym                = Zairian
| capital                = [[Kinshasa]]
| coordinates            = {{Coord|4|19|S|15|19|E|type:city}}
| largest_city           = capital
| title_leader           = [[President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|President]]
| leader1                = [[Mobutu Sese Seko]]
| year_leader1           = 1965–1997
| stat_year1             = 1971
| stat_year2             = 1997
| stat_area1             = 
| stat_pop1              = 18,400,000<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7DQtAAAAMAAJ&q=Zaire+|title=Countries of the World and Their Leaders: The U.S. Department of State's Report on Status of the World's Nations, Combined with Its Series of Background Notes Portraying Contemporary Political and Economic Conditions, Governmental Policies and Personnel, Political Parties, Religion, History, Education, Press, Radio and TV, and Other Characteristics of Each Nation: Includes Central Intelligence Agency's List of Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments|first=United States Dept of State Office of Media|last=Services|date=15 July 1975|publisher=Gale Research Company|isbn=9780810310469|via=Google Books}}</ref>
| stat_pop2              = 46,498,539
| government_type        = [[One-party]]{{efn|Zaire became a ''de jure'' one-party state on 23 December 1970,<ref>Kaplan, Irving (ed.) ''Zaire: A Country Study'' Third Edition, First Printing 1979</ref> but had been a ''de facto'' one-party state since 20 May 1967, the date on which the [[Popular Movement of the Revolution|MPR]] ({{lang|fr|Mouvement Populaire de la Revolution}}) was established. Zaire formally adopted a multiparty system on 24 April 1990,<ref>Sandra W. Meditz and Tim Merrill (eds.) ''Zaire: A Country Study'' Fourth Edition 1993</ref> when Mobutu delivered a speech proclaiming the end of the one-party system. The country adopted a three-party system ''de jure'' with the enactment of Law No. 90-002 of 5 July 1990, which amended its constitution accordingly, but retained the one-party system of the MPR ''de facto''.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}}} [[Presidential system|presidential republic]] under a [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]]<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ImuRAgAAQBAJ |title=Mobutu's Totalitarian Political System: An Afrocentric Analysis |last=Ikambana |first=Jean-Louis Peta |date=2006 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781135861506}}</ref> military dictatorship<ref>{{cite web |title=Kleptocracy and Anti-Communism: When Mobutu Ruled Zaire – Association for Diplomatic Studies & Training |url=https://adst.org/2016/09/kleptocracy-and-anti-communism-when-mobutu-ruled-zaire/ |access-date=2025-05-13}}</ref>
| currency               = [[Zairean zaire|Zaïre]]
| currency_code          = ZRN
| legislature            = [[Legislative Council (Zaire)|Legislative Council]]
| time_zone              = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] and [[Central Africa Time|CAT]]
| utc_offset             = {{nowrap|+1 to +2}}
| utc_offset_DST         = 
| time_zone_DST          = 
| cctld                  = [[.zr]]
| iso3166code            = ZR
| calling_code           = [[+243]]
| drives_on              = right
| footnotes              = 
| today                  = [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
| symbol_type_article    = [[Coat of arms of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Coat of arms]]
| area_km2               = 2,345,409
| area_rank              = 
| percent_water          = 3.32
| GDP_nominal            = {{Increase}} $4.5 billion<ref name=CIA/>
| GDP_nominal_year       = 1983
| GDP_nominal_rank       = 
| GDP_PPP                = 
| GDP_PPP_year           = 
| HDI                    = 0.294
| HDI_year               = 1990 formula
| HDI_ref                = <ref>{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/219/hdr_1990_en_complete_nostats.pdf |title=Human Development Report 1990 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |date=1990 |access-date=23 July 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202144055/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/219/hdr_1990_en_complete_nostats.pdf |archive-date=2 February 2014 }}</ref>
}}
{{Campaignbox Conflicts in Congo}}
{{History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
'''Zaire''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|z|aɪ|ˈ|ɪər}}, {{IPAc-en|US|z|ɑː|ˈ|ɪər}}}} officially the '''Republic of Zaire''',{{efn|{{langx|fr|République du Zaïre|link=no}} {{IPA|fr|ʁepyblik dy zaiʁ|}}}} formerly [[Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]] and now called the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], was a state in [[central Africa]] from 1971 to 1997. It was, by area, the third-largest country in Africa after [[Sudan]] and [[Algeria]], and the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|11th-largest country in the world]] from 1965 to 1991. With a population of over 23 million, Zaire was the [[List of countries and territories where French is an official language|most populous Francophone country]] in [[Africa]]. Zaire was strategically important to the West during the [[Cold War]], particularly the U.S., as a counterbalance to Soviet influence in Africa. The U.S. and its allies supported the [[Mobutu Sese Seko|Mobutu Regime]] (1965–1997) with military and economic aid to prevent the spread of communism.

