View source for Zimbabwe

{{short description|Country in Southeastern Africa}}
{{about|the country}}
{{pp-move}}
{{pp-pc|Reason: Persistent disruptive editing}}
{{Use South African English|date=April 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Zimbabwe
| native_name            = {{plainlist|
* {{nativename|sn|Nyika yeZimbabwe}}
* {{nativename|nd|Ilizwe laseZimbabwe}}
* {{nativename|ny|Dziko la Zimbabwe}}
* {{nativename|tn|Lefatshe la Zimbabwe}}
* {{nativename|ts|Tiko ra Zimbabwe}}
* {{nativename|ve|Riphabuḽiki ya Zimbabwe}}
* {{nativename|xh|IRiphabhulikhi yaseZimbabwe}}
* {{nativename|st|Rephabliki ea Zimbabwe}}
* {{nativename|ndc|Nyika yeZimbabwe}}
}}
| common_name            = Zimbabwe
| image_flag             = Flag of Zimbabwe.svg
| image_coat             = Coat of arms of Zimbabwe.svg
| coa_size               = 105
| national_motto         = "Unity, Freedom, Work"<ref name="BEAVERCT">{{cite journal |url= https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=AFwtAAAAIBAJ&pg=3340,2548451&dq=zimbabwe+unity-freedom-work&hl=en |title=Zimbabwe |journal= The Beaver County Times |date= 13 September 1981 |access-date= 2 November 2011}}</ref>
| national_anthem        = "[[National Anthem of Zimbabwe|Blessed Be the Land of Zimbabwe]]"<ref name="CIA-WF">{{cite web |url= https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/zimbabwe/ |title=The World Factbook – Zimbabwe |date=2 December 2021 |publisher= Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref><div style= "padding-top:0.5em;">{{center| }} </div> [[File:National_Anthem_of_Zimbabwe,_performed_by_the_Royal_Australian_Navy_Band.ogg]]
| image_map              = {{Switcher|[[File: Zimbabwe (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Zimbabwe AU Africa.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Africa|default=1}}
| map_caption            = 
| capital                = [[Harare]]
| coordinates            = {{Coord|17|49|45|S|31|03|08|E|type:city_region:ZW}}
| largest_city           = Harare
| official_languages     = [[Languages of Zimbabwe|16 languages]]:<ref name="language">{{cite web |publisher=Government of Zimbabwe |via=Kubatana.net |url= http://www.kubatana.net/docs/legisl/constitution_zim_draft_copac_130125.pdf |title=Constitution of Zimbabwe (final draft) |date=January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131002110534/http://www.kubatana.net/docs/legisl/constitution_zim_draft_copac_130125.pdf |archive-date=2 October 2013}}</ref> 
{{hlist 
| [[Chewa language|Chewa]] 
| [[Chibarwe]] 
| [[Zimbabwean English|English]] 
| [[Kalanga language|Kalanga]] 
| [[Tjwao dialect|Khoisan]] 
| [[Nambya language|Nambya]] 
| [[Ndau language|Ndau]] 
| [[Northern Ndebele language|Ndebele]] 
| [[Shangani language|Shangani]] 
| [[Shona language|Shona]] 
| [[Sotho language|Sotho]] 
| [[Tonga language (Zambia and Zimbabwe)|Tonga]] 
| [[Tswana language|Tswana]] 
| [[Venda language|Venda]] 
| [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] 
| [[Zimbabwean sign languages|Zimbabwean sign language]]
}}
| ethnic_groups          = {{unbulleted list
| 99.6% [[Demographics of Zimbabwe|Indigenous African]]{{efn|Mainly [[Shona people|Shona]] and [[Northern Ndebele people|Ndebele]]}}
| {{nowrap|0.2% [[White Zimbabweans|European]]}}
| 0.1% [[Coloured]]
| 0.1% other{{efn|Includes those of Asian descent}}
}}
| ethnic_groups_year     = 2022 census
| ethnic_groups_ref      = <ref name=Census2022>{{cite web |title=Zimbabwe 2022 Population and Housing Census Report, vol. 1 |website=ZimStat |publisher=Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency |url=https://www.zimstat.co.zw/wp-content/uploads/Demography/Census/2022_PHC_Report_27012023_Final.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241001155012/https://www.zimstat.co.zw/wp-content/uploads/Demography/Census/2022_PHC_Report_27012023_Final.pdf |archive-date=1 October 2024 |page=122 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| religion               = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap;
  |{{Tree list}}
* 84.1% [[Christianity in Zimbabwe|Christianity]]
** 69.2% [[Protestantism]]
** 14.9% other [[List of Christian denominations|Christian]]
{{Tree list/end}}
  |10.2% [[Irreligion in Africa|no religion]]
  |4.5% [[Indigenous religion in Zimbabwe|traditional faiths]]
  |1.2% others
  }}
| religion_year          = 2017
| religion_ref           = <ref name="2017survey">{{cite web |url=https://zimbabwe.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Inter%20Censal%20Demography%20Survey%202017%20Report.pdf |title=Inter Censal Demography Survey 2017 Report |publisher=Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency |date=2017}}</ref>
| demonym                = {{plainlist|
* Zimbabwean
* Zimbo<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=VzXJBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA201 |chapter= Developments in English | title=International Association of University Professors of English Conference|date= 31 October 2014 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |via= Google Books|isbn= 9781107038509 }}</ref> (colloquial)
}}
| government_type        = Unitary [[Presidential system|presidential republic]]
| leader_title1          = [[President of Zimbabwe|President]]
| leader_name1           = [[Emmerson Mnangagwa]]
| leader_title2          = [[Vice President of Zimbabwe|First Vice-President]]
| leader_name2           = [[Constantino Chiwenga]]
| leader_title3          = [[Vice-President of Zimbabwe#Second vice-presidents|Second Vice-President]]
| leader_name3           = [[Kembo Mohadi]]
| legislature            = [[Parliament of Zimbabwe|Parliament]]
| upper_house            = [[Senate of Zimbabwe|Senate]]
| lower_house            = [[National Assembly of Zimbabwe|National Assembly]]
| sovereignty_type       = [[Independence]] {{nobold |from the [[United Kingdom]]}}
| established_event1     = [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|Declared]]
| established_date1      = 11 November 1965
| established_event2     = [[Rhodesia|Republic]]
| established_date2      = 2 March 1970
| established_event3     = [[Zimbabwe Rhodesia]]
| established_date3      = 1 June 1979
| established_event4     = [[Lancaster House Agreement|Independence recognised]]
| established_date4      = 18 April 1980
| established_event5     = [[Constitution of Zimbabwe|Current constitution]]
| established_date5      = 15 May 2013
| area_km2               = 390,757
| area_rank              = 60th
| area_sq_mi             = 150,871
| percent_water          = 1
| population_estimate    = 16,868,409<ref>{{Cite web|title= Zimbabwe Population Live|url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/zimbabwe-population/|access-date=23 October 2023}}</ref>
| population_census      = 15,178,957<ref>{{Cite web |title=2022 Population and Housing Census - Preliminary Report - Zimbabwe Data Portal |url=https://zimbabwe.opendataforafrica.org/anjlptc/2022-population-and-housing-census-preliminary-report |access-date=2023-08-09 |website=zimbabwe.opendataforafrica.org}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = January 2024
| population_estimate_rank = 73rd
| population_census_year = 2022
| population_density_km2 = 39
| population_density_sq_mi = 57
| GDP_PPP                = {{increase}} $93.870 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.ZW">{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april |language=en |access-date=25 July 2025 |archive-date=28 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250428212902/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/April |url-status=live }}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_rank           = 104th
| GDP_PPP_year           = 2025
| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = {{increase}} $5,410<ref name="IMFWEO.ZW" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 151st
| GDP_nominal            = {{increase}} $53.310 billion<ref name="https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/profile/ZWE" />
| GDP_nominal_rank       = 101st
| GDP_nominal_year       = 2025
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $3,070<ref name="IMFWEO.ZW" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 152nd
| Gini                   = 50.3 <!--number only-->
| Gini_year              = 2019
| Gini_change            = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| Gini_ref               = <ref>{{cite web |title= GINI Index |url= http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?page=3 |publisher= World Bank |access-date= 16 June 2021}}</ref>
| Gini_rank              = 
| HDI                    = 0.598 <!--number only-->
| HDI_year               = 2023<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change             = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref                = <ref name="HDI">{{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |language=en}}</ref>
| HDI_rank               = 153rd
| currency               = {{plainlist| 
''De jure'':
* [[Zimbabwe Gold]] ([[ISO 4217|ZWG]])<ref name="https://apnews.com">{{cite web|url=https://apnews.com/article/zimbabwe-new-currency-inflation-us-dollar-06a656260462d9651112e394e125c5e6 |title=Zimbabwe introduces new currency as depreciation and rising inflation stoke economic turmoil |website=[[Associated Press News]] |date=5 April 2024 }}</ref>
}}

{{plainlist|
''De facto'':
* [[United States dollar]] ([[ISO 4217|USD]])<ref name=Reuters.currency>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/zimbabwe-adopts-new-inflation-rate-based-us-dollar-local-currency-2023-03-03/ |title=Zimbabwe adopts new inflation rate based on U.S. dollar, local currency |date=3 March 2023 |access-date=25 March 2023 |work=Reuters |location=Harare}}</ref>
* [[South African rand]] ([[ISO 4217|ZAR]]);<ref name=Reuters.currency /> 
* Other currencies{{notetag|After the Zimbabwean dollar was suspended indefinitely from 12 April 2009, the [[euro]], [[United States dollar]], [[pound sterling]], [[South African rand]], [[Botswana pula]], [[Australian dollar]], [[renminbi|Chinese yuan]], [[Indian rupee]] and [[Japanese yen]] have been used as legal tenders.}}
}}
| time_zone              = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]]<ref name= TimeZone>{{cite web |url= http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/time-zone/africa/zimbabwe/time/ |title= Zimbabwe Time |website= Greenwich Mean Time |publisher= Greenwich 2000|access-date= 17 November 2017|url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110719182003/http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/time-zone/africa/zimbabwe/time/ |archive-date= 19 July 2011 |df= dmy-all}}</ref>
| utc_offset             = +2
| date_format            = dd/mm/yyyy
| drives_on              = left
| calling_code           = [[+263]]
| cctld                  = [[.zw]]
| today                  = 
}}

'''Zimbabwe''',{{efn|({{IPAc-en|z|ɪ|m|ˈ|b|ɑː|b|w|eɪ|,_|-|w|i|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Wodencafe-Zimbabwe.wav}}; {{IPA|sn|zi.ᵐba.ɓwe|link=yes}})}}<!-- Do NOT add pronunciation outside of the note, as per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section]]. --> officially the '''Republic of Zimbabwe''', is a [[landlocked country]] in [[Southeast Africa]], between the [[Zambezi]] and [[Limpopo River]], bordered by [[South Africa]] to the south, [[Botswana]] to the southwest, [[Zambia]] to the north, and [[Mozambique]] to the east. The capital and largest city is [[Harare]], and the second largest is [[Bulawayo]].

A country of roughly 16.9 million people as per 2024 estimates,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/zimbabwe-population/ |title=Zimbabwe Population (2024) - Worldometer }}</ref> Zimbabwe's largest ethnic group are the [[Shona people|Shona]], who make up 80% of the population, followed by the [[Northern Ndebele people|Northern Ndebele]] and other [[#Demographics|smaller minorities]]. Zimbabwe has 16 [[official language]]s,<ref name="language" /> with English, [[Shona language|Shona]], and [[Northern Ndebele language|Ndebele]] the most common. Zimbabwe is a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[Southern African Development Community]], the [[African Union]], and the [[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa]].

The region was long inhabited by the [[San people|San]], and was settled by [[Bantu peoples]] around 2,000 years ago. Beginning in the 11th century the [[Shona people]] constructed the city of [[Great Zimbabwe]], which became one of the major African trade centres by the 13th century.<ref name=":12">{{Citation |last=Pikirayi |first=Innocent |title=Great Zimbabwe, 1100–1600 AD, Rise, Development, and Demise of |date=2020 |pages=4696–4709 |editor-last=Smith |editor-first=Claire |url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-030-30018-0_2666 |access-date=2024-12-20 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-30018-0_2666 |isbn=978-3-030-30018-0 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology|url-access=subscription }}</ref> From there, the [[Kingdom of Zimbabwe]] was established, followed by the [[Kingdom of Mutapa|Mutapa]] and [[Rozvi Empire|Rozvi]] empires. The [[British South Africa Company]] of [[Cecil Rhodes]] demarcated the [[Rhodesia (region)|Rhodesia region]] in 1890 when they conquered [[Mashonaland]] and later in 1893 [[Matabeleland]] after the [[First Matabele War]]. [[Company rule in Rhodesia|Company rule]] ended in 1923 with the establishment of [[Southern Rhodesia]] as a [[self-governing colony|self-governing British colony]]. In 1965, the [[White Zimbabweans|white]] minority government [[Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence|unilaterally declared independence]] as [[Rhodesia]]. The state endured international isolation and a 15-year [[Rhodesian Bush War|guerrilla war]] with black rebel forces; this culminated in a [[Lancaster House Agreement|peace agreement]] that established ''[[de jure]]'' sovereignty as Zimbabwe in April 1980.

[[Robert Mugabe]] became [[Prime Minister of Zimbabwe]] in 1980, when his [[ZANU–PF]] party won the [[1980 Southern Rhodesian general election|general election]] following the end of white minority rule and has remained the country's dominant party since. He was the President of Zimbabwe from 1987, after converting the country's initial [[parliamentary system]] into a [[Presidential system|presidential one]], until his resignation in 2017. Under Mugabe's [[authoritarian]] regime, the state security apparatus dominated the country and was responsible for widespread [[human rights]] violations, which received worldwide condemnation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?year=2015&dlid=252745|title=Zimbabwe 2015 Human Rights Report|year=2015|access-date=6 May 2016|publisher=[[United States Department of State]] [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor]]}}</ref> From 1997 to 2008, the economy experienced consistent decline (and in the latter years, [[hyperinflation]]), though it has since seen [[Economy of Zimbabwe|rapid growth]] after the use of currencies other than the [[Zimbabwean dollar]] was permitted. In 2017, in the wake of over [[2016–2017 Zimbabwe protests|a year of protests]] against his government as well as Zimbabwe's rapidly declining economy, a [[2017 Zimbabwean coup d'état|coup d'état]] resulted in Mugabe's resignation. [[Emmerson Mnangagwa]] has since served as Zimbabwe's president.

== Etymology ==
{{further|Rhodesia (name)}}

The name "Zimbabwe" stems from a [[Shona language|Shona]] term for [[Great Zimbabwe]], a medieval city ([[Masvingo]]) in the country's south-east. Two different theories address the origin of the word. Many sources hold that "Zimbabwe" derives from ''dzimba-dza-mabwe'', translated from the Karanga dialect of Shona as "houses of stones" (''dzimba'' = plural of ''[[wikt:imba#Shona|imba]]'', "house"; ''mabwe'' = plural of ''[[wikt:ibwe|ibwe]]'', "stone").<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.somalipress.com/zimbabwe-overview/zimbabwe-big-house-stone-1145.html|title= Zimbabwe – big house of stone|publisher= Somali Press|access-date= 14 December 2008|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110503184153/http://www.somalipress.com/zimbabwe-overview/zimbabwe-big-house-stone-1145.html|archive-date= 3 May 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title= Shona Class 5 revisited: a case against *ri as Class 5 nominal prefix|journal= Zambezia|year= 1994|volume= 21|pages= 51–80|author= Lafon, Michel|url= http://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/Journal%20of%20the%20University%20of%20Zimbabwe/vol21n1/juz021001005.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title= Mediated monuments and national identity|author= Vale, Lawrence J.|doi= 10.1080/136023699373774|journal= Journal of Architecture|volume= 4|year= 1999|pages= 391–408|issue= 4|issn = 1360-2365}}</ref> The [[Shona language|Karanga-speaking]] Shona people live around Great Zimbabwe in the modern-day [[Masvingo Province|Masvingo]] province. Archaeologist [[Peter Garlake]] claims that "Zimbabwe" represents a contracted form of ''dzimba-hwe'', which means "venerated houses" in the Zezuru dialect of Shona and usually references chiefs' houses or graves.<ref>{{cite book|last= Garlake|first= Peter|author-link= Peter Garlake|title= Great Zimbabwe: New Aspects of Archaeology|url= https://archive.org/details/greatzimbabwe0000garl|url-access= limited|year= 1973|publisher= Thames & Hudson|location= London, UK|isbn= 978-0-8128-1599-3|page= [https://archive.org/details/greatzimbabwe0000garl/page/13 13]}}</ref>

Zimbabwe was formerly known as [[Southern Rhodesia]] (1898), [[Rhodesia]] (1965), and [[Zimbabwe Rhodesia]] (1979). The first recorded use of "Zimbabwe" as a term of national reference dates from 1960 as a coinage by the black nationalist [[Michael Mawema]],<ref name=fontein119120/> whose Zimbabwe National Party became the first to officially use the name in 1961.<ref name=ndlovugatsheni113114>{{cite book|title= Do "Zimbabweans" Exist? Trajectories of Nationalism, National Identity Formation and Crisis in a Postcolonial State|last= Ndlovu-Gatsheni|first= Sabelo J.|location= Bern|publisher= [[Peter Lang (publisher)|Peter Lang AG]]|year= 2009|edition= First|isbn= 978-3-03911-941-7|pages= 113–14}}</ref> The term "Rhodesia"—derived from the surname of [[Cecil Rhodes]], the primary instigator of the British colonisation of the territory—was perceived by African nationalists as inappropriate because of its colonial origin and connotations.<ref name=fontein119120>{{cite book|title= The Silence of Great Zimbabwe: Contested Landscapes and the Power of Heritage|last= Fontein|first= Joost|location= London|publisher= [[University College London|University College London Press]]|date= September 2006|edition= First|isbn= 978-1844721238|pages= 119–20}}</ref>

According to Mawema, black nationalists held a meeting in 1960 to choose an alternative name for the country, proposing names such as "Matshobana" and "[[Kingdom of Mutapa|Monomotapa]]" before his suggestion, "Zimbabwe", prevailed.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=92goAQAAMAAJ&q=%22What%27s+in+a+Name|title= What's in a Name? Welcome to the 'Republic of Machobana'|journal= Read on|publisher= Training Aids Development Group|location= Harare|year= 1991|page= 40}}</ref> It was initially unclear how the chosen term was to be used—a letter written by Mawema in 1961 refers to "Zimbabweland"<ref name=ndlovugatsheni113114/> — but "Zimbabwe" was sufficiently established by 1962 to become the generally preferred term of the black nationalist movement.<ref name=fontein119120/>
Like those of many African countries that [[Decolonisation of Africa|gained independence]] during the [[Cold War]], ''Zimbabwe'' is an ethnically neutral name. It is debatable to what extent Zimbabwe, being over 80% [[Shona people|Shona]] and dominated by them in various ways, can be described as a [[nation state]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Mlambo |first=Alois S. |date=2013 |title=Becoming Zimbabwe or Becoming Zimbabwean: Identity, Nationalism and State-building |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43941319 |journal=Africa Spectrum |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=49–70 |doi=10.1177/000203971304800103 |jstor=43941319 |s2cid=127302759 |issn=0002-0397|hdl=2263/41913 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The constitution acknowledges 16 languages, but only embraces two of them nationally, Shona and English. Shona is taught widely in schools, unlike [[Ndebele language (Zimbabwe)|Ndebele]]. Zimbabwe has never had a non-Shona head of state.<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-29 |title=From a kingdom to a nation: A Shona awakening |url=https://tradmag.ca/season-1/government/from-a-kingdom-to-a-nation-a-shona-awakening-2/ |access-date=2023-05-10 |website=Trad Magazine |language=en}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of Zimbabwe}}