The country was a [[One-party state|one-party]] totalitarian [[military dictatorship]], run by [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] and his [[Popular Movement of the Revolution]]. Zaire was established following Mobutu's seizure of power in a military coup in 1965, after five years of political upheaval following independence from [[Belgium]] known as the [[Congo Crisis]]. Zaire had a strongly [[Centralized government|centralist]] [[Constitution of Zaire|constitution]], and foreign assets were [[Nationalization|nationalized]]. The period is sometimes referred to as the '''Second Congolese Republic'''.

A wider campaign of {{lang|fr|[[Authenticité (Zaire)|Authenticité]]}}, ridding the country of the influences from the colonial era of the [[Belgian Congo]], was also launched under Mobutu's direction. Weakened by the termination of American support after the [[Cold War (1985–1991)|end of the Cold War]], Mobutu was forced to declare a new republic in 1990 to cope with demands for change. By the time of its downfall, Zaire was characterised by widespread [[cronyism]], [[Corruption in Zaire|corruption]] and [[Economy of Zaire|economic mismanagement]].

Zaire collapsed in the 1990s, amid the destabilization of the eastern parts of the country in the aftermath of the [[Rwandan genocide]] and growing ethnic violence. In 1996, {{lang|fr|[[Laurent-Désiré Kabila]]|italic=no}}, the head of the [[AFDL]] militia, led a [[First Congo War|popular rebellion]] against Mobutu. With rebel forces making gains westward, Mobutu fled the country, leaving Kabila's forces in charge. In 1997, the country's name was restored to the Democratic Republic of the Congo; Mobutu died less than four months later while in exile in [[Morocco]].

==Etymology==
The country's name, {{lang|fr|Zaïre}}, was derived from the name of the [[Congo River]], sometimes called {{lang|pt|Zaire}} in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], which in turn was derived from the [[Kongo language|Kikongo]] {{lang|kg|nzere o zadi}} ({{gloss|river that swallows rivers}}).<ref>Forbath, Peter. ''The River Congo'' (1977), p. 19.</ref> The use of ''Congo'' seems to have replaced ''Zaire'' gradually in English usage during the 18th century and ''Congo'' was the preferred English name in 19th-century literature, although references to ''Zahir'' or ''Zaire'' as the name used by the local population (i.e. derived from Portuguese usage) remained common.<ref>James Barbot, ''An Abstract of a Voyage to Congo River, Or the Zair and to Cabinde in the Year 1700'' (1746)</ref>

==History==
{{main|History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
===Mobutu===
In 1965, [[Congo Crisis|as in 1960]], the division of power in [[Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)|Congo-Léopoldville]] (a [[Belgian Congo|former Belgian colony]]) between President and Parliament led to a stalemate and threatened the country's stability.<ref name=":0">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Meditz|Merrill|1994|p=46}}.</ref> [[Mobutu Sese Seko|Joseph-Désiré Mobutu]] again seized power.<ref name=":0" /> Unlike the [[1960 Republic of the Congo coup d'état|first time]], however, Mobutu assumed the presidency, rather than remaining behind the scenes.<ref name=":0" /> From 1965, Mobutu dominated the political life of the country, restructuring the state on more than one occasion, and claiming the title of "Father of the Nation".<ref name=":1">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Meditz|Merrill|1994|p=44}}.</ref> He announced the renaming of the country as the Republic of Zaire on 27 October 1971.<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Kisangani| first1 = Emizet Francois| last2 = Bobb| first2 = Scott F.| title = Historical Dictionary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo| publisher = Scarecrow Press| series = Historical Dictionaries of Africa| volume = 112| edition = 3, illustrated| date = 2009| pages = li, 102| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FvAWPTaRvFYC| isbn = 9780810863255}}</ref>

When, under the [[Authenticité (Zaire)|authenticité]] policy of the early 1970s, Zairians were obliged to adopt "authentic" African names rather than European monikers. Mobutu dropped Joseph-Désiré and officially changed his name to ''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga'', or, more commonly, Mobutu Sésé Seko, roughly meaning "the all-conquering warrior, who goes from triumph to triumph".<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Meditz|Merrill|1994|p=45}}.</ref>

In retrospective justification of his [[Second Mobutu coup d'état|1965 seizure of power]], Mobutu later summed up the record of the First Republic as one of "chaos, disorder, negligence, and incompetence".<ref name=":1" /> Rejection of the legacy of the First Republic went far beyond rhetoric.<ref name=":1" /> In the first two years of its existence, the new regime turned to the urgent tasks of political reconstruction and consolidation.<ref name=":1" /> Creating a new basis of legitimacy for the state, in the form of a single party, came next in Mobutu's order of priority.<ref name=":1" />