=== Pre-colonial era ===
{{further|Bantu expansion}}
[[File:Tower, Great Zimbabwe1.jpg|thumb|upright|Towers of [[Great Zimbabwe]]]]
Archaeological records date archaic human settlement of present-day Zimbabwe to at least 500,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Zimbabwe - Cultural life {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Zimbabwe/Cultural-life|access-date=2022-02-11|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Zimbabwe's earliest known inhabitants were most likely the [[San people]], who left behind a legacy of arrowheads and cave paintings. Approximately 2,000 years ago, the first Bantu-speaking farmers arrived during the Bantu expansion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/pre-colonial-history-sa|title=Pre-colonial history of SA|website=South African History Online|access-date=17 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160702192857/http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/pre-colonial-history-sa|archive-date=2 July 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/place/zimbabwe|title=Zimbabwe|website=South African History Online|access-date=19 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107164147/http://www.sahistory.org.za/place/zimbabwe|archive-date=7 January 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Societies speaking proto-[[Shona languages]] first emerged in the middle [[Limpopo River]] valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands. The Zimbabwean plateau became the centre of subsequent Shona states, beginning around the 10th century. Around the early 10th century, trade developed with [[Shirazi era|Arab merchants]] on the Indian Ocean coast, helping to develop the [[Kingdom of Mapungubwe]] in the 13th century. This was the precursor to the Shona civilisations that dominated the region from the 13th century, evidenced by ruins at [[Great Zimbabwe]], near [[Masvingo]], and by other smaller sites. The main archaeological site used a unique dry stone architecture. The Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of trading states which had developed in Zimbabwe by the time the first European explorers arrived from Portugal. These states traded gold, ivory, and copper for cloth and glass.<ref name="autogenerated241">{{cite book|title= Historical Archaeology |last= Hall|first= Martin|author2= Stephen W. Silliman|year= 2005|publisher= Wiley Blackwell|isbn= 978-1-4051-0751-8|pages=241–44}}</ref>

By 1300, the [[Kingdom of Zimbabwe]] eclipsed Mapungubwe. This Shona state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwe's stone architecture. From {{circa}} 1450 to 1760, the [[Kingdom of Mutapa]] ruled much of the area of present-day Zimbabwe, plus parts of central Mozambique. It is known by many names including the Mutapa Empire, also known as ''Mwene Mutapa'' or ''Monomotapa'' as well as "Munhumutapa", and was renowned for its strategic trade routes with the Arabs and Portugal. The Portuguese sought to monopolise this influence and began a series of wars which left the empire in near collapse in the early 17th century.<ref name="autogenerated241" />

As a direct response to increased European presence in the interior a new Shona state emerged, known as the [[Rozvi Empire|Rozwi Empire]]. Relying on centuries of military, political and religious development, the Rozwi (meaning "destroyers") expelled the Portuguese from the Zimbabwean plateau in 1683. Around 1821 the [[Zulu people|Zulu]] general [[Mzilikazi]] of the [[Khumalo clan]] successfully rebelled against King [[Shaka]] and established his own clan, the [[Northern Ndebele people|Ndebele]]. The Ndebele fought their way northwards into the [[South African Republic|Transvaal]], leaving a trail of destruction in their wake and beginning an era of widespread devastation known as the [[Mfecane]]. When Dutch [[Boers|trekboers]] converged on the Transvaal in 1836, they drove the tribe even further northward, with the assistance of [[Tswana people|Tswana]] [[Barolong]] warriors and [[Griqua people|Griqua]] commandos. By 1838 the Ndebele had conquered the Rozwi Empire, along with the other smaller Shona states, and reduced them to [[vassal]]dom.<ref name="zimstudy">{{cite book|last= Nelson|first= Harold|title= Zimbabwe: A Country Study |pages= 1–317|publisher= The Studies | year= 1983}}</ref>

[[File:Harris - Ndebelekraal.png|thumb|A Matabele [[kraal]], as depicted by [[William Cornwallis Harris]], 1836]]
After losing their remaining South African lands in 1840, Mzilikazi and his tribe permanently settled in the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe in what became known as Matabeleland, establishing [[Bulawayo]] as their capital. Mzilikazi then organised his society into a military system with regimental [[kraal]]s, similar to those of Shaka, which was stable enough to repel further Boer incursions. Mzilikazi died in 1868; following a violent power struggle, his son [[Lobengula]] succeeded him.

===Colonial era and Rhodesia (1888–1964)===
{{Main|Company rule in Rhodesia|Southern Rhodesia|Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland}}
[[File:Hoisting the flag at Fort Salisbury.png|thumb|The [[Union Jack]] was raised over [[Harare|Fort Salisbury]] on 13 September 1890.]]
In the 1880s, European colonists arrived with [[Cecil Rhodes]]'s [[British South Africa Company]] (chartered in 1889). In 1888, Rhodes obtained a [[Rudd Concession|concession for mining rights]] from King [[Lobengula]] of the Ndebele peoples.<ref name="mining">
{{cite book
 | last1 = Hensman
 | first1 = Howard
 | year = 1901
 | title = Cecil Rhodes: A Study of a Career
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZebPswEACAAJ
 | edition = reprint
 | publisher = Creative Media Partners, LLC
 | publication-date = 2018
 | pages = 106–107
 | isbn = 9781376448528
 | access-date = 12 July 2020
}}
</ref> He presented this concession to persuade the government of the United Kingdom to grant a [[royal charter]] to the company over Matabeleland, and its subject states such as [[Mashonaland]] as well.<ref name="treaties">[[#Parsons|Parsons]], pp. 178–81.</ref> Rhodes used this document in 1890 to justify sending the [[Pioneer Column]], a group of Europeans protected by well-armed [[British South Africa Police]] (BSAP) through Matabeleland and into Shona territory to establish Fort Salisbury (present-day [[Harare]]), and thereby establish [[Company rule in Rhodesia|company rule]] over the area. In 1893 and 1894, with the help of their new [[Maxim gun|Maxim]] guns, the BSAP would go on to defeat the Ndebele in the [[First Matabele War]]. Rhodes additionally sought permission to negotiate similar concessions covering all territory between the Limpopo River and [[Lake Tanganyika]], then known as "Zambesia".<ref name="treaties" /> In accordance with the terms of aforementioned concessions and treaties,<ref name="treaties" /> mass settlement was encouraged, with the British maintaining control over labour as well as over precious metals and other mineral resources.<ref name="bsac">Bryce, James (2008). ''Impressions of South Africa''. p. 170; {{ISBN|055430032X}}.</ref>

[[File:Battle of the Shangani.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Battle of the Shangani]] on 25 October 1893]]

In 1895, the BSAC adopted the name [[Rhodesia (region)|"Rhodesia"]] for the territory, in honour of Rhodes. In 1898, "Southern Rhodesia" became the official name for the region south of the [[Zambezi]] river,<ref>Southern Rhodesia Order in Council of 20 October 1898, which includes at section 4 thereof: "The territory for the time being within the limits of this Order shall be known as Southern Rhodesia."</ref><ref name="adopted">{{cite journal|url= http://www.nrzam.org.uk/NRJ/V3N1/V3N1.htm|title= A Country in Search of a Name|author= Gray, J. A.|year= 1956|journal= The Northern Rhodesia Journal|volume= 3|issue= 1|page= 78|access-date= 16 May 2007|archive-date= 30 April 2009|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090430203902/http://www.nrzam.org.uk/NRJ/V3N1/V3N1.htm|url-status= dead}}</ref> which later adopted the name "Zimbabwe". The region to the north, administered separately, was later termed [[Northern Rhodesia]] (present-day Zambia). Shortly after the disastrous Rhodes-sponsored [[Jameson Raid]] on the [[South African Republic]], the Ndebele rebelled against white rule, led by their charismatic religious leader, Mlimo. The [[Second Matabele War]] of 1896–1897 lasted in Matabeleland until 1896, when Mlimo was assassinated by American scout [[Frederick Russell Burnham]]. Shona agitators staged unsuccessful revolts (known as ''[[Chimurenga]]'') against company rule during 1896 and 1897.{{citation needed|date= September 2015}} Following these failed insurrections, the Rhodes administration subdued the Ndebele and Shona groups and organised the land with a disproportionate bias favouring Europeans, thus displacing many indigenous peoples.<ref name="sahistory.org.za">{{Cite web|url= https://www.sahistory.org.za/place/zimbabwe|title= Zimbabwe {{!}} South African History Online|website= www.sahistory.org.za|language= en|access-date= 3 February 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190107164147/http://www.sahistory.org.za/place/zimbabwe|archive-date= 7 January 2019|url-status= dead}}</ref>
[[File:Rhodesia & Nyasaland £5 1957 Obverse.png|thumb|[[Elizabeth II|The Queen]]'s portrait featured on Rhodesian banknotes and coins]]
The United Kingdom annexed Southern Rhodesia on 12 September 1923.<ref>Southern Rhodesia (Annexation) Order in Council, 30 July 1923 which provided by section 3 thereof: "From and after the coming into operation of this Order the said territories shall be annexed to and form part of His Majesty's Dominions, and shall be known as the Colony of Southern Rhodesia."</ref><ref>Stella Madzibamuto v Desmond William Larder – Burke, Fredrick Phillip George (1969) A.C 645 – Authority for date of annexation having been 12 September 1923, being the date the Rhodesia (Annexation) Order in Council came into effect</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">''Collective Responses to Illegal Acts in International Law: United Nations Action in the Question of Southern Rhodesia'' by Vera Gowlland-Debbas</ref><ref>Stella Madzibamuto v Desmond William Larder – Burke, Fredrick Phillip George (1969) A.C 645</ref> Shortly after annexation, on 1 October 1923, the first constitution for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia came into force.<ref name="ReferenceA" /><ref>Southern Rhodesia Constitution Letters Patent, 1923</ref> Under the new constitution, Southern Rhodesia became a [[self-governing colony|self-governing]] [[British Empire|British colony]], subsequent to a [[1922 Southern Rhodesian government referendum|1922 referendum]]. Rhodesians of all races served on behalf of the United Kingdom during the two World Wars in the early-20th century. Proportional to the white population, Southern Rhodesia contributed more ''per capita'' to both the [[Southern Rhodesia in World War I|First]] and [[Southern Rhodesia in World War II|Second World Wars]] than any other part of the empire, including Britain.<ref name="moorcraft" />

The [[Land Apportionment Act of 1930|1930 Land Apportionment Act]] restricted black land ownership to certain segments of the country, setting aside large areas solely for the purchase of the white minority. This act, which led to rapidly rising inequality, became the subject of frequent calls for subsequent land reform.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Machingaidze|first=Victor E.M.|date=1991|title=Agrarian Change from above: The Southern Rhodesia Native Land Husbandry Act and African Response|journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies|volume=24|issue=3|pages=557–588|doi=10.2307/219092|jstor=219092}}</ref> In 1953, in the face of African opposition,<ref name="fed">[[#Parsons|Parsons]], p. 292.</ref> Britain consolidated the two Rhodesias with [[Nyasaland]] (Malawi) in the ill-fated [[Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland|Central African Federation]], which Southern Rhodesia essentially dominated. Growing [[African nationalism]] and general dissent, particularly in Nyasaland, persuaded Britain to dissolve the union in 1963, forming three separate divisions. While [[multiracial democracy]] was finally introduced to Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Southern Rhodesians of European ancestry continued to enjoy [[Minoritarianism|minority rule]].<ref name="sahistory.org.za" />
[[File:British Decolonisation in Africa.png|thumb|left|[[British Empire|British]] [[Decolonisation of Africa|decolonisation]] in Africa.]]
Following [[Zambia Independence Act 1964|Zambian independence]] (effective from October 1964), [[Ian Smith]]'s [[Rhodesian Front]] government in Salisbury dropped the designation "Southern" in 1964 (once ''Northern Rhodesia'' had changed its name to ''Zambia'', having the word ''Southern'' before the name ''Rhodesia'' became unnecessary and the country simply became known as ''Rhodesia'' afterwards). Intent on effectively repudiating the recently adopted British policy of "[[no independence before majority rule]]", Smith issued a [[Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence|Unilateral Declaration of Independence]] (UDI) from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. This marked the first such course taken by a rebel British colony since the [[United States Declaration of Independence|American declaration]] of 1776, which Smith and others indeed claimed provided a suitable precedent to their own actions.<ref name="moorcraft">
{{cite journal
|url= http://www.historytoday.com/paul-moorcraft/rhodesias-war-independence
|title= Rhodesia's War of Independence|date= 31 August 1990
|journal= History Today|volume= 40 | issue= 9
|first= Paul|last= Moorcraft
|quote= [P]er head of (white) population Rhodesia had contributed more in both world wars than any other part of the empire, including the United Kingdom. ... There is little doubt now that after a few resignations here and there, the army, the Royal Navy and even the Royal Air Force (supposedly the most disaffected service) would have carried out any orders to subdue the first national treason against the Crown since the American War of Independence.}}
</ref>

===Declaration of independence and civil war (1965–1980)===
{{Main|Rhodesia|Rhodesian Bush War|Zimbabwe Rhodesia|Lancaster House Agreement}}

[[File:Udi2-rho.jpg|thumb|[[Ian Smith]] signing the [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|Unilateral Declaration of Independence]] on 11 November 1965 with his cabinet in audience]]
The United Kingdom deemed the Rhodesian declaration an act of rebellion but did not re-establish control by force. The British government petitioned the United Nations for [[economic sanctions|sanctions]] against Rhodesia pending unsuccessful talks with Smith's administration in 1966 and 1968. In December 1966, the organisation complied, imposing the first mandatory trade embargo on an autonomous state.<ref name="eafp">Hastedt, Glenn P. (2004) ''Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy'', Infobase Publishing, p. 537; {{ISBN|143810989X}}.</ref> These sanctions were expanded again in 1968.<ref name="eafp" />

A civil war ensued when [[Joshua Nkomo]]'s [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU) and Robert Mugabe's [[Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU), supported actively by communist powers and neighbouring African nations, initiated [[Guerrilla warfare|guerrilla operations]] against Rhodesia's predominantly white government. ZAPU was supported by the [[Soviet Union]], the [[Warsaw Pact]] and associated nations such as Cuba, and adopted a [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] ideology; ZANU meanwhile aligned itself with [[Maoism]] and the bloc headed by the People's Republic of China. Smith declared Rhodesia a republic in 1970, following the results of a [[1969 Rhodesian constitutional referendum|referendum the previous year]], but this went unrecognised internationally. Meanwhile, Rhodesia's internal conflict intensified, eventually forcing him to open negotiations with the militant communists.

[[File:Lancaster-House-Agreement.png|thumb|right|Bishop [[Abel Muzorewa]] signs the Lancaster House Agreement seated next to [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs|British Foreign Secretary]] [[Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington|Lord Carrington]].]]
In March 1978, Smith reached an accord with three African leaders, led by Bishop [[Abel Muzorewa]], who offered to leave the white population comfortably entrenched in exchange for the establishment of a biracial democracy. As a result of the [[Internal Settlement]], [[1979 Rhodesian general election|elections were held in April 1979]], concluding with the [[United African National Council]] (UANC) carrying a majority of parliamentary seats. On 1 June 1979, Muzorewa, the UANC head, became prime minister and the country's name was changed to Zimbabwe Rhodesia. The Internal Settlement left control of the [[Rhodesian Security Forces]], civil service, judiciary, and a third of parliament seats to whites.<ref name="endsanctions">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/1/newsid_2492000/2492915.stm|title=On This Day|work=BBC News|access-date=14 December 2008 | date=1 June 1979}}</ref> On 12 June, the [[United States Senate]] voted to lift economic pressure on the former Rhodesia.

Following the [[1979 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting|fifth Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting]], held in [[Lusaka]], Zambia, from 1 to 7 August in 1979, the British government invited Muzorewa, Mugabe, and Nkomo to participate in a constitutional conference at [[Lancaster House]]. The purpose of the conference was to discuss and reach an agreement on the terms of an independence constitution, and provide for elections supervised under British authority allowing Zimbabwe Rhodesia to proceed to legal independence.<ref name="chair">Chung, Fay (2006). ''[https://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:nai:diva-496 Re-living the Second Chimurenga: memories from the liberation struggle in Zimbabwe]'', Preben (INT) Kaarsholm. p. 242; {{ISBN|9171065512}}.</ref> With Lord Carrington, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs of the United Kingdom, in the chair, these discussions were mounted from 10 September to 15 December in 1979, producing a total of 47 [[plenary session]]s.<ref name="chair" /> On 21 December 1979, delegations from every major interest represented reached the [[Lancaster House Agreement]], effectively ending the guerrilla war. Under the terms of the agreement, the country would temporarily revert to British rule until an election could be conducted, after which it would be granted independence under black majority rule.<ref name="lancaster">Preston, Matthew (2004). ''Ending Civil War: Rhodesia and Lebanon in Perspective.'' p. 25; {{ISBN|1850435790}}.</ref><ref>Lord Soames, "From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe." ''International Affairs''  56#3 (1980): 405–419. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2617389 online]</ref>

On 11 December 1979, the Rhodesian House of Assembly voted 90 to nil to revert to British colonial status. With the arrival of [[Christopher Soames]], the new governor on 12 December 1979, Britain formally took control of Zimbabwe Rhodesia as the Colony of Southern Rhodesia. Britain lifted sanctions on 12 December and the United Nations on 16 December.<ref>Zimbabwe, May 1980/Joint Committee on Foreign Affairs and Defence, Canberra: Government Printer, 1980. p. 122.<!-- ISSN/ISBN needed --></ref><ref>{{Cite journal|first=Nicholas |last=Waddy |title=The Strange Death of 'Zimbabwe-Rhodesia': The Question of British Recognition of the Muzorewa Regime in Rhodesian Public Opinion, 1979 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=66 |issue=2 |year=2014 |pages=227–248 |doi=10.1080/02582473.2013.846935|s2cid=159650816 }}</ref> During the [[1980 Southern Rhodesian general election]], Mugabe and the ZANU party secured a landslide victory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://richardknight.homestead.com/files/zimletmarch80.htm|title=Letter by George M. Houser, Executive Director of the American Committee on Africa (ACOA), on the 1980 independence election in Rhodesia|author=George M. Houser|access-date=1 December 2007}}</ref> On 11 April 1980, Southern Rhodesia became the independent nation of Zimbabwe. [[Charles III|Prince Charles]], as the representative of Britain, formally granted independence to Zimbabwe in a ceremony.<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Ian |date=2008 |title=Bitter Harvest |location=London |publisher=John Blake Publishing Ltd |page=367 |isbn=978-1-85782-604-3 |author-link=Ian Smith }}</ref>

===Independence era (1980–present)===
[[File:Zimbabwe, Trends in the Human Development Index 1970-2010.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Trends in Zimbabwe's [[Multidimensional Poverty Index]], {{Nowrap|1970–2010}}]]
[[President of Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe's first president]] after its independence was [[Canaan Banana]] in what was originally a mainly ceremonial role as [[head of state]]. Mugabe was the country's first prime minister and head of government.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Godwin |first1=Peter |last2=Hancock |first2=Ian |date=1995 |orig-year=1993 |title='Rhodesians Never Die': The Impact of War and Political Change on White Rhodesia, c. 1970–1980<!-- single quotes are part of the title--> |location=Harare |publisher=Baobab Books |page=312 |isbn=978-0-908311-82-8 |author-link1=Peter Godwin |author-link2=Ian Hancock }}</ref> In 1980, [[Samora Machel]] told Mugabe that Zimbabwe was the "Jewel of Africa" but added: "Don't tarnish it!".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/11/15/robert-mugabe-tarnished-jewel-zimbabwe-now-chance-shine/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/11/15/robert-mugabe-tarnished-jewel-zimbabwe-now-chance-shine/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Robert Mugabe tarnished the jewel that is Zimbabwe. Now is its chance to shine again|first=Boris|last=Johnson|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=15 November 2017|via=www.telegraph.co.uk}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2003/04/10/the-jewel-of-africa/|title=The Jewel of Africa|first=Doris|last=Lessing|date=10 April 2003|magazine=[[The New York Review of Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.voazimbabwe.com/a/zimbabwe-economy-battered-over-the-years/2724325.html|title=What Happened to Zimbabwe, Once Known as The Jewel of Africa?|first=Irwin|last=Chifera|date=17 April 2015 }}</ref>

New names for 32 places were gazetted on 18 April 1982<ref>{{cite web| url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA135022.pdf| title= Zimbabwe: A country study| series= Area Handbook Series| editor-first= Harold D. |editor-last= Nelson| date=August 1982|publisher = United States Government| quote=Rev. ed. of: Area handbook for Southern Rhodesia. 1975| page=xvii}}</ref> and by February 1984, there had been 42 changes, which included three rivers (Umniati/[[Munyati River|Munyati]]; Lundi/[[Runde River|Runde]]; Nuanetsi/[[Mwenezi River|Mwenezi]]), and several changes from colonial names (such as Salisbury/Harare; Enkeldoorn/[[Chivhu]]; Essexvale/[[Esigodini]]; Fort Victoria/[[Masvingo]])<ref>{{cite journal| url=https://journals.co.za/doi/pdf/10.10520/AJA02562804_270| journal=[[Africa Insight]]| title=Urban change in Zimbabwe|first=Hywel |last=Davies| volume= 14| issue= 3|date= 1984| page=163}}</ref>

Opposition to what was perceived as a Shona takeover immediately erupted around Matabeleland. The Matabele unrest led to what has become known as ''[[Gukurahundi]]'' (Shona: 'the early rain which washes away the [[chaff]] before the spring rains').<ref name="watch">Nyarota, Geoffrey (2006). ''Against the Grain'', Zebra, p. 134; {{ISBN|1770071121}}.</ref> The [[5th Brigade (Zimbabwe)|Fifth Brigade]], a North Korean-trained elite unit that reported directly to Mugabe,<ref name="meredith6273" /> entered Matabeleland and massacred thousands of civilians accused of supporting "dissidents".<ref name="meredith6273">{{cite book|title=Mugabe: Power, Plunder and the Struggle for Zimbabwe|last=Meredith|first=Martin|author-link=Martin Meredith|date=September 2007|orig-year=2002|location=New York|publisher=[[Perseus Books Group|PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1-58648-558-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mugabepowerplund00mere/page/62 62–73]|url=https://archive.org/details/mugabepowerplund00mere/page/62}}</ref><ref name="hill77">{{cite book|title=The Battle for Zimbabwe: The Final Countdown |last= Hill |first=Geoff |location=Johannesburg |publisher=Struik Publishers|year=2005|orig-year=2003|isbn=978-1-86872-652-3|page=77}}</ref> Estimates for the number of deaths during the five-year ''Gukurahundi'' campaign ranged from 3,750<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.rhodesia.nl/Matabeleland%20Report.pdf|title =Report on the 1980s disturbances in Matabeleland and the Midlands, by the Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe, March 1997 – Conclusion – FINAL ESTIMATE: The figure for the dead and missing is not less than 3000. This statement is now beyond reasonable doubt. Adding up the conservative suggestions made above, the figure is reasonably certainly 3750 dead. More than that it is still not possible to say, except to allow that the real figure for the dead could be possibly double 3000, or even higher. Only further research will resolve the issue.}}</ref> to 80,000.<ref name="hill77" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newzimbabwe.com/news-17562-Gukurahundi%20killed%2080,000%20Eddie%20Cross/news.aspx|title=Gukurahundi killed 80,000: Eddie Cross|access-date=11 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112015104/http://www.newzimbabwe.com/news-17562-Gukurahundi%20killed%2080,000%20Eddie%20Cross/news.aspx|archive-date=12 November 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Thousands of others were tortured in military internment camps.<ref name="catholiccommission">{{cite web|url= https://archive.org/details/BreakingTheSilenceBuildingTruePeace|title=Breaking the Silence, Building True Peace|last1=Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe|last2=Legal Resources Foundation|date=1 January 1997|via=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://archive.org/details/BreakingTheSilenceBuildingTruePeace|title=Report on the 1980s Disturbances in Matabeleland & the Midlands |publisher= [[Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe]]|date=March 1997|access-date=8 August 2015}}</ref> The campaign officially ended in 1987 after Nkomo and Mugabe reached a unity agreement that merged their respective parties, creating the Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front ([[ZANU–PF]]).<ref name="meredith6273" /><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.badley.info/history/ZANU-PF-Zimbabwe.event.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081123124818/http://www.badley.info/history/ZANU-PF-Zimbabwe.event.html|archive-date=23 November 2008 | title= Chronology of Zimbabwe |publisher=badley.info|access-date=9 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14113618|title=Timeline: Zimbabwe|work=BBC News|access-date=9 December 2008 |date=15 October 2009}}</ref> [[1990 Zimbabwean general election|Elections in March 1990]] resulted in another victory for Mugabe and the ZANU–PF party, which claimed 117 of the 120 contested seats.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/zim1990election.htm|title=Zimbabwe: 1990 General Elections|access-date=9 December 2008 |publisher=EISA |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205015007/http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/zim1990election.htm|archive-date=5 December 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.uz.ac.zw/publications/books/pol.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090902092508/http://www.uz.ac.zw/publications/books/pol.html|archive-date=2 September 2009 |title=Voting for Democracy: A Study of Electoral Politics in Zimbabwe|last=Moyo |first=Jonathon N. |publisher=University of Zimbabwe |access-date=9 December 2008}}</ref>

During the 1990s, students, trade unionists, and other workers often demonstrated to express their growing discontent with Mugabe and ZANU–PF party policies. In 1996, civil servants, nurses, and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues.<ref name="l">{{cite news|url=http://africanhistory.about.com/od/zimbabwe/p/ZimbabweHist3.htm|title=A Brief History of Zimbabwe|publisher=about.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080108142024/http://africanhistory.about.com/od/zimbabwe/p/ZimbabweHist3.htm|archive-date=8 January 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/zimoverview5.htm |title=Zimbabwe: ZANU PF hegemony and its breakdown (1990–1999)|publisher=EISA|access-date=9 December 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205012226/http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/zimoverview5.htm|archive-date=5 December 2008 }}</ref> The general health of the population also began to significantly decline; by 1997 an estimated 25% of the population had been infected by HIV in a pandemic that was affecting most of southern Africa.<ref name="k">{{cite news |url= http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0862066.html|title=History of Zimbabwe|work=infoplease.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.avert.org/history-hiv-aids-africa.htm|title=History of HIV & AIDS in Africa|work=[[AVERT]]|date=20 July 2015|access-date=8 August 2015}}</ref> Land redistribution re-emerged as the main issue for the ZANU–PF government around 1997. Despite the existence of a "willing-buyer-willing-seller" land reform programme since the 1980s, the minority white Zimbabwean population continued to hold the majority of the country's most fertile agricultural land.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/692638.stm |title=Britain's troubles with Mugabe|work=BBC News|date=3 April 2000}}</ref>

In 2000, the government pressed ahead with its [[Land reform in Zimbabwe#Fast-track land reform and violence|Fast Track Land Reform]] programme, a policy involving compulsory land acquisition aimed at redistributing land from the minority white population to the majority black population.<ref name="humanrightswatcha">{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/zimbabwe/ZimLand0302.pdf|title= Fast Track Land Reform in Zimbabwe|publisher= [[Human Rights Watch]]}}&nbsp;{{small|(175&nbsp;KB)}}</ref> Confiscations of white farmland, continuous droughts, and a serious drop in external finance and other support led to a sharp decline in agricultural exports, which were traditionally the country's leading export-producing sector.<ref name="humanrightswatcha"/> Some 58,000 independent black farmers have since experienced limited success in reviving the gutted cash crop sectors through efforts on a smaller scale.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/21/world/africa/in-zimbabwe-land-takeover-a-golden-lining.html?pagewanted=all|title=In Zimbabwe Land Takeover, a Golden Lining|work=The New York Times|date=20 July 2012|access-date=21 July 2012|author=Polgreen, Lydia}}</ref>

President Mugabe and the ZANU–PF party leadership found themselves beset by a wide range of international sanctions.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/09/st05/st05304-ad01re01.en09.pdf|title=Council Common Position renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe |work=Council of the European Union|date=26 January 2009}}</ref> In 2002, the nation was suspended from the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] due to the reckless farm seizures and blatant [[Electoral fraud|election tampering]].<ref name="tampering">{{cite web |url=http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/media/2003_alerts/1208.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629145037/http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/media/2003_alerts/1208.htm |archive-date=29 June 2007 |title=Zimbabwe Suspended Indefinitely from Commonwealth|publisher=[[Human Rights First]]|date=8 December 2003|url-status=dead}}</ref> The following year, Zimbabwean officials voluntarily terminated its Commonwealth membership.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.thecommonwealth.org/press/31555/34582/35505/zimbabwes_withdrawal_from_the_commonwealth.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705162909/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/press/31555/34582/35505/zimbabwes_withdrawal_from_the_commonwealth.htm|archive-date=5 July 2008 |title=Commonwealth website confirms Zimbabwe "terminated" its membership with effect from 7 December 2003 |publisher=Thecommonwealth.org|date=12 December 2003}}</ref> In 2001, the United States enacted the [[Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001|Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act]] (ZDERA). It came into effect in 2002 and froze credit to the Zimbabwean government.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/107/s494/text|title=Text of S. 494 (107th): Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001 (Passed Congress/Enrolled Bill version)|date=12 December 2001|publisher=[[GovTrack]]|access-date=29 December 2016}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>

By 2003, the country's economy had collapsed. It is estimated that up to a quarter of Zimbabwe's 11 million people had fled the country. Three-quarters of the remaining Zimbabweans were living on less than one U.S. dollar a day.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/searching-for-fuel-and-other-tales-from-zimbabwe/|title=Searching for fuel and other tales from Zimbabwe|date=1 October 2003}}</ref> Following [[Zimbabwean parliamentary election, 2005|elections in 2005]], the government initiated "[[Operation Murambatsvina]]", an effort to crack down on illegal markets and slums emerging in towns and cities, leaving a substantial section of urban poor homeless.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4188702.stm|title=Zimbabwe destruction: One man's story|date=30 August 2005 |publisher=BBC|access-date=19 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/driving-out-the-filth-in-zimbabwe/|title=Driving out the filth in Zimbabwe|work=Radio Netherlands Archives |date=31 January 2007}}</ref> The Zimbabwean government has described the operation as an attempt to provide decent housing to the population, although according to critics such as [[Amnesty International]], authorities have yet to properly substantiate their claims.<ref name="muram">{{cite web|url=http://news.amnesty.org/index/ENGAFR460152006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061010190256/http://news.amnesty.org/index/ENGAFR460152006|archive-date=10 October 2006 |title=Zimbabwe: Housing policy built on foundation of failures and lies – Amnesty International|date=9 August 2006 |access-date=30 December 2013}}</ref>

[[File:Food insecurity in Zimbabwe.svg|thumb|Map showing the food insecurity in Zimbabwe in June 2008]]

On 29 March 2008, Zimbabwe held a [[Zimbabwean presidential election, 2008|presidential election]] along with a [[Zimbabwean parliamentary election, 2008|parliamentary election]]. The results of this election were withheld for two weeks, after which it was generally acknowledged that the [[Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai]] (MDC-T) had achieved a majority of one seat in the lower house of parliament.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Kenneth Ingham |author2=Clyde William Sanger |author3=Kenneth Bradley |title=Zimbabwe - 2008 elections and aftermath &#124; Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Zimbabwe/2008-elections-and-aftermath |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=15 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116000541/https://www.britannica.com/place/Zimbabwe/2008-elections-and-aftermath |archive-date=16 January 2023}}</ref> In September 2008, a [[2008–2009 Zimbabwean political negotiations|power-sharing agreement]] was reached between [[Morgan Tsvangirai]] and President Mugabe, permitting the former to hold the office of prime minister. Due to ministerial differences between their respective political parties, the agreement was not fully implemented until 13 February 2009. By December 2010, Mugabe was threatening to completely expropriate remaining privately owned companies in Zimbabwe unless "western sanctions" were lifted.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2010/12/18/Mugabe-wants-sanctions-removed/UPI-84591292686762|title=Mugabe wants sanctions removed|work=United Press International|date=18 December 2010|access-date=21 August 2011}}</ref>
[[File:Mugabe - Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg|thumb|Zimbabwean President [[Robert Mugabe]] attending the Independence Day celebrations in South Sudan in July 2011.]]
In late 2008, problems in Zimbabwe reached crisis proportions in the areas of living standards, public health (with a major [[Zimbabwean cholera outbreak|cholera outbreak]] in December) and various basic affairs.<ref name="Carter">{{cite news|url= http://www.foxnews.com/printer_friendly_wires/2008Nov24/0,4675,AFZimbabwe,00.html|date=24 November 2008|title=Carter warns situation appears dire in Zimbabwe|author=Jacobson, Celean|agency=Associated Press|work=Fox News}}</ref> During this period, NGOs took over from government as a primary provider of food during this period of food insecurity in Zimbabwe.<ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Ndlovu|first=Nompilo|date=2009|title=A case study of Non-Governmental Organisations' (NGOS) responses to food insecurity in Matabeleland, Zimbabwe|publisher=University of Cape Town|type=MSocSc|url=https://open.uct.ac.za/handle/11427/8951|access-date=23 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224001712/https://open.uct.ac.za/handle/11427/8951|url-status=dead}}</ref> A 2011 survey by [[Freedom House]] suggested that living conditions had improved since the power-sharing agreement.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.kubatana.net/docs/demgg/fh_changing_perceptions_political%20_110304.pdf|publisher=[[Freedom House]]|author=Booysen, Susan|date=4 March 2011|access-date=16 February 2012|title=Changing Perceptions in Zimbabwe – Nationwide Survey of the Political Climate in Zimbabwe November 2010 – January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121212043124/http://www.kubatana.net/docs/demgg/fh_changing_perceptions_political%20_110304.pdf|archive-date=12 December 2012}}</ref> The United Nations [[Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs]] stated in its 2012–2013 planning document that the "humanitarian situation has improved in Zimbabwe since 2009, but conditions remain precarious for many people".<ref>{{cite report|title=OCHA in 2012–2013: Plan and Budget: Zimbabwe|publisher=United Nations [[Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs]]|url=http://www.unocha.org/ocha2012-13/zimbabwe|date=December 2011|access-date=16 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130200054/http://www.unocha.org/ocha2012-13/zimbabwe |archive-date=30 January 2012}}</ref>

A new constitution approved in the [[Zimbabwean constitutional referendum, 2013]] curtails presidential powers.<ref>{{cite news|title=Zimbabweans start voting to adopt new constitution|url=https://www.reuters.com-archive-classified.eu/article/2013/03/16/us-zimbabwe-referendum-idUSBRE92F03G20130316|work=Reuters|access-date=16 March 2013|author=Dzirutwe, MacDonald |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130927163223/http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013 |archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref> Mugabe was re-elected president in the July 2013 [[2013 Zimbabwean general election|Zimbabwean general election]] which ''[[The Economist]]'' described as "rigged"<ref name =Economist072016>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21701779-imf-ready-throw-mugabe-regime-lifeline-bad-idea-bailing-out|title=Bailing out bandits|date=9 July 2016|newspaper=The Economist|issue=8997|volume=420|pages=43–44|issn=0013-0613|access-date=8 July 2016}}</ref> and the ''[[The Daily Telegraph|Daily Telegraph]]'' as "stolen".<ref name="Out of House">{{Cite news|title=Out of House and Home|last=Fletcher|first=Martin|date=7 February 2017|newspaper=The Telegraph|edition=Telegraph Magazine|page=39}}</ref> The Movement for Democratic Change alleged massive fraud and tried to seek relief through the courts.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-23591941 | title=Zimbabwe election: A guide to rigging allegations | work=BBC News | date=7 August 2013 | access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> In a surprising moment of candour at the ZANU–PF congress in December 2014, President Robert Mugabe accidentally let slip that the opposition had in fact won the contentious 2008 polls by an astounding 73%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://africanarguments.org/2015/04/23/as-the-house-burns-whither-the-zimbabwean-opposition-by-nicole-beardsworth/|title=As the House Burns, Whither the Zimbabwean Opposition? – By Nicole Beardsworth|date=23 April 2015}}</ref> After winning the election, the Mugabe ZANU–PF government re-instituted [[one party rule]],<ref name="Out of House" /> doubled the civil service and, according to ''The Economist'', embarked on "misrule and dazzling corruption".<ref name =Economist072016/> A 2017 study conducted by the [[Institute for Security Studies]] (ISS) concluded that due to the deterioration of government and the economy "the government encourages corruption to make up for its inability to fund its own institutions" with widespread and informal police roadblocks to issue fines to travellers being one manifestation of this.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://issafrica.org/iss-today/zimbabwes-shady-police-roadblocks-reflect-its-failing-governance|title=Zimbabwe's shady police roadblocks reflect its failing governance – ISS Africa|last=Matyszak|first=Derek|date=20 September 2017|website=ISS Africa|language=en|access-date=22 September 2017}}</ref>

In July 2016, [[2016 Zimbabwe protests|nationwide protests]] took place regarding the economic collapse in the country.<ref name="BBC2016">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-36724874 |title=Zimbabwe 'shut down' over economic collapse |access-date=7 July 2016 |work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.com/world/article/mugabe-at-war-with-militias-that-keep-him-in-power-kbldr7v8l|title=Mugabe at war with militias that keep him in power|last1=Raath|first1=Jan|last2=Graham|first2=Stuart|date=25 July 2016|newspaper=[[The Times]]|access-date=25 July 2016|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In November 2017, [[2017 Zimbabwean coup d'état|the army led a coup d'état]] following the dismissal of Vice-president [[Emmerson Mnangagwa]], placing Mugabe under house arrest. The army denied that their actions constituted a [[coup]].<ref name="cnn_turmoil">{{cite news |url= https://edition.cnn.com/2017/11/14/africa/zimbabwe-military-chief-treasonable-conduct/ |title= Zimbabwe in turmoil after apparent coup |first1=David |last1=McKenzie |first2=Brent |last2=Swails |first3=Angela |last3=Dewan |work=CNN |access-date=15 November 2017}}</ref><ref name="guardian_confined">{{cite news |date=15 November 2017|url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2017/nov/15/zimbabwe-army-control-harare-coup-robert-mugabe-live |title= Zimbabwe's Robert Mugabe confined to home as army takes control |work=The Guardian |access-date= 15 November 2017}}</ref>  On 19 November 2017, ZANU–PF sacked Robert Mugabe as party leader and appointed former Vice-president Emmerson Mnangagwa in his place.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ruling party sacks Mugabe as leader |work=BBC News |date=19 November 2017 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-42043370 |access-date=19 November 2017}}</ref> On 21 November 2017, Mugabe tendered his resignation prior to impeachment proceedings being completed.<ref name="bbc_resigns">{{cite news |title= Zimbabwe's President Mugabe 'resigns' |work= BBC News |date= 21 November 2017 |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-42071488 |access-date=21 November 2017}}</ref> Although under the [[Constitution of Zimbabwe]] Mugabe should be succeeded by Vice-president [[Phelekezela Mphoko]], a supporter of [[Grace Mugabe]], ZANU–PF [[Chief Whip|chief whip]] Lovemore Matuke stated to the [[Reuters]] news agency that Mnangagwa would be appointed as president.<ref name="bbc_resigns" />

On 30 July 2018, Zimbabwe held its [[2018 Zimbabwean general election|general elections]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zimeye.net/2018/06/14/breaking-record-23-presidential-candidates-for-zimbabwes-july-30-polls/|title=BREAKING- Record 23 Presidential Candidates For Zimbabwe's July 30 Polls |last=Gondo |first=Talent |work=zimeye.net |language=en-US|access-date=17 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190117071635/https://www.zimeye.net/2018/06/14/breaking-record-23-presidential-candidates-for-zimbabwes-july-30-polls/|archive-date=17 January 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> which were won by the ZANU-PF party led by Mnangagwa.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://zwnews.com/latest-news-ed-mnangagwa-beats-nelson-chamisa-to-win-zim-election-2018-zanu-mdc-alliance-zec/|title=BREAKING NEWS: Emmerson Mnangagwa wins Zimbabwe Presidential Elections 2018, ZEC|last=Mabhena|first=Charles|date=2 August 2018|website=ZWNews|language=en-GB|access-date=17 January 2019}}</ref> [[Nelson Chamisa]] who was leading the main opposition party [[MDC Alliance]] contested the election results claiming voter fraud,<ref name="MutsvairoMuneri2019">{{cite book | author1 = Bruce Mutsvairo | author2 = Cleophas T. Muneri | date = 29 November 2019 | title = Journalism, Democracy, and Human Rights in Zimbabwe | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | pages = 14– | isbn = 978-1-4985-9977-1 | oclc = 1128426040 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NR6_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14}}</ref> and subsequently filed a petition to the Constitution Court of Zimbabwe.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.trtworld.com/mea/zimbabwe-s-chamisa-challenges-election-result-19514 |title=Zimbabwe's Chamisa challenges election result |website=TRTWORLD |date=10 August 2018 |access-date=26 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190117070331/https://www.trtworld.com/mea/zimbabwe-s-chamisa-challenges-election-result-19514 |archive-date=17 January 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The court confirmed Mnangagwa's victory, making him the newly elected president after Mugabe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/zim-concourt-dismisses-mdcs-challenge-confirms-mnangagwa-winner/|title=Zim ConCourt dismisses MDC's challenge, confirms Mnangagwa winner – SABC News – Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader.|website=www.sabcnews.com|date=24 August 2018 |access-date=17 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-election-court-idUSKCN1L90W2|title=Top Zimbabwe court confirms Mnangagwa's presidential election victory|date=25 August 2018|work=Reuters|access-date=17 January 2019|language=en}}</ref>