A third imperative was to expand the reach of the state in the social and political realms, a process that began in 1970 and culminated in the adoption of a [[Constitution of Zaire|new constitution]] in 1974.<ref name=":1" /> By 1976, however, this effort had begun to generate its own inner contradictions, thus paving the way for the resurrection of a Bula Matari ("the breaker of rocks") system of repression and brutality.<ref name=":1" />

===Constitutional changes===
By 1967, Mobutu had consolidated his rule and proceeded to give the country a new constitution and a single party.<ref name=":2">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Meditz|Merrill|1994|p=48}}.</ref> The new constitution was submitted to popular referendum in June 1967 and approved by 98 per cent of those voting.<ref name=":2" /> It provided that executive powers be centralised in the president, who was to be head of state, head of government, commander in chief of the armed forces and the police, and in charge of foreign policy.<ref name=":2" />

But the most far-reaching change was the creation of the [[Popular Movement of the Revolution]] (Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution—MPR) on 17 April 1967, marking the emergence of "the nation politically organised".<ref name=":3">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Meditz|Merrill|1994|p=49}}.</ref> Rather than government institutions being the [[emanation of the state]], the state was henceforth defined as the emanation of the party.<ref name=":3" /> Thus, in October 1967, party and administrative responsibilities were merged into a single framework, thereby automatically extending the role of the party to all administrative organs at the central and provincial levels, as well as to the [[trade union]]s, [[youth movement]]s, and [[Student society|student organisations]].<ref name=":3" />

Three years after changing the country's name to Zaire, Mobutu promulgated a [[Constitution of Zaire|new constitution]] that consolidated his hold on the country. Every five years (seven years after 1978), the MPR elected a president who was simultaneously nominated as the only candidate for president of the republic; he was confirmed in office via a referendum. Under this system, Mobutu was reelected in 1977 and 1984 by implausibly high margins, claiming a unanimous or near-unanimous "yes" vote. The MPR was defined as the country's "single institution," and its president was vested with "plentitude of power exercise." Every five years, a single list of MPR candidates was returned to the National Assembly, with official figures showing near-unanimous support. All citizens of Zaire automatically became members of the MPR at birth. For all intents and purposes, this gave the president of the MPR—Mobutu—complete political control over the country.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}

===Totalitarian expansion===
[[File:Mobutu.jpg|thumb|[[Mobutu Sese Seko]], the president of Zaire from 1965 to 1997]]
Translating the concept of "the nation politically organised" into reality implied a major expansion of state control of [[civil society]].<ref name=":4">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Meditz|Merrill|1994|p=51}}.</ref> It meant, to begin with, the incorporation of youth groups and worker organisations into the matrix of the MPR.<ref name=":4" /> In July 1967, the Political Bureau announced the creation of the [[Youth of the Popular Revolutionary Movement]] (Jeunesse du Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution—JMPR), following the launching a month earlier of the [[National Union of Congolese Workers|National Union of Zairian Workers]] (Union Nationale des Travailleurs Zaïrois—UNTZA), which brought together into a single organisational framework three preexisting trade unions.<ref name=":4" />

Ostensibly, the aim of the merger, in the terms of the Manifesto of N'Sele, was to transform the role of trade unions from "being merely a force of confrontation" into "an organ of support for government policy", thus providing "a communication link between the working class and the state".<ref name=":4" /> Similarly, the JMPR was to act as a major link between the student population and the state.<ref name=":4" /> In reality, the government was attempting to bring under its control those sectors where opposition to the regime might be centred.<ref name=":4" /> By appointing key labour and youth leaders to the MPR Political Bureau, the regime hoped to harness syndical and student forces to the machinery of the state.<ref name=":4" /> Nevertheless, as has been pointed out by numerous observers, there is little evidence that [[co-optation]] succeeded in mobilising support for the regime beyond the most superficial level.<ref name=":4" />

The trend toward co-optation of key social sectors continued in subsequent years.<ref name=":4" /> Women's associations were eventually brought under the control of the party, as was the [[Mass media|press]], and in December 1971 Mobutu proceeded to emasculate the power of the churches.<ref name=":4" /> From then on, only three churches were recognised: the [[Church of Christ in Zaire]] (L'Église du Christ au Zaïre), the [[Kimbanguism|Kimbanguist Church]], and the [[Roman Catholic Church]].<ref name=":4" />