In December 2017, the website Zimbabwe News, calculating the cost of the Mugabe era using various statistics, said that at the time of independence in 1980, the country was growing economically at about five per cent a year, and had done so for quite a long time. If this rate of growth had been maintained for the next 37 years, Zimbabwe would have, in 2016, a GDP of US$52 billion. Instead it had a formal sector GDP of only US$14 billion, a cost of US$38 billion in lost growth. The population growth in 1980 was among the highest in Africa at about 3.5 per cent per annum, doubling every 21 years. Had this growth been maintained, the population would have been 31 million. Instead, as of 2018, it is about 13 million. The discrepancies were believed to be partly caused by death from starvation and disease, and partly due to decreased fertility. The life expectancy has halved, and deaths from politically motivated violence sponsored by the government exceed 200,000 since 1980. The Mugabe government has directly or indirectly caused the deaths of at least three million Zimbabweans in 37 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newzimbabwe.com/columns-40850-The+costs+of+the+Robert+Mugabe+era/columns.aspx|title=The costs of the Robert Mugabe era|website=newzimbabwe.com|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201005250/http://www.newzimbabwe.com/columns-40850-The+costs+of+the+Robert+Mugabe+era/columns.aspx|archive-date=1 February 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to the [[World Food Programme]], over two million people are facing starvation because of the recent droughts the country is going through.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/08/07/africa/zimbabwe-millions-starvation-intl/index.html|title=Millions in Zimbabwe facing starvation after severe droughts, UN food agency says|author=Mark Chingono and Bukola Adebayo|website=CNN|date=7 August 2019|access-date=14 August 2019}}</ref>

In 2018, President Mnangagwa announced that his government would seek to rejoin [[the Commonwealth]], which is as of 2023 conducting a fact-finding mission prior to asking the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary-General]] to issue a recommendation.<ref>{{cite news|title=Canada and others debate Zimbabwe's bid to rejoin Commonwealth|journal=[[The Globe and Mail]]|page=A4|date=7 Feb 2023|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-canada-zimbabwe-commonwealth-membership-bid/}}</ref>

In August 2023, President Emmerson Mnangagwa won a second  term in an outcome of the [[2023 Zimbabwean general election|election]] rejected by the opposition and questioned by observers.<ref>{{cite news |title=Zimbabwe's President Mnangagwa wins second term, opposition rejects result |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/27/zimbabwes-president-mnangagwa-wins-second-term-opposition-rejects-result |work=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref> In September 2023, Zimbabwe signed control over almost 20% of the country's land to the [[carbon credit|carbon offset]] company [[Blue Carbon (company)|Blue Carbon]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/nov/30/the-new-scramble-for-africa-how-a-uae-sheikh-quietly-made-carbon-deals-for-forests-bigger-than-uk|title=The new 'scramble for Africa': how a UAE sheikh quietly made carbon deals for forests bigger than UK|author=Patrick Greenfield|journal=The Guardian|date=30 November 2023|access-date=14 July 2024}}</ref>

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Zimbabwe}}
[[File:ZmbziRvr.jpg|thumb|The [[Zambezi River]] in the [[Mana Pools National Park]]]]
[[File:Zimbabwe map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|Zimbabwe map of Köppen climate classification]]
Zimbabwe is a landlocked country in southern Africa, lying between latitudes [[15th parallel south|15°]] and [[23rd parallel south|23°S]], and longitudes [[25th meridian east|25°]] and [[34th meridian east|34°E]]. It is bordered by [[South Africa]] to the south, [[Botswana]] to the west and southwest, [[Zambia]] to the northwest, and [[Mozambique]] to the east and northeast. Its northwest corner is roughly 150 meters from [[Namibia]], nearly forming a four-nation [[quadripoint]]. Most of the country is elevated, consisting of a central plateau (high veld) stretching from the southwest northwards with altitudes between 1,000 and 1,600 m. The country's extreme east is mountainous, this area being known as the [[Eastern Highlands]], with [[Mount Nyangani]] as the highest point at 2,592 m.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=11229|title=Inyangani, Zimbabwe|website=Peakbagger|access-date=23 August 2020}}</ref>

The highlands are known for their natural environment, with tourist destinations such as [[Nyanga National Park|Nyanga]], Troutbeck, [[Chimanimani Mountains|Chimanimani]], [[Bvumba Mountains|Vumba]] and [[Chirinda Forest Botanical Reserve|Chirinda Forest]] at [[Mount Selinda]]. About 20% of the country consists of low-lying areas, (the low veld) under 900m. [[Victoria Falls]], one of the world's largest and most spectacular waterfalls, is located in the country's extreme northwest and is part of the [[Zambezi]] river.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia with Atlas and Weather Guide|year=2018|editor-last=Helicon|via=Credo Reference}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://victoriafallstourism.org/|title=Victoria Falls|date=2019|website=Victoria Falls Tourism|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref>

=== Geology ===
{{main|Geology of Zimbabwe}}
Over geological time, Zimbabwe has experienced two major post-[[Gondwana]] erosion cycles (known as African and post-African), and a very subordinate Plio-Pleistocene cycle.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moore|first=A E |display-authors=etal|date=2009|title=Landscape evolution in Zimbabwe from the Permian to present, with implications for kimberlite prospecting|url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Moore2009_2.pdf|journal=Geological Society of South Africa|volume=112|issue=1 |page=65 |doi=10.2113/gssajg.112.1.65 |bibcode=2009SAJG..112...65M }}</ref>

===Climate===
Zimbabwe has a [[Subtropics|subtropical climate]] with many local variations. The southern areas are known for their heat and aridity, while parts of the central plateau receive frost in winter. The Zambezi valley is known for its extreme heat, and the [[Eastern Highlands]] usually experience cool temperatures and the highest rainfall in the country. The country's [[Wet season|rainy season]] generally runs from late October to March, and the hot climate is moderated by increasing altitude. Zimbabwe is faced with recurring droughts. In 2019, at least 55 elephants died because of drought.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-50130740|title=At least 55 elephants die in Zimbabwe drought|date=21 October 2019|access-date=22 October 2019|language=en-GB}}</ref> Severe storms are rare.<ref name="Baughan, M. 2005">Baughan, M. (2005). Continent in the Balance: Zimbabwe-Juvenile literature. Philadelphia, PA: Mason Crest Publishers; {{ISBN|1590848101}}.</ref>

===Biodiversity===
{{main|Wildlife of Zimbabwe}}
[[File:Curled trunk.jpg|thumb|An elephant at a water hole in [[Hwange National Park]]]]
Zimbabwe contains seven terrestrial ecoregions: [[Kalahari acacia–baikiaea woodlands]], Southern Africa [[bushveld]], [[Southern miombo woodlands]], [[Zambezian Baikiaea woodlands]], [[Zambezian and mopane woodlands]], [[Makgadikgadi Pan|Zambezian halophytics]], and Eastern Zimbabwe montane forest-grassland mosaic in the Eastern Highlands.<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|display-authors=1|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287}}</ref>

The country is mostly [[savanna]], although the moist and mountainous Eastern Highlands support areas of tropical evergreen and hardwood forests. Trees found in the Eastern Highlands include [[teak]], [[mahogany]], enormous specimens of [[strangler fig]], [[Newtonia buchananii|forest Newtonia]], big leaf, [[Celtis africana|white stinkwood]], chirinda stinkwood, [[Senegalia nigrescens|knobthorn]] and many others.

In the low-lying parts of the country [[Vachellia xanthophloea|fever trees]], [[mopane]], [[combretum]] and [[Adansonia|baobabs]] abound. Much of the country is covered by [[miombo]] woodland, dominated by [[brachystegia]] species and others. Among the numerous flowers and shrubs are [[hibiscus]], [[Gloriosa (plant)|flame lily]], [[snake lily]], [[spider lily]], [[leonotis]], [[Cassia fistula|cassia]], tree [[wisteria]] and [[dombeya]]. There are around 350 species of mammals that can be found in Zimbabwe. There are also many snakes and lizards, over 500 bird species, and 131 fish species.

Large parts of Zimbabwe were once covered by forests with abundant wildlife. [[Deforestation]] and [[poaching]] has reduced the amount of wildlife. [[land degradation|Woodland degradation]] and deforestation caused by [[population growth]], [[Urban sprawl|urban expansion]] and use for fuel are major concerns<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0167-8809(99)00156-5|title=Deforestation of woodlands in communal areas of Zimbabwe: is it due to agricultural policies?|year=2000|last1=Chipika|first1=J|journal=Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment|volume=79|page=175|last2=Kowero|first2=G.|issue=2–3|bibcode=2000AgEE...79..175C }}</ref> and have led to erosion which diminishes the amount of fertile soil. Local farmers have been criticised by environmentalists for burning off vegetation to heat their tobacco barns.<ref name="Forestry">{{cite web|url=http://www.newsdzezimbabwe.co.uk/2015/03/chaos-as-tobacco-sales-start.html|title=Chaos as tobacco sales start|publisher=NewsdezeZimbabwe|access-date=21 March 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927163223/http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013 |archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref> 

== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Zimbabwe|Elections in Zimbabwe|Foreign relations of Zimbabwe}}
[[File:New Parliament of Zimbabwe August 2024.jpg|thumb|The [[New Zimbabwe Parliament Building]] in [[Mount Hampden|Mount Hampden, Harare]]]]
Zimbabwe is a republic with a [[presidential system]] of government. The [[semi-presidential system]] was abolished with the adoption of a new constitution after [[2013 Zimbabwean constitutional referendum|a referendum in 2013]]. Under the constitutional changes in 2005, an [[Upper house|upper chamber]], the [[Senate of Zimbabwe|Senate]], was reinstated.<ref name="reinstated">{{Cite web|url=http://www.kubatana.net/html/archive/legisl/050916czamd17ac.asp?sector=LEGISL |title=Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No. 17) Act, 2005 |date=16 September 2005 |website=kubatana.net |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927233356/http://www.kubatana.net/html/archive/legisl/050916czamd17ac.asp?sector=LEGISL |archive-date=27 September 2007 |url-status=dead |publisher=NGO Network Alliance Project}}</ref> The [[National Assembly of Zimbabwe|House of Assembly]] is the [[Lower house|lower chamber]] of Parliament.

In 1987, Mugabe revised the constitution, abolishing the [[Parliamentary republic|ceremonial presidency]] and the prime ministerial posts to form an executive president—a presidential system. His ZANU-PF party has won every election since independence—in the 1990 election, the second-placed party, [[Edgar Tekere]]'s Zimbabwe Unity Movement (ZUM), obtained 20% of the vote.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newzimbabwe.com/pages/review27.15680.html|title=Tekere says Mugabe 'insecure' in new book|access-date=6 January 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227185709/http://www.newzimbabwe.com/pages/review27.15680.html|archive-date=27 December 2007}}</ref><ref>Mugabe, Robert. (2007). ''Encyclopædia Britannica 2007 Ultimate Reference Suite'', Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica.<!--ISSN/ISBN needed, page(s) needed--></ref>

=== Politics ===
During the 1995 parliamentary elections, most opposition parties, including the ZUM, boycotted the voting, resulting in a near sweep by the ruling party.<ref name="Frankel">{{Cite web|last=Frankel |first=Matthew |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2010-may-26-la-oe-frankel-burma-20100526-story.html |title=Myanmar boycott is misguided |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223213933/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2010-may-26-la-oe-frankel-burma-20100526-story.html |archive-date=23 February 2021 |url-status=live |work=Los Angeles Times |date=26 May 2010}}</ref> When the opposition returned to the polls in 2000, they won 57 seats, only five fewer than ZANU-PF.<ref name="Frankel" /> [[2002 Zimbabwean presidential election|Presidential elections were again held in 2002]] amid allegations of vote-rigging, intimidation and fraud.<ref name="allegations">[https://web.archive.org/web/20140104021201/http://www.africa.upenn.edu/afrfocus/afrfocus041805.html Zimbabwe: Election Fraud Report, 04/18/05]. [[University of Pennsylvania]], 18 April 2005.</ref> The [[2005 Zimbabwean parliamentary election|2005 Zimbabwe parliamentary elections]] were held on 31 March, and multiple claims of vote rigging, election fraud and intimidation were made by the [[Movement for Democratic Change (1999–2005)|Movement for Democratic Change]] party and [[Jonathan Moyo]], calling for investigations into 32 of the 120 constituencies.<ref name="moyo">[http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=84&art_id=qw111061602454B251 "Mugabe's former ally accuses him of foul play"], ''Independent Online Zimbabwe'', 12 March 2005.</ref> Moyo participated in the elections despite the allegations and won a seat as an independent member of Parliament.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Makgetlaneng |first=Sehlare |title=ZIMBABWE'S 2005 PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS: Lessons for the Movement for Democratic Change |url=https://www.eisa.org/pdf/JAE4.2Makgetlaneng.pdf |journal=Africa Institute of South Africa |pages=124}}</ref>

[[File:Election campaign March 2005.jpg|thumb|Supporters of the [[Movement for Democratic Change (prior to 2005)|Movement for Democratic Change]] in 2005]]In 2005, the MDC split into two factions: the Movement for Democratic Change – Mutambara ([[MDC-M]]), led by [[Arthur Mutambara]] which contested the elections to the Senate, and the [[Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai]] (MDC-T) led by Morgan Tsvangirai which was opposed to contesting the elections, stating that participation in a rigged election is tantamount to endorsing Mugabe's claim that past elections were free and fair. The two MDC camps had their congresses in 2006, with Tsvangirai being elected to lead MDC-T, which became more popular than the other group.<ref name="findarticles1">{{cite news |author=Latham, Brian |date=4 March 2002 |title=Contrast in styles as contenders hold rallies in Harare townships |work=The Independent |location=UK |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1660337.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131229132808/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1660337.html |archive-date=29 December 2013}}</ref>

In the [[2008 Zimbabwean general election|2008 general election]], the official results required a run-off between Mugabe and Tsvangirai. The MDC-T challenged these results, claiming widespread election fraud by the Mugabe government.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/03/27/zimbabwe.election|title=Mugabe critics predict fraud in Zimbabwe elections|date=28 March 2008|publisher=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7322468.stm|title=Zimbabwe stands 'on a precipice'|work=BBC News|date=31 March 2008|access-date=6 June 2012}}</ref> The run-off was scheduled for 27 June 2008. On 22 June, citing the continuing unfairness of the process and refusing to participate in a "violent, illegitimate sham of an election process", Tsvangirai pulled out of the presidential run-off, the election commission held the run-off, and President Mugabe received a landslide majority.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7467990.stm|title=Mugabe rival quits election race|work=BBC News|date=22 June 2008}}</ref> The MDC-T did not participate in the Senate elections, while the MDC-M won five seats in the Senate. The MDC-M was weakened by defections from members of parliament and individuals who were disillusioned by their manifesto.<ref name="findarticles1"/> On 28 April 2008, Tsvangirai and Mutambara announced at a joint news conference in [[Johannesburg]] that the two MDC formations were co-operating, enabling the MDC to have a clear parliamentary majority.<ref name="SABCre">{{cite web|url=http://www.sabcnews.com/africa/southern_africa/0,2172,168544,00.html |title=Zimbabwe's MDC factions reunite |access-date=13 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080502155226/http://www.sabcnews.com/africa/southern_africa/0%2C2172%2C168544%2C00.html |archive-date= 2 May 2008 }}, SABC News, 28 April 2008.</ref><ref name="Reunites">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7371823.stm|title=Opposition reunites in Zimbabwe|work=BBC News|date=28 April 2008|access-date=6 June 2012}}</ref> Tsvangirai said that Mugabe could not remain president without a parliamentary majority.<ref name="Reunites" />

In mid-September 2008, after protracted negotiations overseen by the leaders of South Africa and Mozambique, Mugabe and Tsvangirai signed a power-sharing deal in which Mugabe retained control over the army. Donor nations adopted a 'wait-and-see' attitude, wanting to see real change being brought about by this merger before committing themselves to funding rebuilding efforts, which were estimated to take at least five years. On 11 February 2009, Tsvangirai was sworn in as prime minister by Mugabe.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Services|first=Msnbc com News|date=2009-02-11|title=Tsvangirai sworn in as Zimbabwe's PM|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna29134750|access-date=2020-07-10|website=msnbc.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Tsvangirai sworn in as Zimbabwe PM - CNN.com|url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/africa/02/11/zimbabwe/|access-date=2020-07-10|website=www.cnn.com}}</ref>

In November 2008, the government of Zimbabwe spent US$7.3 million donated by [[The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria]]. A representative of the organisation declined to speculate on how the money was spent, except that it was not for the intended purpose, and the government has failed to honour requests to return the money.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/03/world/africa/03zimbabwe.html?_r=1&oref=slogin|title=Aid Group Says Zimbabwe Misused $7.3 Million|work=The New York Times|date=3 November 2008|first=Celia W.|last=Dugger}}</ref>

The status of Zimbabwe politics has been thrown into question by a coup taking place in November 2017, ending Mugabe's 30-year presidential incumbency. Emmerson Mnangagwa was appointed president following this coup and was officially elected with 50.8% of the vote in the [[2018 Zimbabwean general election]], avoiding a run-off and making him the third president of Zimbabwe.

The government has received negative comments among its citizens for always shutting down the internet in the past amid protests such as the one planned on 31 July 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shiangala|first=Mike|date=2020-07-31|title=Zimbabwe to allegedly shutdown the Internet on 31st July|url=https://smattgeeksmedia.com/news/zimbabwe-to-allegedly-shutdown-the-internet-on-31st-july/|access-date=2020-07-31|website=Smatt Geeks Media|language=en-US|archive-date=10 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810180309/https://smattgeeksmedia.com/news/zimbabwe-to-allegedly-shutdown-the-internet-on-31st-july/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In July 2023, Zimbabwean President [[Emmerson Mnangagwa]] voiced support for the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite news |date=28 July 2023 |title=Zimbabwe and Uganda leaders meet with Russian President Putin |work=Africanews |url=https://www.africanews.com/2023/07/28/zimbabwe-and-uganda-leaders-meet-with-russian-president-putin/}}</ref>

===Armed forces===
{{Main|Zimbabwe Defence Forces}}
[[File:Flag of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces.svg|thumb|The flag of the [[Zimbabwe Defence Forces]]]]
The Zimbabwe Defence Forces were set up by unifying three insurrectionist forces – the [[Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army]] (ZANLA), the [[Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army]] (ZIPRA), and the Rhodesian Security Forces (RSF) – after the [[Second Chimurenga]] and Zimbabwean independence in 1980. The integration period saw the formation of the [[Zimbabwe National Army]] (ZNA) and [[Air Force of Zimbabwe]] (AFZ) as separate entities under the command of General [[Solomon Mujuru]] and Air Marshal [[Norman Walsh]], who retired in 1982 and was replaced by Air Marshal Azim Daudpota who handed over command to Air Chief Marshal [[Josiah Tungamirai]] in 1985. In 2003, General [[Constantine Chiwenga]], was promoted and appointed Commander of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces. Lieutenant General P. V. Sibanda replaced him as Commander of the Army.<ref name="minist">{{cite web|url=http://www.mod.gov.zw/zdf/zdf.htm |title=Zimbabwe Ministry of Defence|access-date=17 November 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071102151320/http://www.mod.gov.zw/zdf/zdf.htm|archive-date=2 November 2007}}</ref>

The ZNA has an active duty strength of 30,000. The Air Force has about 5,139 standing personnel.<ref name="Airforce of Zimbabwe">{{cite web|url=http://www.zimbabwedefence.com/AFZ0.html|title=Zimbabwe Defence Forces News|publisher=ZDF News|access-date=17 April 2009}}</ref> The [[Zimbabwe Republic Police]] (includes Police Support Unit, Paramilitary Police) is part of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces and numbers 25,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zimbabwejournalists.com/story.php?art_id=3364&cat=4|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080105170018/http://www.zimbabwejournalists.com/story.php?art_id=3364&cat=4|archive-date=5 January 2008|title=MILITARISATION OF ZIMBABWE: Does the opposition stand a chance?|author=Chari, Freeman Forward|publisher=zimbabwejournalists.com|url-status=usurped|date=24 December 2007}}</ref>

Following majority rule in early 1980, [[British Army]] trainers oversaw the integration of guerrilla fighters into a [[battalion]] structure overlaid on the existing Rhodesian armed forces. For the first year, a system was followed where the top-performing candidate became battalion commander. If he or she was from ZANLA, then his or her second-in-command was the top-performing ZIPRA candidate, and vice versa.<ref>{{cite book|first=Peter|last=Godwin|author-link=Peter Godwin (writer)|year=1996|title=Mukiwa – A White Boy in Africa|isbn=978-0-333-67150-4|publisher=Macmillan|location=London, UK}}</ref> This ensured a balance between the two movements in the command structure.