Nationalisation of the [[University of Kinshasa|universities of Kinshasa]] and [[University of Kisangani|Kisangani]], coupled with Mobutu's insistence on banning all Christian names and establishing JMPR sections in all seminaries, soon brought the Roman Catholic Church and the state into conflict.<ref name=":4" /> Not until 1975, and after considerable pressure from the [[Holy See|Vatican]], did the regime agree to tone down its attacks on the Roman Catholic Church and return some of its control of the school system to the church.<ref name=":4" /> Meanwhile, in line with a December 1971 law, which allowed the state to dissolve "any church or sect that compromises or threatens to compromise public order", scores of unrecognised [[religious sect]]s were dissolved and their leaders jailed.<ref name=":5">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Meditz|Merrill|1994|p=52}}.</ref>

Mobutu was careful also to suppress all institutions that could mobilise ethnic loyalties.<ref name=":5" /> Avowedly opposed to ethnicity as a basis for political alignment, he outlawed such ethnic associations as the Association of Lulua Brothers (Association des Lulua Frères), which had been organised in [[Kasai region|Kasai]] in 1953 in reaction to the growing political and economic influence in Kasai of the rival [[Luba people]], and Liboke lya Bangala (literally, "a bundle of Bangala"), an association formed in the 1950s to represent the interests of [[Lingala]] speakers in large cities.<ref name=":5" /> It helped Mobutu that his ethnic affiliation was blurred in the public mind.<ref name=":5" /> Nevertheless, as dissatisfaction arose, ethnic tensions surfaced again.<ref name=":5" />

====Centralisation of power====
Running parallel to the efforts of the state to control all autonomous sources of power, important administrative reforms were introduced in 1967 and 1973 to strengthen the hand of the central authorities in the provinces.<ref name=":5" /> The central objective of the 1967 reform was to abolish provincial governments and replace them with state functionaries appointed by [[Kinshasa]].<ref name=":5" /> The principle of centralisation was further extended to districts and territories, each headed by administrators appointed by the central government.<ref name=":5" />

The only units of government that still retained a fair measure of autonomy—but not for long—were the so-called local collectivities, i.e. [[chiefdoms]] and sectors (the latter incorporating several chiefdoms).<ref name=":5" /> The unitary, centralised state system thus legislated into existence bore a striking resemblance to its colonial antecedent, except that from July 1972 provinces were called regions.<ref name=":5" />

With the January 1973 reform, another major step was taken in the direction of further centralisation.<ref name=":5" /> The aim, in essence, was to operate a complete fusion of political and administrative hierarchies by making the head of each administrative unit the president of the local party committee.<ref name=":5" /> Furthermore, another consequence of the reform was to severely curtail the power of traditional authorities at the local level.<ref name=":5" /> Hereditary claims to authority would no longer be recognised; instead, all chiefs were to be appointed and controlled by the state via the administrative hierarchy.<ref name=":5" /> By then, the process of centralisation had theoretically eliminated all preexisting centres of local autonomy.<ref name=":5" />

The analogy with the colonial state becomes even more compelling when coupled with the introduction in 1973 of "obligatory civic work" (locally known as ''Salongo'' after the Lingala term for work), in the form of one afternoon a week of compulsory labor on agricultural and development projects.<ref name=":5" /> Officially described as a revolutionary attempt to return to the values of [[African communalism|communalism]] and solidarity inherent in the traditional society, Salongo was intended to mobilise the population into the performance of collective work "with enthusiasm and without constraint".<ref name=":6">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Meditz|Merrill|1994|p=53}}.</ref>

In reality, the conspicuous lack of popular enthusiasm for Salongo led to widespread resistance and foot dragging (causing many local administrators to look the other way).<ref name=":6" /> Although failure to comply carried penalties of one month to six months in jail, by the late 1970s most Zairians shirked their Salongo obligations.<ref name=":6" /> By resuscitating one of the most bitterly resented features of the colonial state, obligatory civic work contributed in no small way to the erosion of legitimacy suffered by the Mobutist state.<ref name=":6" />

===Growing conflict===
[[File:Idi Amin and Mobutu.jpeg|thumb|[[Idi Amin]], president of [[Uganda]], visiting Mobutu in Zaire during The [[Shaba I]] Conflict in 1977]]
In 1977 and 1978, Katangan rebels based in [[People's Republic of Angola|Angola]] launched two invasions, [[Shaba I]] and [[Shaba II]], into the [[Katanga Province]] (renamed "Shaba" in 1972). The rebels were driven out with military assistance from the [[Western Bloc]], particularly from the [[Safari Club]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}

The [[Battle of Kolwezi]], fought in May 1978, resulted in an [[airborne operation]] in an aim of rescuing Zairian, [[Belgian people|Belgian]] and [[French people|French]] miners held as hostages by pro-Communist [[State of Katanga|Katangan]] guerrillas.

[[Pope John Paul II]] made a [[List of pastoral visits of Pope John Paul II|papal trip]] to Zaire on 2 May 1980, on the centenary of Catholic evangelization. During his tour, he greeted over a million people, making him the first pontiff to visit Africa as a "messenger of peace". He left Zaire four days later on 6 May shortly after 9 people were trampled to death trying to attend mass.

In 1981, despite slow progress, Zaire launched an economic reform to revive its economy in order to keep up its rescheduled payment on the country's tremendous debt of $4.4 billion, which had recorded a small rate of economic growth in the last three quarters of 1980.

During the 1980s, Zaire remained a one-party state. Although Mobutu maintained control during this period, opposition parties, most notably the [[Union for Democracy and Social Progress (Democratic Republic of the Congo)|Union for Democracy and Social Progress]] (Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social—UDPS), were active. Mobutu's attempts to quell these groups drew significant international criticism.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}

As the [[Cold War]] came to a close, internal and external pressures on Mobutu increased. In late 1989 and early 1990, Mobutu was weakened by a series of domestic protests, by heightened international criticism of his regime's human rights practices, by a faltering economy, and by government corruption, most notably his massive [[embezzlement]] of government funds for personal use.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} In June 1989, Mobutu visited [[Washington, D.C.]], where he was the first African head of state to be invited for a state meeting with newly elected U.S. President [[George H. W. Bush]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.heritage.org/research/africa/upload/91612_1.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060721174238/http://www.heritage.org/Research/Africa/upload/91612_1.pdf|url-status=unfit|title="Zaire's Mobutu Visits America", by Michael Johns, Heritage Foundation Executive Memorandum #239, June 29, 1989.|archive-date=21 July 2006}}</ref>

In May 1990, Mobutu agreed to the principle of a [[multi-party system]] with elections and a constitution. As details of a reform package were delayed, soldiers began [[1991 Zaire unrest|looting Kinshasa in September 1991]] to protest their unpaid wages. Two thousand French and Belgian troops, some of whom were flown in on U.S. Air Force planes, arrived to evacuate the 20,000 endangered foreign nationals in Kinshasa.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}

In 1992, after previous similar attempts, the long-promised Sovereign National Conference was staged, encompassing over 2,000 representatives from various political parties. The conference gave itself a legislative mandate and elected Archbishop [[Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya]] as its chairman, along with [[Étienne Tshisekedi wa Mulumba]], leader of the UDPS, as prime minister. By the end of the year Mobutu had created a rival government with its own prime minister. The ensuing stalemate produced a compromise merger of the two governments into the High Council of Republic–Parliament of Transition (HCR–PT) in 1994, with Mobutu as head of state and [[Léon Kengo wa Dondo|Kengo wa Dondo]] as prime minister. Although presidential and legislative elections were scheduled repeatedly over the next 2 years, they never took place.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}

===First Congo War and demise of Zaire===
{{Main|First Congo War}}
By 1996, tensions from the neighbouring [[Rwandan Civil War]] and genocide had spilled over to Zaire (see [[History of Rwanda#Post-civil war Rwanda|History of Rwanda]]).{{sfnp|Abbott|2014|pp=33–35}} Rwandan [[Hutu]] militia forces ([[Interahamwe]]), who had fled Rwanda following the ascension of an [[Rwandan Patriotic Front|RPF]]-led government, had been using Hutu refugee camps in eastern Zaire as bases for incursion against Rwanda. These Hutu militia forces soon allied with the [[Military of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Zairian armed forces]] (FAZ) to launch a campaign against Congolese ethnic Tutsis in eastern Zaire, known as the [[Banyamulenge]]. In turn, these Zairian Tutsis formed a militia to defend themselves against attacks.{{sfnp|Abbott|2014|pp=33–35}} When the Zairian government began to escalate its massacres in November 1996, the Tutsi militias erupted in rebellion against Mobutu, triggering the [[First Congo War]].{{sfnp|Abbott|2014|pp=34–35}}

The Tutsi militia was soon joined by various opposition groups and supported by several countries, including Rwanda and Uganda. This coalition, led by [[Laurent-Désiré Kabila]], became known as the Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre ([[AFDL]]). The AFDL, now seeking the broader goal of ousting Mobutu, made significant military gains in early 1997, and by the middle of 1997 had almost completely overrun the country. The only thing that seemed to slow the AFDL forces down was the country's ramshackle infrastructure; irregularly used dirt paths and river ports were all that connected some areas to the outside world. Following failed peace talks between Mobutu and Kabila, Mobutu fled into exile in Morocco on 17 May. Kabila named himself president, consolidated power around himself and the AFDL, and marched unopposed into Kinshasa three days later. On 21 May, Kabila officially reverted the name of the country to the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}