The ZNA was originally formed into four [[brigade]]s, composed of a total of 28 battalions. The brigade support units were composed almost entirely of specialists of the former Rhodesian Army, while unintegrated battalions of the [[Rhodesian African Rifles]] were assigned to the 1st, 3rd and 4th Brigades. The Fifth Brigade was formed in 1981 and disbanded in 1988 after the demonstration of mass brutality and murder during the brigade's occupation of Matabeleland in what became known as ''[[Gukurahundi]]''.<ref name="watch" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mod.gov.zw/army/zna.htm|title=Ministry of Defence, Zimbabwe|access-date=11 November 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071102184314/http://www.mod.gov.zw/army/zna.htm|archive-date=2 November 2007}}</ref> The brigade had been re-formed by 2006, with its commander, Brigadier General John Mupande praising its "rich history".<ref name="Herald Reporter">{{cite news|url=http://www.zimbabwedefence.com/News_5th_Gets_Comm.html|publisher=Zimbabwe Defence Forces News|title=5th Brigade gets new commander|date=22 February 2006|access-date=18 April 2009}}</ref>

===Human rights===
{{Main|Human rights in Zimbabwe}}
{{See also|Child marriage in Zimbabwe}}
[[File:Demonstration against Mugabe.JPG|thumb|right|A demonstration in [[London]] against [[Robert Mugabe]]. Protests are discouraged by Zimbabwean police in Zimbabwe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/12/03/2437229.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120530043902/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/12/03/2437229.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 May 2012|title=Police baton charge Harare protesters|date=3 December 2008|work=ABC News}}</ref>]]
There are widespread reports of systematic and escalating violations of human rights in Zimbabwe under the Mugabe administration and the dominant ZANU–PF party.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Howard-Hassmann|first=Rhoda E. | author-link = Rhoda E. Howard-Hassmann |date=24 November 2010|title=Mugabe's Zimbabwe, 2000–2009: Massive Human Rights Violations and the Failure to Protect|journal=Human Rights Quarterly|volume=32|issue=4|pages=898–920|doi=10.1353/hrq.2010.0030|s2cid=143046672|issn=1085-794X}}</ref> According to human rights organisations such as [[Amnesty International]]<ref name="AI">{{cite web|url=http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/zwe-summary-eng|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203015112/http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/zwe-summary-eng|archive-date=3 December 2007|title=Zimbabwe|access-date=2 December 2007|publisher=Amnesty International}}</ref> and [[Human Rights Watch]]<ref name="hrw">{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/englishwr2k7/docs/2007/01/11/zimbab14720.htm|title=Zimbabwe – Events of 2006|access-date=2 December 2007|publisher=Human Rights Watch|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011095246/http://hrw.org/englishwr2k7/docs/2007/01/11/zimbab14720.htm |archive-date=11 October 2007}}</ref> the government of Zimbabwe violates the rights to shelter, food, [[freedom of movement]] and residence, [[freedom of assembly]] and the [[rule of law|protection of the law]]. In 2009, [[Gregory Stanton]], president of the [[International Association of Genocide Scholars]], stated there was "clear evidence that Mugabe government was guilty of crimes against humanity and that there was sufficient evidence of crimes against humanity to bring Mugabe to trial in front of the [[International Criminal Court]]."<ref>Howard-Hassmann 2010, p.&nbsp;909</ref>

Male [[homosexuality]] is [[LGBT rights in Zimbabwe|illegal in Zimbabwe]]. From 1995, the government [[LGBT rights opposition|carried out campaigns]] against both homosexual men and women.<ref>{{cite web|title=State Sponsored Homophobia 2016: A world survey of sexual orientation laws: criminalisation, protection and recognition|url=http://ilga.org/downloads/02_ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2016_ENG_WEB_150516.pdf|work=[[International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association]]|date=17 May 2016|access-date=17 April 2018|archive-date=2 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902183618/http://ilga.org/downloads/02_ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2016_ENG_WEB_150516.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> President Mugabe blamed gays for many of Zimbabwe's problems and viewed homosexuality as an "un-African" and immoral culture brought by European colonists and practised by only "a few whites" in his country.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/523162.stm|title=BBC News – Africa – Zimbabwe gay rights face dim future|website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref>

Opposition gatherings are frequently the subject of reprisals by the police force, such as the crackdown on an 11 March 2007 MDC rally and several others during the 2008 election campaign.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/news/article.cfm?c_id=2&objectid=10517688|title=Zimbabwe election violence spreads to Harare|access-date=7 December 2008|work=The New Zealand Herald|first=Raymond|last=Whitaker|date=22 June 2008}}</ref> Police actions have been strongly condemned by the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|UN Secretary-General]] [[Ban Ki-moon]], the European Union, and the United States.<ref name="bbc_Morgan">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6449691.stm|title=Unbowed Tsvangirai urges defiance|access-date=2 December 2007|date=14 March 2007|publisher=BBC}}</ref> There are also concerns over Fox Southwest media rights and access. The Zimbabwean government is accused of suppressing freedom of the press and freedom of speech.<ref name="AI" /> It has been repeatedly accused of using the public broadcaster, the [[Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation]], as a propaganda tool.<ref name="propaganda">[http://www.pressreference.com/Uz-Z/Zimbabwe.html Zimbabwe Press, Media, TV, Radio, Newspapers] ''Press Reference'', 2006.</ref> Newspapers critical of the government, such as the ''[[Daily News (Harare)|Daily News]]'', closed after bombs exploded at their offices and the government refused to renew their licence.<ref name="bombs">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1141168.stm|title=Zimbabwe newspaper bombed|work=BBC News|date=28 January 2001|access-date=6 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="license">{{cite news|last=Wines|first=Michael|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C05E0DB1E3BF934A35751C0A9629C8B63|title=Zimbabwe: Newspaper Silenced|work=The New York Times|date=7 February 2004|access-date=6 June 2012}}</ref> [[BBC News]], [[Sky News]], and [[CNN]] were banned from filming or reporting from Zimbabwe. In 2009, reporting restrictions on the BBC and CNN were lifted.<ref name="Telegraph">[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/zimbabwe/5935043/Zimbabwe-lifts-reporting-ban-on-BBC-and-CNN-after-eight-years.html "Zimbabwe lifts reporting ban on BBC and CNN"], ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'', 30 July 2009.</ref> Sky News continues to report on happenings within Zimbabwe from neighbouring countries like South Africa.<ref name="networks">{{cite news|author=Nkosi, Milton|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/newswatch/ukfs/hi/newsid_4400000/newsid_4401700/4401767.stm|title=Why did Zimbabwe ban the BBC?|work=BBC News|date=1 April 2005|access-date=6 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://zimbabwemetro.com/2008/06/22/al-jazeera-kicked-out-of-zimbabwe |archive-url=https://archive.today/20080623173259/http://zimbabwemetro.com/2008/06/22/al-jazeera-kicked-out-of-zimbabwe |archive-date=23 June 2008 |title=Al Jazeera kicked out of Zimbabwe |url-status=dead |access-date=1 June 2016 }}, zimbabwemetro.com, 22 June 2008.</ref>

On 24 July 2020, the [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] (OHCHR) expressed concerns over allegations suggesting that Zimbabwean authorities may have used the [[COVID-19 pandemic|COVID-19]] crisis as a pretext to suppress freedom of expression and peaceful assembly on the streets. OHCHR spokesperson Liz Throssell stated that people have a right to protest corruption or anything else. The authorities in Zimbabwe used force to disperse and arrest nurses and health workers, who were peacefully protesting for better salaries and work conditions. The reports suggest that a few members of opposition party and investigative journalists were also arbitrarily arrested and detained for taking part in a protest.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/07/1069011|title=Zimbabwe: COVID-19 must not be used to stifle freedoms, says UN rights office|access-date=24 July 2020|website=UN News|date=24 July 2020}}</ref>

On 5 August 2020, the #ZimbabweanLivesMatter campaign on [[Twitter]] drew attention of international celebrities and politicians towards human rights abuses in the country, mounting pressure on Emmerson Mnangagwa's government. The campaign was in response to arrests, abductions and torture of political activists and the incarceration of journalist [[Hopewell Chin'ono]] and the [[Booker Prize]] shortlisted author [[Tsitsi Dangarembga]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/aug/05/zimbabweanlivesmatter-celebrities-join-campaign-against-human-rights-abuses|title=#ZimbabweanLivesMatter: celebrities join campaign against human rights abuses|access-date=5 August 2020|website=The Guardian|date=5 August 2020}}</ref>

===Administrative divisions===
{{Main|Provinces of Zimbabwe|Districts of Zimbabwe|Wards of Zimbabwe}}
[[File:Administrative Divisions of Zimbabwe.svg|upright=1.35|thumb|right|[[Provinces of Zimbabwe|Administrative divisions of Zimbabwe]]]]
Zimbabwe has a [[Centralized government|centralised government]] and is divided into eight provinces and two cities with provincial status, for administrative purposes. Each province has a provincial capital from where government administration is usually carried out.<ref name="CIA-WF"/>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! Province !! Capital
|-
| [[Bulawayo]] || [[Bulawayo]]
|-
| [[Harare]] || [[Harare]]
|-
| [[Manicaland]] || [[Mutare]]
|-
| [[Mashonaland Central]] || [[Bindura]]
|-
| [[Mashonaland East]] || [[Marondera]]
|-
| [[Mashonaland West]] || [[Chinhoyi]]
|-
| [[Masvingo Province|Masvingo]] || [[Masvingo|Masvingo city]]
|-
| [[Matabeleland North]] || [[Lupane District]]
|-
| [[Matabeleland South]] || [[Gwanda]]
|-
| [[Midlands Province|Midlands]] || [[Gweru]]
|}

The names of most of the provinces were generated from the Mashonaland and Matabeleland divide at the time of colonisation: Mashonaland was the territory occupied first by the British South Africa Company Pioneer Column and Matabeleland the territory conquered during the First Matabele War. This corresponds roughly to the precolonial territory of the Shona people and the Matabele people, although there are significant ethnic minorities in most provinces. Each province is headed by a provincial governor, appointed by the president.<ref name="constitution">{{cite web|url=http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/cms/UsefulResourses/ZimbabweConstitution.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221053703/http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/cms/UsefulResourses/ZimbabweConstitution.pdf|archive-date=21 December 2008|title=Constitution of the Republic of Zimbabwe|publisher=Parliament of Zimbabwe|access-date=19 December 2008}}</ref> The provincial government is run by a provincial administrator, appointed by the Public Service Commission. Other government functions at provincial level are carried out by provincial offices of national government departments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/attachments/article/116/PROVINCIAL_COUNCILS_AND_ADMINISTRATION_ACT_29_11.pdf|title=Provincial Councils and Administration Act (Chapter 29:11)|publisher=Parliament of Zimbabwe|access-date=19 December 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227155122/http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/attachments/article/116/PROVINCIAL_COUNCILS_AND_ADMINISTRATION_ACT_29_11.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2013}}</ref>

The provinces are subdivided into 59 [[Districts of Zimbabwe|districts]] and 1,200 [[List of wards of Zimbabwe|wards]] (sometimes referred to as municipalities). Each district is headed by a district administrator, appointed by the Public Service Commission. There is also a Rural District Council, which appoints a chief executive officer. The Rural District Council is composed of elected ward councillors, the district administrator, and one representative of the chiefs (traditional leaders appointed under customary law) in the district. Other government functions at district level are carried out by district offices of national government departments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/attachments/article/116/RURAL_DISTRICT_COUNCILS_ACT_29_13.pdf|title=Rural District Councils Act (Chapter 29:13)|publisher=Parliament of Zimbabwe|access-date=19 December 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227145728/http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/attachments/article/116/RURAL_DISTRICT_COUNCILS_ACT_29_13.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2013}}</ref>

At the ward level, there is a Ward Development Committee, comprising the elected ward councillor, the kraalheads (traditional leaders subordinate to chiefs) and representatives of Village Development Committees. Wards are subdivided into villages, each of which has an elected Village Development Committee and a headman (traditional leader subordinate to the kraalhead).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/attachments/article/116/TRADITIONAL_LEADERS_ACT_29_17.pdf|title=Traditional Leaders Act (Chapter 29:17)|publisher=Parliament of Zimbabwe|access-date=19 December 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904033010/http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/attachments/article/116/TRADITIONAL_LEADERS_ACT_29_17.pdf|archive-date=4 September 2015}}</ref>

=== Sanctions ===
Since the early 2000s, Zimbabwe has been under sanctions imposed by the United States and the European Union that have shaped Zimbabwe's domestic politics as well as the country's relations with the [[Western world|Western nations]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ndakaripa|first=Musiwaro|date=2021-04-03|title=Zimbabwe's Economic Meltdown: Are Sanctions Really to Blame?|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/0163660X.2021.1934997|journal=The Washington Quarterly|volume=44|issue=2|pages=95–120|doi=10.1080/0163660X.2021.1934997|s2cid=235465633|issn=0163-660X|url-access=subscription}}</ref> In 2002, Zimbabwe held general elections and ahead of that election the EU sent observers, but the election observer team was forced to leave the country. In February 2002, the EU placed targeted or restrictive measures on Zimbabwe. At least 20 government officials were banned from entering Europe, and EU funding was halted. Prior to the elections, there was $128 million that was budgeted for the Zimbabwean government from 2002 to 2007, this was cancelled. Nevertheless, the EU only stopped funding the government directly but it continued sending money only through aid agencies and NGOs.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Zimbabwe: Background|url=https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RL32723.html|access-date=2021-11-14|website=www.everycrsreport.com|language=en}}</ref>

After some years, the EU and Zimbabwe resolved some of their disputes and a lot of the EU sanctions were removed. Only Mugabe and his wife remained on the list while other government officials were removed. However, the EU still did not give Zimbabwe money. The government channels money through NGOs as it was seen on 4 March 2019 – 21 March 2019 [[Cyclone Idai]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-03-18|title=Cyclones Idai and Kenneth|url=https://www.unocha.org/southern-and-eastern-africa-rosea/cyclones-idai-and-kenneth|access-date=2021-11-14|website=OCHA|language=en|archive-date=5 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191205181317/https://www.unocha.org/southern-and-eastern-africa-rosea/cyclones-idai-and-kenneth|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The United States also imposed sanctions on Zimbabwe. There are two types of U.S. sanctions on Zimbabwe. The first one is [[Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001|Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act]] (ZIDERA) and the second one is the Targeted Sanctions Program. ZIDERA made several demands, the first one was that Zimbabwe must respect human rights, second Zimbabwe must stop its interference in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], third Zimbabwe must stop the [[expropriation]] of white farms. If none of these demands were met, the U.S. would block the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] and the [[World Bank]] from lending money to Zimbabwe.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|title=Zimbabwe|url=https://www.europeansanctions.com/region/zimbabwe/|access-date=2021-11-14|website=EU Sanctions|language=en-GB|archive-date=14 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114154003/https://www.europeansanctions.com/region/zimbabwe/|url-status=dead}}</ref> A new ZIDERA came into effect in 2018 with the motto: "Restore Democracy or there won't be any friendship, there must be free elections, free media and human rights, Zimbabwe must enforce the ruling of the [[SADC Tribunal]]". The Targeted Sanctions Program was implemented in 2003, which lists Zimbabwean companies and people who are not allowed to deal with U.S. companies. The sanctions on Zimbabwe have been in place for more than two decades. In March 2021, the U.S. renewed its sanctions on Zimbabwe.<ref name=":11" />

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Zimbabwe}}{{Update|part=section|date=July 2022}}[[File:GDP per capita development in Southern Africa.svg|thumb|Historical GDP per capita development in southern African countries, since 1950]]
The main foreign exports of Zimbabwe are minerals, gold,<ref name="Baughan, M. 2005" /> and agriculture. Zimbabwe is crossed by two trans-African automobile routes: the [[Cairo-Cape Town Highway]] and the [[Beira-Lobito Highway]]. Zimbabwe is the largest trading partner of South Africa on the continent.<ref name="AN_economy">{{cite news|url=http://www.africanews.com/site/list_messages/12598|title=Zimbabwe-South Africa economic relations since 2000|access-date=3 December 2007|date=31 October 2007|publisher=Africa News|quote=Zimbabwe remains South Africa's most important trading partner in Africa.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080101093932/http://www.africanews.com/site/list_messages/12598|archive-date=1 January 2008}}</ref> Taxes and tariffs are high for private enterprises, while state enterprises are strongly subsidised. State regulation is costly to companies; starting or closing a business is slow and expensive.<ref name="Heritage: Zimbabwe">{{cite web|url=http://www.heritage.org/index/Country/Zimbabwe|title=Zimbabwe Economy: Facts, Data, & Analysis on Economic Freedom|publisher=Heritage.org|date=12 January 2012|access-date=6 June 2012|archive-date=25 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525024023/http://www.heritage.org/index/Country/Zimbabwe|url-status=unfit}}</ref> Tourism also plays a key role in the economy<ref name="FA_Canada">{{cite web |title=Country Profile – Zimbabwe |url=http://infoexport.gc.ca/ie-en/DisplayDocument.jsp?did=1589 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226160722/http://infoexport.gc.ca/ie-en/DisplayDocument.jsp?did=1589 |archive-date=26 February 2008 |access-date=2 December 2007 |publisher=Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada |quote=Since the country is well endowed with natural resources such as minerals, [[arable land]] and [[wildlife]], many opportunities lie in resource-based activities such as mining, agriculture and tourism and their downstream industrial activities.}}</ref> but has been failing in recent years. The Zimbabwe Conservation Task Force released a report in June 2007, estimating that 60% of Zimbabwe's wildlife had died since 2000 as a result of poaching and deforestation. The report warns that the loss of life combined with widespread deforestation is potentially disastrous for the tourism industry.<ref>{{cite news|title=Zimbabwe's Wildlife Decimated by Economic Crisis|author=Wadhams, Nick|location=Nairobi|publisher=[[National Geographic News]]|date=1 August 2007|access-date=5 August 2007|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/08/070801-zimbabwe-animals.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070921042809/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/08/070801-zimbabwe-animals.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 September 2007}}</ref> The [[information and communications technology]] sector has been growing at a fast pace. A report by the mobile web browser company Opera in 2011 ranked Zimbabwe as Africa's fastest growing market.<ref>[http://www.biztechafrica.com/article/zimbabwe-ranked-fastest-growing-internet-market/1007/ Zimbabwe Ranked Fastest growing Internet Market] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225071548/https://www.biztechafrica.com/article/zimbabwe-ranked-fastest-growing-internet-market/1007/ |date=25 December 2019 }}. Biztechafrica.com (10 August 2011); retrieved 4 July 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.biztechafrica.com/article/why-ict-critical-illiterate-africa/4841/ Why ICT is critical in 'illiterate' Africa|BiztechAfrica Business, Telecom, Technology & IT News Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200116235301/https://www.biztechafrica.com/article/why-ict-critical-illiterate-africa/4841/ |date=16 January 2020 }}. Biztechafrica.com (3 December 2012); retrieved 4 July 2013.</ref>[[File:2010 market Harare Zimbabwe 5866074969.jpg|thumb|A market in [[Mbare, Harare]]]]
Since January 2002, the government has had its lines of credit at international financial institutions frozen, through U.S. legislation called the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001 (ZDERA). Section 4C instructs the secretary of the treasury to direct international financial institutions to veto the extension of loans and credit to the Zimbabwean government.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.govtrack.us/congress/billtext.xpd?bill=s107-494&version=enr&nid=t0%3Aenr%3A30|title=Zimbabwe Democracy And Economic Recovery Act of 2001 at Govtrack.us News|date=18 October 2011|access-date=18 October 2011|archive-date=6 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106021634/http://www.govtrack.us/congress/billtext.xpd?bill=s107-494&version=enr&nid=t0%3Aenr%3A30|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to the United States, these sanctions target only seven specific businesses owned or controlled by government officials and not ordinary citizens.<ref>{{cite press release|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2004/30091.htm|title=Zimbabwe: Sanctions Enhancement|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|date=2 March 2004|author=Boucher, Richard}}</ref>