=== Legacy ===
After the collapse of Zaire, its legacy was claimed and partially continued by various factions which emerged from Mobutu's former supporter and loyalist network. These factions were headed by former "barons" of the regime as well as Mobutu's family members, and included political parties such as the [[Union of Mobutist Democrats]] and the MPR-''Fait privé''. Several of these groups continued to use Zaire's symbols and invoke its traditions.{{sfn|Turner|2007|p=170}} In 2024, opposition politician [[Christian Malanga]] led a [[2024 Democratic Republic of the Congo coup attempt|coup attempt]] against the Congolese government in the name of his self-proclaimed "New Zaire", raising the old flag of Zaire in Kinshasa. The coup attempt was defeated, and Malanga was killed.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ft.com/content/9b928e98-3221-4db4-8ad2-56a83280e98a |title=Congolese forces claim to have thwarted coup 'involving foreign nationals' |date=2024-05-19 |access-date=2024-05-20 |website=[[Financial Times]] |last=Schipani |first=Andres |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240519202627/https://www.ft.com/content/9b928e98-3221-4db4-8ad2-56a83280e98a |archive-date=2024-05-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/foiled-coup-dr-congo-heres-what-know-2024-05-20/ |title=Explainer: The foiled coup in DR Congo: Here's what to know |website=[[Reuters]] |date=21 May 2024 |access-date=30 September 2024 }}</ref>

==Government and politics==
{{Further|Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
[[Image:Presidential Standard of Zaire.svg|thumb|Presidential standard of Zaire]]
The country was governed by the [[Popular Movement of the Revolution]] as a [[one-party state]] as the only legally permitted party in the country, though the Congo had effectively been a one-party state since the MPR's formation. Despite the constitution nominally allowing for the existence of two parties, the MPR was the only party that was allowed to nominate a candidate for the [[1970 Democratic Republic of the Congo presidential election|1 November 1970 presidential election]]. Mobutu was confirmed in office by an implausible margin of over 10,131,000 votes against only 157 who voted "no." At [[1970 Democratic Republic of the Congo parliamentary election|parliamentary elections]] held two weeks later, voters were presented with a single MPR list that was approved with over 99 per cent support.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}

The president served as the head of state of Zaïre whose role was to appoint and dismiss cabinet members and determine their areas of responsibility.<ref name=":2" /> The ministers, as heads of their respective departments, were to execute the programs and decisions of the president.<ref name=":2" /> The president also was to have the power to appoint and dismiss the governors of the provinces and the judges of all courts, including those of the [[Supreme court|Supreme Court]] of Justice.<ref name=":2" />

The bicameral parliament was replaced by a unicameral legislative body called the [[Legislative Council (Zaire)|Legislative Council]]. Governors of provinces were no longer elected by provincial assemblies but appointed by the central government.<ref name=":2" /> The president had the power to issue autonomous regulations on matters other than those pertaining to the domain of law, without prejudice to other provisions of the constitution.<ref name=":2" /> Under certain conditions, the president was empowered to govern by executive order, which carried the force of law.<ref name=":3" />

===Mobutism===
{{main|Mobutism}}
The doctrinal foundation was disclosed shortly after its birth, in the form of the [[Manifesto of N'sele]], which was issued from the president's rural residence at N'sele, 60&nbsp;km further up the [[Congo River]] from [[Kinshasa]]. In May 1967, it was made public.<ref name=":3" /> Nationalism, revolution, and authenticity were identified as the major themes of what came to be known as "[[Mobutism]]".<ref name=":3" />

[[Nationalism]] implied the achievement of economic and political independence.<ref name=":7">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Meditz|Merrill|1994|p=50}}.</ref> [[Revolution]], described as a "truly national revolution, essentially pragmatic", meant "the repudiation of both [[capitalism]] and [[communism]]".<ref name=":7" /> Thus, "neither right nor left" became one of the legitimising slogans of the regime, along with "authenticity".<ref name=":7" />

In the 1970s and 1980s, Mobutu's government relied on a selected pool of technocrats, often referred to as the "nomenklatura", from which the Head of State drew, and periodically rotated, competent individuals. They comprised the Executive Council and led the full spectrum of Ministries, Departments or, as governmental terminology shifted, Commissariats. Among these individuals were internationally respected appointees such as Djamboleka Lona Okitongono who was named Secretary of Finance, under Citizen Namwisi (Minister of Finance), and later became President of OGEDEP, the National Debt Management Office.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}

Djamboleka became Governor of the [[Bank of Zaire]] in the final stage of Mobutu's government. His progress was fairly typical of the rotational pattern established by Mobutu, who retained the most sensitive ministerial portfolios (such as Defence) for himself.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}

===Administrative divisions===
{{Further|Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo}}{{See also|Administrative divisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
Zaire was divided into 8 regions with its capital [[Kinshasa]]. In 1988, the province of Kivu was split into three regions. They were renamed into provinces in 1997.