[[File:GDP per capita (current), % of world average, 1960-2012; Zimbabwe, South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Mozambique.png|thumb|upright=1.6|The GDP per capita (current), compared to neighbouring countries (world average = 100)]]
Zimbabwe maintained positive economic growth throughout the 1980s (5% GDP growth per year) and 1990s (4.3% GDP growth per year). The economy declined from 2000: 5% decline in 2000, 8% in 2001, 12% in 2002 and 18% in 2003.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.cato.org/pubs/journal/cj25n3/cj25n3-12.pdf|title=The loss of property rights and the collapse of Zimbabwe|journal=Cato Journal|author=Richardson, Craig J.|volume=25|pages=541–565|access-date=10 November 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102064633/http://www.cato.org/pubs/journal/cj25n3/cj25n3-12.pdf|archive-date=2 January 2011}}</ref> Zimbabwe's involvement from 1998 to 2002 in the war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo drained hundreds of millions of dollars from the economy.<ref name="drained">{{cite web|url=http://www.hrforumzim.com/reports/tort990003/torture990003b.htm |title=Organised Violence and Torture in Zimbabwe in 1999 |access-date=16 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602193428/http://www.hrforumzim.com/reports/tort990003/torture990003b.htm |archive-date=2 June 2010 |website=Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum}}</ref> From 1999 to 2009, Zimbabwe saw the lowest ever economic growth with an annual GDP decrease of 6.1%.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Guinness Book of Records 2014|last=Glenday|first=Craig|year=2013|isbn=9781908843159|page=[https://archive.org/details/guinnessworldrec0000unse_r3e7/page/123 123]|publisher=Guinness World Records Limited |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessworldrec0000unse_r3e7/page/123}}</ref> The downward spiral of the economy has been attributed mainly to mismanagement and corruption by the government and the eviction of more than 4,000 white farmers in the controversial land confiscations of 2000.<ref name="CNN-2000-04-18">{{cite web|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/africa/04/18/zimbabwe.land.03 |title=Zimbabwe President Mugabe labels white farmers 'enemies' |access-date=20 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060629014621/http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/africa/04/18/zimbabwe.land.03 |archive-date=29 June 2006 |website=CNN.com |date=18 April 2000 |location=Harare, Zimbabwe}}</ref><ref name="Time-2002-02-18">Robinson, Simon (18 February 2002). [https://archive.today/20120629063531/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,203620,00.html "A Tale of Two Countries"], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''; accessed 4 May 2016.</ref><ref name="BBC-2002-08-15">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2192947.stm|title=White farmers under siege in Zimbabwe|work=BBC News|date=15 August 2002|access-date=6 June 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106120323/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2192947.stm |archive-date=6 January 2012}}</ref> The Zimbabwean government and its supporters attest that it was Western policies to avenge the expulsion of their kin that sabotaged the economy.<ref>[http://news.sky.com/story/265649/mugabe-interview-the-full-transcript Mugabe Interview: The Full Transcript], News.sky.com (24 May 2004); retrieved 4 July 2013.</ref>

By 2005, the purchasing power of the average Zimbabwean had dropped to the same levels in real terms as 1953.<ref>{{cite report|author=Clemens, Michael|author2=Moss, Todd|date=20 July 2005|access-date=4 April 2011|title=Costs and Causes of Zimbabwe's Crisis|url=http://www.cgdev.org/content/publications/detail/2918|publisher=[[Center for Global Development]]|archive-date=4 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504082241/http://www.cgdev.org/content/publications/detail/2918/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2005, the government, led by central bank governor [[Gideon Gono]], started making overtures that white farmers could come back. There were 400 to 500 still left in the country, but much of the land that had been confiscated was no longer productive.<ref name="Meldrum-2005-05-21">{{cite news|last=Meldrum|first=Andrew|url=https://www.theguardian.com/zimbabwe/article/0,2763,1489173,00.html|title=As country heads for disaster, Zimbabwe calls for return of white farmers|work=The Guardian|location=London, UK|date=21 May 2005|access-date=4 April 2011}}</ref> By 2016, there remained about 300 of the original 4,500 farms owned by white farmers. The farms that left were either too remote or their owners had paid for protection or collaborated with the regime.<ref name="Out of House" /> In January 2007, the government issued long-term leases to some white farmers.<ref name="Timberg-WP-2007-01-06">{{cite news|last=Timberg|first=Craig|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/05/AR2007010501746_pf.html|title=White Farmers Given Leases in Zimbabwe|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=6 January 2007|access-date=4 April 2011}}</ref> At the same time, however, the government also continued to demand that all remaining white farmers, who were given eviction notices earlier, vacate the land or risk being arrested.<ref name="AP/WP-2007-02-05">{{cite news|agency=[[Associated Press]] |newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/05/AR2007020501262_pf.html|title=Zimbabwe threatens white farmers|date=5 February 2007|access-date=4 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="Chinaka-2007-08-08">{{cite news|last=Chinaka|first=Cris|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSL0839141020070808|title=Zimbabwe threatens white farmers on evictions|work=[[Reuters]]|date=8 August 2007|access-date=4 April 2011}}</ref> Mugabe pointed to foreign governments and alleged "sabotage" as the cause of the fall of the Zimbabwean economy, as well as the country's 80% formal unemployment rate.<ref name="unemployment">{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/world/africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9475943|title=How to stay alive when it all runs out|newspaper=The Economist|date=12 July 2007|access-date=6 June 2012}}</ref>

Inflation rose from an annual rate of 32% in 1998, to an estimated high of 11,200,000% in August 2008 according to the Central Statistical Office.<ref name="Zimbabwe inflation at 11,200,000">{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/BUSINESS/08/19/zimbabwe.inflation/index.html|title=Zimbabwe inflation hits 11,200,000 percent|date=19 August 2008|publisher=CNN|access-date=4 May 2016}}</ref> This represented a state of [[Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe|hyperinflation]], and the central bank introduced a new 100 trillion dollar note.<ref>{{cite news|agency=[[CNN]]|url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/africa/01/16/zimbawe.currency/|title=Zimbabwe to print first $100 trillion note|date=16 January 2009|access-date=1 June 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927163223/http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013 |archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref> In January 2009, in an effort to counteract runaway inflation, acting Finance Minister [[Patrick Chinamasa]] announced that Zimbabweans would be permitted to use other, more stable currencies to do business, alongside the [[Zimbabwean dollar]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7859033.stm|title=Zimbabwe abandons its currency|work=BBC News|date=29 January 2009|access-date=4 April 2011}}</ref> In an effort to combat inflation and foster economic growth, the Zimbabwean dollar was suspended indefinitely in April 2009.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/a-13-2009-04-12-voa9-69816747/367559.html|title=Zimbabwe Suspends Use of Own Currency|publisher=VOA News|date=12 April 2009}}</ref> In 2016, Zimbabwe allowed trade in the [[United States dollar]] and various other currencies such as the [[South African rand|rand]] (South Africa), the [[Botswana pula|pula]] (Botswana), the [[euro]], and the [[pound sterling]] (UK).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://money.cnn.com/2016/02/29/news/zimbabwe-currency/index.html|title=This country has nine currencies|last=Giokos|first=Eleni|date=29 February 2016|website=CNNMoney|access-date=8 January 2017}}</ref> In February 2019, [[Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe]] Governor [[John Mangudya]] introduced a new local currency, the [[Real Time Gross Settlement dollar]], in a move to address some of the Zimbabwean economic and financial challenges.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thezimbabwemail.com/banking/rbz-introduces-rtgs-dollars/|title=RBZ introduces 'RTGS Dollars'|author=Staff Reporter|date=20 February 2019|website=The Zimbabwe Mail|language=en-US|access-date=20 May 2019|archive-date=6 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506102845/https://www.thezimbabwemail.com/banking/rbz-introduces-rtgs-dollars/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

After the formation of the Unity Government and the adoption of several currencies instead of the Zimbabwe dollar in 2009, the Zimbabwean economy rebounded. GDP grew by 8–9% per year between 2009 and 2012.<ref name="Worldbank">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/zimbabwe/overview|title=Zimbabwe Overview|date=4 October 2016|website=The World Bank|publisher=World Bank Group|access-date=8 January 2017}}</ref> In November 2010, the [[International Monetary Fund]] described the Zimbabwean economy as "completing its second year of buoyant economic growth".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE6A70C320101108|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101111042949/http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE6A70C320101108|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 November 2010|title=Zimbabwe economy buoyant, more reform needed: IMF|date=8 November 2010|work=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.talkzimbabwe.com/zimbabwe-economy-growing-imf-cms-884|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101112194941/http://www.talkzimbabwe.com/zimbabwe-economy-growing-imf-cms-884|archive-date=12 November 2010|publisher=talkzimbabwe.co|title=Zimbabwe economy growing: IMF|date=9 November 2010}}</ref> The pan-African investment bank IMARA released a favourable report in February 2011 on investment prospects in Zimbabwe, citing an improved revenue base and higher tax receipts.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://ir.imarainvestor.com/profiles/investor/ResLibraryView.asp?ResLibraryID=43595&GoTopage=1&Category=1211&BzID=1648 |title=IMARA: Global investors get upbeat briefing on Zim prospects |date=17 February 2011 |access-date=4 April 2011 |publisher=[[IMARA]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511103601/http://ir.imarainvestor.com/profiles/investor/ResLibraryView.asp?ResLibraryID=43595&GoTopage=1&Category=1211&BzID=1648 |archive-date=11 May 2011}}</ref> In January 2013, the finance ministry reported that they had only $217 in their treasury and would apply for donations to finance the coming elections.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nyathi |first=Kitsepile |date=30 January 2013 |title=Zimbabwe has only $217 in the bank, says finance minister |url=http://www.africareview.com/News/Zimbabwe-finance-coffers-are-empty/-/979180/1679520/-/kghs8a/-/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222091904/http://www.africareview.com/News/Zimbabwe-finance-coffers-are-empty/-/979180/1679520/-/kghs8a/-/index.html |archive-date=22 December 2019 |website=AfricaReview.com |publisher=[[Nation Media Group]]}}</ref> By 2014, Zimbabwe had recovered to levels seen in the 1990s<ref name="Worldbank" /> but growth faltered between 2012 and 2016.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.chathamhouse.org/publication/domestic-and-external-implications-zimbabwes-economic-reform-and-re-engagement-agenda|title=The Domestic and External Implications of Zimbabwe's Economic Reform and Re-engagement Agenda|last1=Chitiyo|first1=Knox|last2=Vines|first2=Alex|date=September 2016|website=Chatham House|publisher=Royal Institute for International Affairs|access-date=8 January 2017|last3=Vandome|first3=Christopher}}</ref> Inflation was 42% in 2018; in June 2019, the inflation rate reached 175%, leading to mass unrest across the country.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Marima |first1=Tendai |date=19 August 2019 |title=In Zimbabwe, An Economic Crisis With 175% Inflation Drives Discontent |language=en |website=NPR.org |url=https://www.npr.org/2019/08/19/752329758/in-zimbabwe-an-economic-crisis-with-175-inflation-drives-discontent |access-date=20 August 2019}}</ref>

=== Minerals ===
{{Main|Mining industry of Zimbabwe}}
The mining sector is lucrative, with some of the world's largest [[platinum]] reserves being mined by [[Anglo American plc]], Zimplats, and Impala Platinum.<ref name="nofix" /> Zimplats, the nation's largest platinum company, has proceeded with US$500&nbsp;million in expansions, and is also continuing a separate US$2 billion project, despite threats by Mugabe to nationalise the company.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dube |first=Jennifer |date=3 April 2011 |title=Zimplats ignores seizure threat |newspaper=The Standard |location=Harare, Zimbabwe |url=http://www.thestandard.co.zw/business/29142-zimplats-ignores-seizure-threat.html |access-date=4 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511145956/http://www.thestandard.co.zw/business/29142-zimplats-ignores-seizure-threat.html |archive-date=11 May 2011}}</ref>

The [[Marange diamond fields]], discovered in 2006, are considered the biggest diamond find in over a century.<ref name="EarthTimes">[http://www.iol.co.za/news/africa/diamond-company-in-trouble-with-harare-mps-1.472176#.U_aWGSimH-E "Diamond company in trouble with Harare MPs"], ''Independent Online'', South Africa, 2 February 2010.</ref> They have the potential to improve the fiscal situation of the country considerably, but almost all revenues from the field have disappeared into the pockets of army officers and ZANU–PF politicians.<ref>{{cite web |date=26 June 2009 |title=Diamonds in the rough, report by Human Rights Watch |url=https://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2009/06/26/diamonds-rough |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908020850/http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2009/06/26/diamonds-rough |archive-date=8 September 2012 |access-date=6 June 2012 |publisher=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> In terms of carats produced, the Marange field is one of the largest diamond-producing projects in the world,<ref name="Kitco">[http://www.kitco.com/ind/Zimnisky/2013-08-20-Ranking-Of-The-World-s-Diamond-Mines-By-Estimated-2013-Production.html "Ranking Of The World's Diamond Mines By Estimated 2013 Production"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053511/http://www.kitco.com/ind/Zimnisky/2013-08-20-Ranking-Of-The-World-s-Diamond-Mines-By-Estimated-2013-Production.html|date=21 September 2013}}, ''[[Kitco]]'', 20 August 2013.</ref> estimated to have produced 12&nbsp;million carats in 2014 worth over $350&nbsp;million.<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 May 2015 |title=Zimbabwe diamond exports fell 34 pct in 2014: official |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFKBN0NZ0I420150514 |url-status=dead |access-date=11 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150517050109/http://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFKBN0NZ0I420150514 |archive-date=17 May 2015}}</ref>

{{As of|2014|10}}, [[Metallon Corporation]] was Zimbabwe's largest gold miner.<ref name="Metallon">Marawanyika, Godfrey, [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-10-17/biggest-zimbabwe-gold-miner-to-decide-on-london-listing-by-march Biggest Zimbabwe Gold Miner to Rule on London Trade by March], Bloomberg News, 17 October 2014. Retrieved 3 August 2016.</ref> In 2015, Zimbabwe's  gold production is 20 metric tonnes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gold production |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gold-production?tab=table |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129233804/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gold-production?tab=table |archive-date=29 November 2023 |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=Our World in Data |url-status=live }}</ref> 
{{Further|topic=tin from the|Kamativi mine}}

===Agriculture===
[[File:Shona farms Zimbabwe.jpg|thumb|[[Shona people|Shona]] farms in Zimbabwe]]
{{Main|Agriculture in Zimbabwe}}
Zimbabwe's commercial farming sector was traditionally a source of exports and foreign exchange and provided 400,000 jobs. However, the government's land reform program badly damaged the sector, turning Zimbabwe into a net importer of food products.<ref name="CIA-WF"/> For example, between 2000 and 2016, annual wheat production fell from 250,000 tons to 60,000 tons, maize was reduced from two million tons to 500,000 tons and cattle slaughtered for beef fell from 605,000 head to 244,000 head.<ref name="Out of House" /> Coffee production, once a prized export commodity, came to a virtual halt after seizure or expropriation of white-owned coffee farms in 2000 and has never recovered.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://newsofthesouth.com/zimbabwes-coffee-production-declines/ |title=Zimbabwe's Coffee Production Declines |last=Mumera |first=Wisdom |date=9 January 2016 |website=newsofhesouth.com}}</ref>

For the past ten years, the [[International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics]] has been assisting Zimbabwe's farmers to adopt [[conservation agriculture]] techniques, a sustainable method of farming that can help increase yields. By applying the three principles of minimum soil disturbance, legume-based cropping and the use of organic mulch, farmers can improve infiltration, reduce evaporation and soil erosion, and build up organic soil content.<ref>{{Cite web|title={{!}}{{!}} ICRISAT {{!}}{{!}} Impact|url=http://www.icrisat.org/impacts/impact-stories/Icrisat-impacts-27.htm|access-date=2022-02-23|website=www.icrisat.org|archive-date=23 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223030349/http://www.icrisat.org/impacts/impact-stories/Icrisat-impacts-27.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Between 2005 and 2011, the number of smallholders practicing conservation agriculture in Zimbabwe increased from 5,000 to more than 150,000. Cereal yields rose between 15 and 100 per cent across different regions.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130916133602/http://eiard.org/media/uploads/File/Case%20studies/2013_SDC%20funded/ICRISAT%20-%20Conservation%20agriculture%20and%20micro-dosing%20in%20Zimbabwe.pdf ''Conservation agriculture and microdosing in Zimbabwe''], WRENmedia, January 2013</ref> The government declared potato a national strategic food security crop in 2012.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=University|first1=Wageningen|last2=form|first2=Research Contact|date=2015-10-23|title=Agronomic and environmental studies of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) and analysis of its value chain in Zimbabwe|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/activity/Agronomic-and-environmental-studies-of-potato-Solanum-tuberosum-L.-and-analysis-of-its-value-chain-in-Zimbabwe-1.htm|access-date=2020-12-17|website=WUR|language=en-us|archive-date=12 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412204251/https://www.wur.nl/en/activity/Agronomic-and-environmental-studies-of-potato-Solanum-tuberosum-L.-and-analysis-of-its-value-chain-in-Zimbabwe-1.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Tourism===
{{Main|Tourism in Zimbabwe}}
[[File:Victoria Falls aerial view September 2003.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|[[Victoria Falls]], the end of the upper [[Zambezi]] and the beginning of the middle Zambezi]]
Since the [[Land reform in Zimbabwe|land reform programme]] in 2000, tourism in Zimbabwe has steadily declined. In 2018, tourism peaked with 2.6&nbsp;million tourists.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sundaynews.co.zw/zimbabwe-2018-tourist-arrivals-peak-26million/|title=Zimbabwe 2018 tourist arrivals peak 2,6 million|date=17 March 2019|website=The Sunday News}}</ref> In 2016, the total contribution of tourism to Zimbabwe was $1.1 billion (USD), or about 8.1% of Zimbabwe's GDP. Employment in travel and tourism, as well as the industries indirectly supported by travel and tourism, was 5.2% of national employment.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/economic-impact-research/countries-2017/zimbabwe2017.pdf|title=Travel and tourism: Economic impact 2017 Zimbabwe|date=March 2017|work=[[World Travel and Tourism Council|WTTC]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171110114420/https://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/economic-impact-research/countries-2017/zimbabwe2017.pdf|archive-date=10 November 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Several airlines pulled out of Zimbabwe between 2000 and 2007. Australia's [[Qantas]], Germany's [[Lufthansa]], and [[Austrian Airlines]] were among the first to pull out and in 2007 [[British Airways]] suspended all direct flights to Harare.<ref name="tourism">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1220218.stm|title=Sun sets on Zimbabwe tourism|author=Machipisa, Lewis|access-date=16 November 2007|work=BBC News|date=14 March 2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/10/29/wairways129.xml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071130233121/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2007%2F10%2F29%2Fwairways129.xml |archive-date=30 November 2007 |title=British Airways abandons flights to Zimbabwe |author=Berger, Sebastien |access-date=16 November 2007 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London, UK |date=29 October 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The country's flagship airline, [[Air Zimbabwe]], which operated flights throughout Africa and a few destinations in Europe and Asia, ceased operations in February 2012.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sibanda|first=Tichaona|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201202231437.html|title=Zimbabwe: Air Zimbabwe Vanishes From the Skies Indefinitely|website=allAfrica.com|date=23 February 2012|access-date=6 June 2012}}</ref>{{update inline|date=August 2017}} As of 2017, several major commercial airlines had resumed flights to Zimbabwe.

Zimbabwe has several major tourist attractions. Victoria Falls on the Zambezi, which are shared with Zambia, are located in the north-west of Zimbabwe. Victoria Falls is considered to be the largest waterfall in the world.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Zimbabwe geography, maps, climate, environment and terrain from Zimbabwe {{!}} - CountryReports |url=https://www.countryreports.org/country/Zimbabwe/geography.htm |access-date=2023-12-12 |website=www.countryreports.org}}</ref> Before the economic changes, much of the tourism for these locations came to the Zimbabwe side, but now Zambia is the main beneficiary. The [[Victoria Falls National Park]] is also in this area and is one of the eight main national parks in Zimbabwe,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zimbabwetourism.net/index.php/where-to-go/destinations/hwange-national-park|title=Zimbabwe Tourism Authority|website=zimbabwetourism.net|access-date=16 November 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203100122/http://www.zimbabwetourism.net/index.php/where-to-go/destinations/hwange-national-park|archive-date=3 December 2007}}</ref> the largest of which is [[Hwange National Park]]. [[Lake Kariba]], another site for tourism, is the largest reservoir in the world.<ref name=":5" />

The Eastern Highlands are a series of mountainous areas near the border with Mozambique. The highest peak in Zimbabwe, [[Mount Nyangani]] at {{convert|2,593|m|ft|abbr=on}} is located there as well as the [[Bvumba Mountains]] and the [[Nyanga National Park]]. [[World's View, Nyanga|World's View]] is in these mountains, and it is from here that places as far away as {{convert|60|–|70|km|mi|abbr=on}} are visible and, on clear days, the town of [[Rusape]] can be seen.