{| style="border-spacing: 20px 1px;"
| rowspan="11" | [[File:DCongoNumbered.png|thumb|upright=1.25]]
| 1. [[Bandundu Province|Bandundu]]
|-
| 2. [[Kongo Central|Bas-Congo]]
|-
| 3. [[Équateur (former province)|Équateur]]
|-
| 4. [[Kasaï-Occidental]]
|-
| 5. [[Kasaï-Oriental (former province)|Kasaï–Oriental]]
|-
| 6. [[Katanga Province|Shaba]]
|-
| 7. [[Kinshasa]]
|-
| 8. [[Maniema]]
|-
| 9. [[North Kivu]]
|-
| 10. [[Orientale Province|Orientale]]
|-
| 11. [[South Kivu]]
|}

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo}} 
[[File:Zaire 5 Makuta R.jpg|thumb|A 5 makuta coin from 1977, which portrays Mobutu Sese Seko, the president of Zaire during this time]]

The [[Zairean zaire|zaïre]] was introduced to replace the franc as the new national currency. 100 makuta (singular likuta) equaled one zaïre. The likuta was also divided into 100 sengi. However this unit was worth very little, so the smallest coin was for 10 Sengi.{{citation needed|date=July 2012}} The currency and the cities named above had actually already been renamed between 1966 and 1971.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}

While the country began to stabilize after Mobutu took control, the economic situation began to decline, and by 1979, the purchasing power was only 4% of that in 1960.<ref name=dvr>{{cite book| author=David van Reybrouck| author-link=David van Reybrouck| title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]| date=25 March 2014| publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2012 |page=374ff |isbn=978-0-06-220011-2}}</ref> Starting in 1976 the [[IMF]] provided stabilizing loans to his regime. Much of this money was embezzled by Mobutu and his circle.<ref name=dvr/>

According to the 1982 report by the IMF's envoy [[Erwin Blumenthal]], it was "alarmingly clear that the corruptive system in Zaire with all its wicked and ugly manifestations, its mismanagement and fraud will destroy all endeavors of international institutions, of friendly governments, and of the commercial banks towards recovery and rehabilitation of Zaire's economy".<ref>{{cite book |author=Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ceGn_ScbcU8C&q=blumenthal+report+zaire&pg=PA226 |title=The Crisis in Zaire: Myths and Realities |publisher=Africa World Press, 1986 |year=1986 |isbn=0-86543-023-3 |page=226 |author-link=Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja}}</ref> Blumenthal stated that there was "no chance" that creditors would ever recover their loans. Yet the IMF and the [[World Bank]] continued to lend money that was either embezzled, stolen, or "wasted on elephant projects".<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.modernghana.com/news/219270/50/imf-and-world-bank-agents-of-povert.html |author=Aikins Adusei |title=IMF and World Bank: Agents of Poverty or Partners of Development?| publisher=Modern Ghana |date=30 May 2009 |access-date=30 March 2015}}</ref> "Structural adjustment programmes" implemented as a condition of IMF loans cut support for health care, education, and infrastructure.<ref name=dvr/>

==Culture==
{{main|Authenticité (Zaire)}}
The concept of authenticity was derived from the MPR's professed doctrine of "authentic Zairian nationalism and condemnation of regionalism and tribalism".<ref name=":7" /> Mobutu defined it as being conscious of one's own personality and one's own values and of being at home in one's culture.<ref name=":7" /> In line with the dictates of authenticity, the name of the country was changed to the Republic of Zaire on 27 October 1971, and that of the armed forces to Zairian Armed Forces (Forces Armées Zaïroises—FAZ).<ref name=":7" /><ref name="kisanganibobb">{{cite book|author1=Emizet Francois Kisangani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FvAWPTaRvFYC&q=27+october+1971+zaire&pg=PR51|title=Historical Dictionary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|author2=Scott F. Bobb|date=2010|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=9780810863255|page=i|access-date=29 April 2016}}</ref>

This decision was curious, given that the name ''Congo'', which referred both to the [[Congo River|river Congo]] and to the mediaeval [[Kongo Empire]], was fundamentally authentic to pre-colonial African roots, while ''Zaire'' is in fact a Portuguese corruption of another African word, ''Nzadi'' ("river", by Nzadi o Nzere, "the river that swallows all the other rivers", another name of the Congo river).{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} General Mobutu became Mobutu Sésé Seko and forced all his citizens to adopt [[African languages|African]] names and many cities were also renamed.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}