Zimbabwe is unusual in Africa in that there are a number of ancient and medieval ruined cities built in a unique [[dry stone]] style. Among the most famous of these are the Great Zimbabwe ruins in Masvingo. Other ruins include [[Khami]], [[Dhlo-Dhlo]] and [[Naletale]]. The Matobo Hills are an area of granite [[kopjes]] and wooded valleys commencing some {{convert|22|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} south of Bulawayo in southern Zimbabwe. The hills were formed over two billion years ago with granite being forced to the surface, then being eroded to produce smooth "whaleback dwalas" and broken kopjes, strewn with boulders and interspersed with thickets of vegetation. Mzilikazi, founder of the Ndebele nation, gave the area its name, meaning 'Bald Heads'. They have become a tourist attraction because of their ancient shapes and local wildlife. Cecil Rhodes and other early white colonists like [[Leander Starr Jameson]] are buried in these hills at World's View.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zimbabwe.safari.co.za/spirit-of-zimbabwe.html|title=Zimbabwe: The Spirit of Matobo|work=zimbabwe.safari.co.za|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101100547/http://zimbabwe.safari.co.za/spirit-of-zimbabwe.html |archive-date=1 November 2013}}</ref>

===Water supply and sanitation===
{{Main|Water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe}}
There are many successful small-scale water supply and sanitation programs, but there is an overall lack of improved water and sanitation systems for the majority of Zimbabwe. According to the [[World Health Organization]] in 2012, 80% of Zimbabweans had access to improved (i.e. clean) drinking water sources, and only 40% of Zimbabweans had access to improved sanitation facilities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.167?lang=en |title=Exposure Data by Country |work=World Health Organization |access-date=19 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304210631/http://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.167?lang=en |archive-date=4 March 2015}}</ref> Access to improved water supply and sanitation is noticeably limited in rural areas.<ref name=wsp1>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/CSO-Zimbabwe.pdf |title=Water Supply and Sanitation in Zimbabwe, Turning Finance into Services for 2015 and beyond |publisher=[[AMCOW]] (collaboratively published report) |year=2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130142528/https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/CSO-Zimbabwe.pdf |archive-date=30 January 2020 |url-status=dead |website=wsp.org |access-date=4 May 2016}}</ref> There are many factors that continue to determine the nature of water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe for the foreseeable future; three major factors are the severely depressed state of the Zimbabwean economy, the reluctance of foreign aid organisations to build and finance infrastructure projects, and the political instability of the state.<ref name="wsp1" /><ref name="hrw2">{{cite book|url=http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/zimbabwe1113_forUpload_1.pdf |title=Troubled Water: Burst Pipes, Contaminated Wells, and Open Defecation in Zimbabwe's Capital |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-62313-0800 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140830213700/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/zimbabwe1113_forUpload_1.pdf |archive-date=30 August 2014}}</ref>

=== Science and technology ===
{{Main|Science and technology in Zimbabwe}}
[[File:Life sciences and geosciences dominate, Cumulative totals by field, 2008–2014.svg|thumb|Scientific research output in terms of publications in Southern Africa, cumulative totals by field, 2008–2014. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), figure 20.6.]]
Zimbabwe has relatively well-developed national infrastructure and a long-standing tradition of promoting research and development, as evidenced by the levy imposed on tobacco-growers since the 1930s to promote market research.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002288/228806e.pdf|title=Mapping Research and Innovation in the Republic of Zimbabwe|editor-last=Lemarchand|editor-first=Guillermo A.|editor-last2=Schneegans|editor-first2=Susan|publisher=UNESCO|year=2014|isbn=978-92-3-100034-8|location=Paris|pages=Volume 2. GO–SPIN Profiles in Science, Technology and Innovation}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf|title=UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100129-1|location=Paris|pages=535–555}}</ref> The country has a well-developed education system, with one in 11 adults holding a tertiary degree. Given the country's solid knowledge base and abundant natural resources, Zimbabwe has great growth potential.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Zimbabwe was ranked 129th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2025<ref>{{Cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/zimbabwe |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=WIPO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2025/en/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-805-3797-0 |page=19 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |access-date=2025-10-17}}</ref>

To achieve its growth potential, Zimbabwe will need to correct several structural weaknesses. For instance, it lacks the critical mass of researchers needed to trigger innovation. Although the infrastructure is in place to harness research and development to Zimbabwe's socio-economic development, universities and research institutions lack the financial and human resources to conduct research and the regulatory environment hampers the transfer of new technologies to the business sector. The economic crisis has precipitated an exodus of university students and professionals in key areas of expertise (medicine, engineering, etc.) that is of growing concern. More than 22% of Zimbabwean tertiary students were completing their degrees abroad in 2012, compared to a 4% average for sub-Saharan Africa as a whole. In 2012, there were 200 researchers (head count) employed in the public sector, one-quarter of whom were women. This is double the continental average (91 in 2013) but only one-quarter the researcher density of South Africa (818 per million inhabitants). The government has created the Zimbabwe Human Capital Website to provide information for the diaspora on job and investment opportunities in Zimbabwe.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

[[File:Scientific publication trends in SADC countries, 2005-2014.svg|thumb|Scientific publication trends in the most productive SADC countries, 2005–2014. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), data from Thomson Reuters' Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded.]]

The country's ''Second Science and Technology Policy'' was launched in June 2012, after being elaborated with UNESCO assistance. It replaces the earlier policy dating from 2002. The 2012 policy prioritizes biotechnology, information and communication technologies (ICTs), space sciences, nanotechnology, indigenous knowledge systems, technologies yet to emerge and scientific solutions to emergent environmental challenges. The ''Second Science and Technology Policy'' also asserts the government's commitment to allocating at least 1% of GDP to research and development, focusing at least 60% of university education on developing skills in science and technology and ensuring that school pupils devote at least 30% of their time to studying science subjects.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

In 2014, Zimbabwe counted 21 publications per million inhabitants in internationally cataloged journals, according to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded). This placed Zimbabwe sixth out of the 15 SADC countries, behind Namibia (59), Mauritius (71), Botswana (103) and, above all, South Africa (175) and the Seychelles (364). The average for sub-Saharan Africa was 20 scientific publications per million inhabitants, compared to a global average of 176 per million.<ref name=":1" />

===Transportation===
{{Main|Transport in Zimbabwe}}
*[[National Railways of Zimbabwe]]
*[[Robert Gabriel Mugabe International Airport]]

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Zimbabwe}}

===Population===
Expanding from a population of 2,746,396 in 1950, Zimbabwe's population has rapidly increased. Based on {{UN_Population|source}}, the population of Zimbabwe was estimated by the [[United Nations]] at {{UN_Population|Zimbabwe}} in {{UN_Population|Year}}.

===Ethnic groups===
[[File:Tonga wall baskets producer from Zimbabwe.JPG|alt=Tonga Woman|thumb|upright|A Tonga woman pleating a basket]]
According to the 2022 census report, 99.6% of the population is of African origin.<ref name=Census2022/> The majority people, the Shona, comprise 82%, while Ndebele make up 14% of the population.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.infoplease.com/world/social-statistics/ethnicity-and-race-countries |title=Ethnicity and Race by Countries |date=21 May 2020 |website=Infoplease}}</ref> The Ndebele descended from Zulu migrations in the 19th century and the other tribes with which they intermarried. Up to one million Ndebele may have left the country over the last five years,{{when|date=June 2021}} mainly for South Africa.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}} Other ethnic groups include [[Venda]], [[Tonga people (Zambia and Zimbabwe)|Tonga]], [[Tsonga people|Tsonga]], [[Kalanga people|Kalanga]], [[Sotho people|Sotho]], [[Ndau people|Ndau]], [[Nambya people|Nambya]], [[Tswana people|Tswana]], [[Xhosa people|Xhosa]] and [[Lozi people|Lozi]].

Minority ethnic groups include [[white Zimbabweans]], who make up less than 1% of the total population. White Zimbabweans are mostly of British origin, but there are also [[Afrikaners|Afrikaner]], [[Greeks in Zimbabwe|Greek]], [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], [[Franco-Mauritians|French]] and Dutch communities. The white population dropped from a peak of around 278,000, or 4.3% of the population, in 1975.<ref>Wiley, David and Isaacman, Allen F. (1981). ''Southern Africa: society, economy, and liberation''. Michigan State University, University of Minnesota. p. 55</ref> The 2022 census lists the total white population at 24,888 (roughly 0.16% of the population), one-eleventh of its peak.<ref name=Census2022/> Emigrants went to the United Kingdom (between [[Zimbabweans in the United Kingdom|200,000 and 500,000]] resident Britons were of Rhodesian or Zimbabwean origin in 2006), South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Hong Kong, the United States, [[Zimbabweans in Zambia|Zambia]] and Mozambique.<ref name="Population">{{cite web |date=December 2006 |title=Zimbabwe: Mapping Exercise |url=http://www.iomlondon.org/doc/mapping/IOM_ZIMBABWE_MR.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716163326/http://www.iomlondon.org/doc/mapping/IOM_ZIMBABWE_MR.pdf |archive-date=16 July 2011 |access-date=6 April 2010 |publisher=[[International Organization for Migration]] |location=London}}</ref><ref>W. G. Eaton, ''A Chronicle of Modern Sunlight'' (Innovision, Rohnert Park, California, 1996)</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=16 January 2019 |title=Business Zimbabwe's land reform: Zambia's gain, a cautionary tale for South Africa? |url=https://www.dw.com/en/zimbabwes-land-reform-zambias-gain-a-cautionary-tale-for-south-africa/a-47095154 |work=Deutsche Welle}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Zimbabwe's white farmers start anew in Mozambique |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/10/zimbabwe-white-farmers-start-anew-mozambique-151027095006428.html |work=Al-Jazeera |date=28 October 2015}}</ref> After Mugabe was replaced by [[Emmerson Mnangagwa]] as president, there was an influx of white Zimbabweans returning to the country.<ref name=":32">{{Cite news |last1=Farmer |first1=Ben |last2=Thornycroft |first2=Peta |date=2023-09-04 |title=Hundreds of white farmers return to Zimbabwe in boost for agriculture |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/climate-and-people/white-farmers-return-to-zimbabwe-agriculture-boost/ |access-date=2023-12-15 |work=The Telegraph |language=en-GB |issn=0307-1235}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Maromo |first=Jonisayi |date=29 July 2025 |title='Even white Zimbabweans are returning': Zanu-PF insists exiles are flocking back home |url=https://iol.co.za/news/politics/2025-07-29-even-white-zimbabweans-are-returning-zanu-pf-insists-exiles-are-flocking-back-home/ |work=Independent Online}}</ref>

[[Coloureds]] form 0.1% of the population, and various [[Asian people|Asian]] ethnic groups, mostly of [[Indians in Zimbabwe|Indian]] and Chinese origin, are 0.04%.<ref name="Census2022" />

===Largest cities===
{{Largest cities
| country = Zimbabwe
| stat_ref = Source:<ref name=ZIMBABWECITIES>{{cite web |url=https://www.geonames.org/ZW/largest-cities-in-zimbabwe.html|title=Zimbabwe Cities by Population 2022}}</ref>
| list_by_pop =
| div_name = 
| div_link = Provinces of Zimbabwe{{!}}Province
| city_1 = Harare| div_1 = Harare Province{{!}}Harare| pop_1 = 2,123,132| img_1 = Harare_secondst.jpg
| city_2 = Bulawayo | div_2 = Bulawayo Province{{!}}Bulawayo | pop_2 = 1,200,337| img_2 = Bulawayo_Nkomo_Str.jpg
| city_3 = Chitungwiza| div_3 = Harare Province{{!}}Harare| pop_3 = 371,244| img_3 =Chitungwiza Shopping Center.jpg
| city_4 =  Mutare | div_4 = Manicaland| pop_4 = 224,802	| img_4 = Mutare Custom house.jpg
| city_5 = Gweru | div_5 = Midlands Province{{!}}Midlands| pop_5 = 158,200
| city_6 = 	Kwekwe| div_6 = Midlands Province{{!}}Midlands| pop_6 = 119,863
| city_7 = Kadoma, Zimbabwe{{!}}Kadoma| div_7 = Mashonaland West | pop_7 = 116,300
| city_8 =Ruwa| div_8 = Mashonaland East| pop_8 = 94,083
| city_9 = 	Chinhoyi| div_9 = Mashonaland West | pop_9 = 90,800
| city_10 = Masvingo| div_10 = Masvingo Province{{!}}Masvingo| pop_10 = 90,286
}}

===Languages===
{{main|Languages of Zimbabwe}}

Zimbabwe has 16 official languages and under the constitution, an Act of Parliament may prescribe other languages as officially recognised languages.<ref name="language" /> English is the main language used in the education and judicial systems. The [[Bantu languages]] [[Shona language|Shona]] and [[Northern Ndebele language|Ndebele]] are the principal indigenous languages of Zimbabwe. Shona is spoken by 78% of the population, Ndebele by 20%. Other minority Bantu languages include Venda, [[Tsonga language|Tsonga]], Shangaan, Kalanga, Sotho, Ndau and Nambya. Less than 2.5%, mainly the white and "coloured" (mixed race) minorities, consider English their native language.<ref name="languages">{{cite web |url=http://www.gapadventures.com/docs/pdi/africa/Zimbabwe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325004301/http://www.gapadventures.com/docs/pdi/africa/Zimbabwe.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2009 |title=Zimbabwe |url-status=dead |access-date=1 June 2016}}, gapadventures.com; accessed 4 May 2016.</ref> Shona has a rich oral tradition, which was incorporated into the first Shona novel, ''Feso'' by [[Solomon Mutswairo]], published in 1956.<ref name="feso">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.unc.edu/~ottotwo/mothertongue.html |title=Mother Tongue: Interviews with Musaemura B. Zimunya and Solomon Mutswairo |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180326150740/http://www.unc.edu/~ottotwo/mothertongue.html |archive-date=26 March 2018 |url-status=dead |journal=The Journal of African Travel-Writing |first=Angela A. |last=Williams |issue=4 |date=April 1998 |pages=36–44}}</ref> English is primarily spoken in the cities but less so in rural areas. Radio and television news are broadcast in Shona, Sindebele and English.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

There is a large community of Portuguese speakers in Zimbabwe, mainly in the border areas with Mozambique and in major cities.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Martins|first=Margarida|date=12 March 2019|title=Português em África|language=pt|trans-title=Portuguese in Africa|work=Diário de Notícias|location=Portugal}}</ref> Beginning in 2017, teaching Portuguese was included in secondary education of Zimbabwe.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Português vai ser introduzido no ensino secundário no Zimbabué|url=https://24.sapo.pt/atualidade/artigos/portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-no-ensino-secundario-no-zimbabue|access-date=2020-07-21|website=SAPO 24|language=pt}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Zimbabwe: Português vai ser introduzido no ensino secundário do país - África - Angola Press - ANGOP|url=http://www.angop.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/africa/2017/0/3/Zimbabwe-Portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-ensino-secundario-pais,7e5aad04-47b2-4b4f-aee8-c8351c5ae23f.html|access-date=2020-07-21|website=www.angop.ao|language=PT-PT|archive-date=6 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806105712/http://www.angop.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/africa/2017/0/3/Zimbabwe-Portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-ensino-secundario-pais,7e5aad04-47b2-4b4f-aee8-c8351c5ae23f.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Religion===

{{Main|Religion in Zimbabwe}}

[[File:Sacred Heart Cathedral, Harare.jpg|thumb|left|[[Catholic]] church in [[Harare]]]]
According to the 2017 Inter Censal Demography Survey by the [[Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency]], 84% of Zimbabweans are Christian, 10% do not belong to any religion, and 0.7% are [[Islam in Zimbabwe|Muslim]].<ref name="2017survey" /><ref name="pewzimb">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/12/globalReligion-tables.pdf |title=Table: Religious Composition by Country |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310101254/https://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/12/globalReligion-tables.pdf |archive-date=10 March 2016 |url-status=dead |website=pewforum.org |publisher=Pew Research Center |location=Washington, D.C. |year=2012}}</ref><ref name="US_state">{{cite web |title=Zimbabwe – International Religious Freedom Report 2005 |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51503.htm |access-date=3 December 2007 |publisher=U.S. Department of State |quote=An estimated 1% of the total population is Muslim.}}</ref> An estimated 62% of the population attend religious services regularly.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=MSN Encarta |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761575825_3/Zimbabwe.html |access-date=13 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031022353/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761575825_3/Zimbabwe.html |archive-date=31 October 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Approximately 69% of Zimbabweans belong to [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Christianity, while 8% are Roman Catholic.<ref name="2017survey" /> Pentecostal-charismatic forms of Christianity, in particular, have grown rapidly in recent years and are playing a prominent role in public, social and political life.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chitando |first=Ezra |title=Innovation and Competition in Zimbabwean Pentecostalism |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-3501-7601-0}}</ref> The largest Christian churches are [[Anglicanism|Anglican]], [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]], [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventist]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Zimbabwe |url=http://adventistatlas.org/ViewCountry.asp?CtryCode=zw |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724224739/http://adventistatlas.org/ViewCountry.asp?CtryCode=zw |archive-date=24 July 2011 |access-date=22 January 2008}}</ref> and [[Methodism|Methodist]].

As in other African countries, Christianity may be mixed with enduring traditional beliefs. [[Indigenous religion in Zimbabwe|Indigenous religion]], which predates colonialism, has become relatively marginal but continues to be an important part of the Zimbabwean religious field.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shoko |first=Tabona |title=Karanga Indigenous Religion in Zimbabwe: Health and Well-Being |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-754-65881-8 |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Moyo |first=Method |title=Traditional Religion and Its Impact on the Practices of Apostolic and Zionist Churches in Zimbabwe |publisher=GRIN Verlag |year=2020 |isbn=978-3-346-21835-3}}</ref> [[Ancestral worship]] is the most practised non-Christian religion, involving spiritual intercession; central to many ceremonial proceedings is the [[mbira dzavadzimu]], meaning "voice of the ancestors", which is an instrument related to many [[lamellophone]]s ubiquitous throughout Africa.