Some of the conversions are as follows:

*Léopoldville became [[Kinshasa]]
*Stanleyville became [[Kisangani]]
*Élisabethville became [[Lubumbashi]]
*Jadotville became [[Likasi]]
*Albertville became [[Kalemie]]

In addition, the adoption of Zairian, as opposed to [[Western culture|Western]] or [[Christianity|Christian]], names in 1972 and the abandonment of Western dress in favour of the wearing of the [[abacost]] were subsequently promoted as expressions of authenticity.<ref name=":7" />

Mobutu used the concept of authenticity as a means of vindicating his own brand of leadership.<ref name=":7" /> As he himself stated, "in our African tradition there are never two chiefs&nbsp;... That is why we Congolese, in the desire to conform to the traditions of our continent, have resolved to group all the energies of the citizens of our country under the banner of a single national party."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Young |first1=Crawford |last2=Turner |first2=Thomas Edwin |title=The rise and decline of the Zairian state |date=1985 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |isbn=9780299101107 |page=211 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aipzAAAAMAAJ&q=%22two%20chiefs%22 |access-date=11 July 2020}}</ref>

Critics of the regime were quick to point out the shortcomings of Mobutism as a legitimising formula, in particular its self-serving qualities and inherent vagueness; nonetheless, the MPR's ideological training centre, the Makanda Kabobi Institute, took seriously its assigned task of propagating through the land "the teachings of the Founder-President, which must be given and interpreted in the same fashion throughout the country".<ref name=":7" /> Members of the MPR Political Bureau, meanwhile, were entrusted with the responsibility of serving as "the repositories and guarantors of Mobutism".<ref name=":7" />

Quite aside from the merits or weaknesses of Mobutism, the MPR drew much of its legitimacy from the model of the overarching mass parties that had come into existence in Africa in the 1960s, a model which had also been a source of inspiration for the MNC-Lumumba.<ref name=":7" /> It was this Lumumbist heritage which the MPR tried to appropriate in its effort to mobilise the Zairian masses behind its founder-president.<ref name=":7" /> Intimately tied up with the doctrine of Mobutism was the vision of an all-encompassing single party reaching out to all sectors of the nation.<ref name=":4" />

==Standards and abbreviations==
Zaire's [[top-level domain]] was "'''[[.zr]]'''". It has since changed to "'''[[.cd]]'''".<ref>"[https://www.iana.org/reports/zr-report-20jun01.htm IANA Report on Deletion of the .zr Top-Level Domain]". [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]]. 20 June 2001. Retrieved on 11 June 2009.</ref>

Zaire's [[IOC code]] was '''ZAI''', which the nation's athletes used at the [[Olympic Games]] and other international sporting events like the [[African Games|All-Africa Games]]. It has since changed to '''COD'''.

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Works cited ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Abbott |first=Peter |year=2014 |title=Modern African Wars (4): The Congo 1960–2002 |location=Oxford; New York City |publisher=Osprey Publishing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j6ajCwAAQBAJ |isbn=978-1-78200-076-1 }}.
* {{cite encyclopedia|title=Zaire: a country study|publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]]|location=Washington, D.C.|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/94025092/|date=1994|editor-last=Meditz|editor-first=Sandra W.|edition=4th|pages=|isbn=0-8444-0795-X|oclc=30666705|postscript=. {{PD-notice}}|editor-last2=Merrill|editor-first2=Tim}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading and external links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{portal|Zaïre}}
{{refbegin}}
*Macgaffey, J., 1991. ''The Real Economy of Zaire: The Contribution of Smuggling and Other Unofficial Activities to National Wealth''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 
*Callaghy, T., ''The State–Society Struggle: Zaire in Comparative Perspective''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1984, {{ISBN|0-231-05720-2}}.
*Young, C., and Turner, T., ''The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State''. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1985, {{ISBN|978-0-299-10110-7}}.
* {{cite book|last1 = Turner|first1 = Thomas|title= The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=52xP2HJExjsC |date= 2007|publisher= Palgrave Macmillan|location=London|isbn= 978-1-84277-689-6}}
{{refend}}

{{DRC topics}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Coord|4|24|S|15|24|E|type:country|display=title}}

[[Category:Zaire| ]]
[[Category:Former countries in Africa]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1971]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1997]]
[[Category:Former one-party states]]
[[Category:1971 establishments in Zaire]]
[[Category:1997 disestablishments in Africa]]
[[Category:Former military dictatorships]]
[[Category:Totalitarian states]]
[[Category:Military coups in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]