===Health===
{{See also|Health in Zimbabwe|HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe|Zimbabwean cholera outbreak}}
[[File:Life expectancy in select African countries, 1950–2019.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Life expectancy in select Southern African countries, 1950–2019. [[HIV/AIDS]] has caused a fall in life expectancy.]]
[[File:MOP 50.jpg|thumb|Mother of Peace AIDS orphanage, [[Mutoko]] (2005)]]

At independence, the policies of racial inequality were reflected in the disease patterns of the black majority. The first five years after independence saw rapid gains in areas such as immunisation coverage, access to health care, and contraceptive prevalence rate.<ref>Davies, R. and Sanders, D. (1998). "Adjustment policies and the welfare of children: Zimbabwe, 1980–1985". In: Cornia, G.A., Jolly, R. and Stewart, F. (eds.) ''Adjustment with a human face, Vol. II: country case studies''. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 272–99; {{ISBN|0198286112}}.</ref> Zimbabwe was thus considered internationally to have achieved a good record of health development.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Dugbatey, K. |year=1999|pmid=10414831 |title=National health policies: sub-Saharan African case studies (1980–1990)|journal=Soc. Sci. Med.|volume=49|pages=223–239|doi=10.1016/S0277-9536(99)00110-0|issue=2}}</ref>

Zimbabwe suffered occasional outbreaks of acute diseases. The gains on the national health were eroded by structural adjustment in the 1990s,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Marquette, C.M. |year=1997|doi=10.1016/S0305-750X(97)00019-3 |title=Current poverty, structural adjustment, and drought in Zimbabwe|journal=World Development|volume=25|pages=1141–1149|issue=7}}</ref> the impact of the HIV/AIDS pandemic<ref name="nofix" /> and the economic crisis since 2000. In 2006, Zimbabwe had one of the lowest life expectancies in the world according to UN figure—44 for men and 43 for women, down from 60 in 1990, but recovered to 60 in 2015.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-42013720|title=Zimbabwe in 10 numbers|date=18 November 2017|work=BBC News|access-date=18 November 2017|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/socind/health.htm|title=United Nations Statistics Division|access-date=7 December 2008}}</ref> The rapid drop was ascribed mainly to the HIV/AIDS pandemic. [[Infant mortality]] rose from 6% in the late 1990s to 12.3% by 2004.<ref name="nofix">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7346042.stm|title=No quick fix for Zimbabwe's economy |date=14 April 2008|publisher=BBC|access-date=19 December 2008 | first=Jorn | last=Madslien}}</ref> Official fertility rates over the last decade were 3.6 (2002),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zimbabwe Profile based on the 2002 Population Census |url=http://www.zimstat.co.zw/dmdocuments/Census/Census.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402121155/http://www.zimstat.co.zw/dmdocuments/Census/Census.pdf |archive-date=2 April 2015 |work=[[ZIMSTAT]]}}</ref> 3.8 (2006)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Survey 2005–06 |url=http://www.zimstat.co.zw/dmdocuments/Census/ZDHSOLD/ZDHS2006.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402092621/http://www.zimstat.co.zw/dmdocuments/Census/ZDHSOLD/ZDHS2006.pdf |archive-date=2 April 2015 |access-date=4 May 2016 |work=[[ZIMSTAT]]}}</ref> and 3.8 (2012).<ref name="zimstat.co.zw">{{Cite web |title=Census 2012 National Report |url=http://www.zimstat.co.zw/dmdocuments/Census/CensusResults2012/National_Report.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901192722/http://www.zimstat.co.zw/dmdocuments/Census/CensusResults2012/National_Report.pdf |archive-date=1 September 2014 |access-date=4 May 2016 |work=[[ZIMSTAT]]}}</ref> The 2014 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Zimbabwe was 614<ref name="Worldbank" /> compared to 960 in 2010–11<ref name="Worldbank" /> and 232 in 1990. The under five mortality rate, per 1,000 births was 75 in 2014 (94 in 2009).<ref name="Worldbank" /> The number of midwives per 1,000 live births was unavailable in 2016 and the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women 1 in 42.<ref name="SOWMY">{{cite web |title=The State of the World's Midwifery |url=http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/report/home.html |access-date=1 June 2016 |publisher=United Nations Population Fund}}</ref>

In 2006 an association of doctors in Zimbabwe made calls for Mugabe to make moves to assist the ailing health service.<ref>{{cite news |author=Thornycroft, Peta |date=10 April 2006 |title=In Zimbabwe, life ends before 40 |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |location=Harare |url=https://www.smh.com.au/news/world/in-zimbabwe-life-ends-before-40/2006/04/09/1144521210993.html |access-date=10 April 2006}}</ref> The [[HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe|HIV infection rate in Zimbabwe]] was estimated to be 14% for people aged 15–49 in 2009.<ref name="UNAIDS">{{cite web |title=Zimbabwe |url=http://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/zimbabwe |access-date=16 January 2011 |publisher=UNAIDS}}</ref> [[UNESCO]] reported a decline in HIV prevalence among pregnant women from 26% in 2002 to 21% in 2004.<ref name="UNESCO">{{cite web |title=HIV Prevalence Rates Fall in Zimbabwe |url=http://www.harare.unesco.org/educaids/zimprevalence.html |access-date=3 December 2007 |publisher=UNESCO |archive-date=30 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080330055849/http://www.harare.unesco.org/educaids/zimprevalence.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> By 2016 HIV/AIDS prevalence had been reduced to 13.5%<ref name=":2" /> compared to 40% in 1998.<ref name="Worldbank" />

At the end of November 2008, some operations at three of Zimbabwe's four major referral hospitals had shut down, along with the Zimbabwe Medical School, and the fourth major hospital had two wards and no operating theatres working.<ref name="hospitalsprnid">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7714892.stm|title=The death throes of Harare's hospitals|date=7 November 2008|publisher=BBC |access-date=3 December 2008 | first=Brian | last=Hungwe}}</ref> Those hospitals still open were not able to obtain basic drugs and medicines.<ref name="coping">{{cite news|url=http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/zimbabwe-feature-261108?opendocument|title=Zimbabwe: coping with the cholera outbreak|date=26 November 2008|access-date=3 December 2008|archive-date=6 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506063438/http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/zimbabwe-feature-261108?opendocument|url-status=dead}}</ref> The situation changed drastically after the Unity Government and the introduction of the multi-currency system in February 2009 although the political and economic crisis also contributed to the emigration of the doctors and people with medical knowledge.<ref name="Zimbabwe cholera deaths near 500">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7760088.stm|title=Zimbabwe cholera deaths near 500|date=2 December 2008|publisher=BBC|access-date=2 December 2008}}</ref>
[[File:2008 Zimbabwe Cholera Outbreak Combined.svg|thumb|Map showing the spread of [[cholera]] in and around Zimbabwe put together from several sources]]
In August 2008 large areas of Zimbabwe were struck by the ongoing cholera epidemic. By December 2008 more than 10,000 people had been infected in all but one of Zimbabwe's provinces, and the outbreak had spread to Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa and Zambia.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7768740.stm |title=PM urges Zimbabwe cholera action |work=BBC News |date=6 December 2008 |access-date=6 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="Milliband">[https://web.archive.org/web/20100525140942/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article5294534.ece "Miliband backs African calls for end of Mugabe"], ''[[The Times]]'', 5 December 2008.</ref> On 4 December 2008 the Zimbabwe government declared the outbreak to be a national emergency and asked for international aid.<ref name="Zimbabwe declares national emergency over cholera">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSTRE4B31T420081204?feedType=RSS&feedName=worldNews&rpc=69&pageNumber=2&virtualBrandChannel=0|title=Zimbabwe declares national emergency over cholera|date=4 December 2008|work=Reuters|access-date=4 December 2008}}</ref><ref name="emergency">{{cite news|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hsW9YNn1roEp0rzjeGSJo0pKcj2A|title=Zimbabwe declares cholera outbreak a national emergency|date=4 December 2008|agency=Agence France-Presse |access-date=4 December 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927163223/http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013 |archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref> By 9 March 2009 The World Health Organization estimated that 4,011 people had succumbed to the waterborne disease since the outbreak began, and the total number of cases recorded had reached 89,018.<ref name="On the cholera frontline">[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=83378 On the cholera frontline]. [[The New Humanitarian|IRIN]]. 9 March 2009</ref> In Harare, the city council offered free graves to cholera victims.<ref name="rain">{{cite news|url=http://africa.reuters.com/top/news/usnJOE4AT06A.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206151846/http://africa.reuters.com/top/news/usnJOE4AT06A.html|archive-date=6 December 2008|title=Zimbabwe says cholera epidemic may spread with rain|date=30 November 2008|work=Reuters|url-status=dead|access-date=3 December 2008}}</ref>

===Education===
{{Main|Education in Zimbabwe}}

[[File:Saint-Georges-College.jpg|thumb|[[St. George's College, Harare]] was established in 1896 by a French [[Jesuit]].]]
Large investments in education since independence has resulted in the highest adult literacy rate in Africa which in 2013 was 90.70%.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ranking of African Countries By Literacy Rate: Zimbabwe No. 1|url=http://theafricaneconomist.com/ranking-of-african-countries-by-literacy-rate-zimbabwe-no-1/|publisher=The African Economist}}</ref> This is lower than the 92% recorded in 2010 by the [[United Nations Development Programme]]<ref name="IRINAfrica">{{Cite web|url=http://ww.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=89947 |title=Zimbabwe: Unlicensed and outdoors or no school at all |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511094256/http://ww.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=89947 |archive-date=11 May 2011 |url-status=dead |website=irinnews.org |publisher=[[OCHA]] |date=23 July 2010 |location=Epworth, Zimbabwe}}</ref><ref name="AllAfrica">{{Cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201007150032.html |title=Zimbabwe: Country Leads in Africa Literacy Race |website=AllAfrica.com |date=14 July 2010 |last=Nyathi |first=Kitsepile}}</ref> and the 97.0% recorded in the 2002 census, while still substantially higher than 80.4% recorded in the 1992 census.<ref>{{cite report|title=Poverty Income Consumption and Expenditure Survey 2011/12 Report|publisher=Zimstat|year=2013|url=http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927163223/http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013 |archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref>

The wealthier portion of the population usually send their children to independent schools as opposed to the government-run schools which are attended by the majority as these are subsidised by the government. School education was made free in 1980, but since 1988, the government has steadily increased the charges attached to school enrolment until they now greatly exceed the real value of fees in 1980. The Ministry of Education of Zimbabwe maintains and operates the government schools, but the fees charged by independent schools are regulated by the cabinet of Zimbabwe. The education department has stated that 20,000 teachers have left Zimbabwe since 2007 and that half of Zimbabwe's children have not progressed beyond primary school.<ref>{{cite news |author=Nkepile Mabuse |date=28 September 2009 |title=Zimbabwe schools begin fightback |publisher=CNN |url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/africa/09/25/zimbabwe.schools/index.html |access-date=28 September 2009}}</ref> Education came under threat since the economic changes in 2000, with teachers going on strike because of low pay, students unable to concentrate because of hunger, and the price of uniforms soaring making this standard a luxury. Teachers were also one of the main targets of Mugabe's attacks because he thought they were not strong supporters.<ref>{{cite news |date=19 April 2007 |title=BBC report on 40 years in Zimbabwe's schools |work=BBC News |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6566919.stm |access-date=3 November 2007}}</ref>

Zimbabwe's education system consists of two years of pre-school, seven years of primary and six years of secondary schooling before students can enter university in the country or abroad. The academic year in Zimbabwe runs from January to December, with three terms, separated by one-month breaks, with a total of 40 weeks of school per year. National examinations are written during the third term in November, with [[General Certificate of Education|"O" level]] and [[GCE Advanced Level (United Kingdom)|"A" level]] subjects also offered in June.<ref name="embassy">{{cite web |url=http://harare.usembassy.gov/zimbabwe_educational_profile.html |title=Zimbabwe US Embassy |access-date=15 November 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071118190900/http://harare.usembassy.gov/zimbabwe_educational_profile.html |archive-date=18 November 2007 }}</ref>

There are seven public (government) universities as well as four church-related universities in Zimbabwe that are internationally accredited.<ref name="embassy" /> The [[University of Zimbabwe]], the first and largest, was built in 1952 and is located in the Harare suburb of [[Mount Pleasant, Harare|Mount Pleasant]]. Notable alumni from Zimbabwean universities include Welshman Ncube, [[Peter Moyo]], [[Tendai Biti]], [[Chenjerai Hove]] and Arthur Mutambara. Many of the politicians in the government of Zimbabwe have obtained degrees from universities in the United States or other universities abroad.

[[National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe|National University of Science and Technology]] is the second largest public research university in Zimbabwe located in Bulawayo. It was established in 1991. The National University of Science and Technology strives to become a flourishing and reputable institution not only in Zimbabwe and in Southern Africa but also among the international fraternity of universities. [[Africa University]] is a United Methodist university in Manicaland which attracts students from at least 36 African countries.

=== Gender equality ===
{{Further|Child marriage in Zimbabwe|Polygamy in Zimbabwe|Human trafficking in Zimbabwe|Abortion in Zimbabwe}}
Women in Zimbabwe are disadvantaged in many facets including economic, political, and social spheres, and experience sex and gender based violence.<ref name=":22">{{cite web|url=http://www.zw.one.un.org/togetherwedeliver/zundaf/gender-equality|title=Gender Equality {{!}} UN in Zimbabwe|website=www.zw.one.un.org|language=en|access-date=2 October 2018|archive-date=14 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814054632/http://www.zw.one.un.org/togetherwedeliver/zundaf/gender-equality|url-status=dead}}</ref> A 2014 UN report found that deep rooted cultural issues, patriarchal attitudes, and religious practices negatively impacted women's rights and freedoms in the country.<ref name=":22" /> These negative views toward women as well as societal norms impact the incentive for women to participate in the economy and hinder their economic production.<ref name=":22" /> Zimbabwe's constitution has provisions in it that provide incentive to achieve greater gender equality, but the data shows that enforcement has been lax and adoption slow.<ref name=":22" /> In December 2016 the [[International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies]] conducted a case study to determine how to best implement effective policy to address issues such as gender violence and implementation of equality laws.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://media.ifrc.org/ifrc/document/effective-law-policy-gender-equality-protection-sexual-gender-based-violence-disasters-zimbabwe/|title=Effective law and policy on gender equality and protection from sexual and gender-based violence in disasters – Zimbabwe|work=International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies|access-date=18 October 2018|language=en-US|archive-date=5 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205110239/https://media.ifrc.org/ifrc/document/effective-law-policy-gender-equality-protection-sexual-gender-based-violence-disasters-zimbabwe/|url-status=dead}}</ref> It was found that sex and gender based violence against women and girls was increasing in areas that had experienced disasters (floods, drought, disease) but could not quantify the extent of the increase.<ref name=":3" /> Some of the obstacles in combating these issues are that there are economic barriers to declaring sex and gender based violence to be unacceptable as well as social barriers.<ref name=":3" /> Additionally, governmental services which were installed to help educate the populace about these issues as well as provide services to victims are underfunded and unable to carry out their duties.<ref name=":3" /> The UN also provided economic incentive to adopt policies which would discourage these practices which negatively impacted women in Zimbabwe.<ref name=":02">{{cite web|url=http://www.zw.one.un.org/togetherwedeliver/zundaf/7-women%E2%80%99s-empowerment-gender-equality-and-equity|title=7. Women's Empowerment, Gender Equality and Equity {{!}} UN in Zimbabwe|website=www.zw.one.un.org|language=en|access-date=18 October 2018|archive-date=5 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205003709/http://www.zw.one.un.org/togetherwedeliver/zundaf/7-women%E2%80%99s-empowerment-gender-equality-and-equity|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Women are often seen as inferior, treated as objects, and viewed in subordinate roles in history and philosophy.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last=Manyonganise |first=Molly |date=2015 |title=Oppressive and liberative: A Zimbabwean woman's reflections on ubuntu |journal=Verbum et Ecclesia |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.4102/VE.V36I2.1438 |issn=2074-7705 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Ubuntu philosophy|Ubuntu]], an African philosophy's spiritual aspect, instills the belief that boys should be more valued than girls as boys pass on lineage, and the belief system places high value in respecting one's ancestors.<ref name=":10" /> A common expression used in court, "''vakadzi ngavanyarare''", translates to "''women should keep quiet,''" and as a result women are not consulted in decision-making; they must implement the men's wishes.<ref name=":10" /> The subordination of women in Zimbabwe, and the cultural forces which dictate what they must be, have led to deaths and the sacrifice of professional advancement in order for them to fulfill their roles as wives, mothers, and subordinates.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Chabaya|first1=O.|last2=Rembe|first2=S.|last3=Wadesango|first3=N.|date=1 January 2009|title=The persistence of gender inequality in Zimbabwe: factors that impede the advancement of women into leadership positions in primary schools|url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/saje/article/view/44152|journal=South African Journal of Education|language=en|volume=29|issue=2|pages=235–251|doi=10.15700/saje.v29n2a259|issn=2076-3433|doi-access=free}}</ref> Women are taught that they must never refuse their husband's sexual advances, even if they know they are infected with HIV from being unfaithful.<ref name=":10" /> As a result of this practice, Zimbabwean women aged 15–49 have an HIV prevalence rate of 16.1% and make up 62% of the total population infected with HIV in that age group.<ref>{{cite web |title=Zimbabwe |url=http://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/zimbabwe |access-date=4 December 2018 |website=www.unaids.org |language=en}}</ref>

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Zimbabwe}}

[[File:THE ROOF IS THE LIMIT.jpg|thumb|Cultural event in Zimbabwe]]
Zimbabwe has many different cultures, with Shona beliefs and ceremonies being prominent. The Shona people have many types of sculptures and carvings.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/soulofmbiramusic00berl|url-access=registration|quote=zimbabwe shona.|title=The Soul of Mbira: Music and Traditions of the Shona People of Zimbabwe|last=Berliner|first=Paul|date=June 1993|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226043791|language=en}}</ref>

Zimbabwe first celebrated its independence on 18 April 1980.<ref name="indepday">{{cite book|last=Owomoyela|first=Oyekan|year=2002|title=Culture and Customs of Zimbabwe|page=[https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00owom/page/77 77]|isbn=978-0-313-31583-1|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport, Conn.|url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00owom/page/77}}</ref> Celebrations are held at either the [[National Sports Stadium (Zimbabwe)|National Sports Stadium]] or [[Rufaro Stadium]] in Harare. The first independence celebrations were held in 1980 at the Zimbabwe Grounds. At these celebrations, doves are released to symbolise peace, fighter jets fly over, and the [[National Anthem of Zimbabwe|national anthem]] is sung. The flame of independence is lit by the president after parades by the presidential family and members of the armed forces of Zimbabwe. The president also gives a speech to the people of Zimbabwe which is televised for those unable to attend the stadium.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kas.de/proj/home/home/35/2/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061010093006/http://www.kas.de/proj/home/home/35/2/|archive-date=10 October 2006|title=Zimbabwe Celebrates 25 years of Independence|access-date=6 January 2008|publisher=Konrad Adenauer Stiftung}}</ref> Zimbabwe also has a national beauty pageant, the [[Miss Heritage Zimbabwe]] contest, which has been held annually since 2012.

===Arts===
{{Main|Zimbabwean art}}

{{see also|Music of Zimbabwe}}
[[File:Reconciliation Amos Supuni Woerden.jpg|thumb|upright|"Reconciliation", a [[stone sculpture]] by [[Amos Supuni]]]]
Traditional arts in Zimbabwe include [[pottery]], [[Basket weaving|basketry]], textiles, jewellery and carving. Among the distinctive qualities are symmetrically patterned woven baskets and stools carved out of a single piece of wood. Shona sculpture, which has a long cultural history, began evolving into its modern form in the mid-20th century and gained increasing international popularity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-03-06 |title=Art of Zimbabwe: Shona Sculpture - The Sculpture Park |url=https://www.thesculpturepark.com/shona-sculpture/ |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=Default Store View |language=en |archive-date=2 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602123833/https://www.thesculpturepark.com/shona-sculpture/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Most subjects of carved figures of stylised birds and human figures among others are made with sedimentary rock such as [[soapstone]], as well as harder igneous rocks such as [[Serpentine subgroup|serpentine]] and the rare stone [[Serpentinite|verdite]]. Zimbabwean artefacts can be found in countries like Singapore, China and Canada—for example, [[Dominic Benhura]]'s statue in the [[Singapore Botanic Gardens]].

Shona sculpture has survived through the ages, and the modern style is a fusion of African folklore with European influences. World-renowned Zimbabwean sculptors include Nicholas Nesbert and Anderson Mukomberanwa, Tapfuma Gutsa, Henry Munyaradzi and Locardia Ndandarika.

Several authors are well known within Zimbabwe and abroad. [[Charles Mungoshi]] is renowned in Zimbabwe for writing traditional stories in English and in Shona, and his poems and books have sold well with both the black and white communities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zimbabwe.poetryinternationalweb.org/piw_cms/cms/cms_module/index.php?obj_id=5752|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016092853/http://zimbabwe.poetryinternationalweb.org/piw_cms/cms/cms_module/index.php?obj_id=5752|archive-date=16 October 2007|title=Charles Mungoshi|publisher=Zimbabwe – Poetry International Web}}</ref> [[Catherine Buckle]] has achieved international recognition with her two books ''African Tears'' and ''Beyond Tears'' which tell of the ordeal she went through under the [[Fast Track Land Reform|2000 Land Reform]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://africantears.netfirms.com/beyondtears.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030001000/http://africantears.netfirms.com/beyondtears.htm|archive-date=30 October 2007|title=Tribute to Cathy Buckle|access-date=2 November 2007}}</ref> The first [[Prime Minister of Rhodesia]], Ian Smith, wrote two books – ''[[The Great Betrayal: The Memoirs of Ian Douglas Smith|The Great Betrayal]]'' and ''[[The Great Betrayal: The Memoirs of Ian Douglas Smith|Bitter Harvest]].'' The book ''[[The House of Hunger]]'' by [[Dambudzo Marechera]] won the [[Guardian Fiction Prize]] in the UK in 1979.<ref>[http://www.librarything.com/bookaward/Guardian+Fiction+Prize "Book awards: Guardian Fiction Prize"], Library Thing.</ref> The Nobel Prize-winning author [[Doris Lessing]]'s first novel ''[[The Grass Is Singing]]'' is set in Rhodesia, as are the first four volumes of her ''[[Children of Violence]]'' sequence and her collection of short stories entitled ''African Stories''. In 2013 [[NoViolet Bulawayo]]'s novel ''[[We Need New Names]]'' was shortlisted for the [[Booker Prize]]. The novel was inspired by a photograph of a child who lost their home in [[Operation Murambatsvina]], Mugabe's slum clearance programme which began in 2005.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2013/nov/15/we-need-new-names-noviolet-bulawayo-guardian-first-book-award |title=We Need New Names by NoViolet Bulawayo |work=The Guardian |author=Guardian first book award 2013 |date=15 November 2013 |accessdate=1 July 2023}}</ref> Bulawayo's second novel, ''[[Glory (Bulawayo novel)|Glory]]'', a satire based on the [[2017 Zimbabwean coup d'état|2017 coup]] against [[Robert Mugabe]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Glory by NoViolet Bulawayo review – a Zimbabwean Animal Farm|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2022/mar/23/glory-by-noviolet-bulawayo-review-a-zimbabwean-animal-farm|first=Sarah|last=Ladipo Manyika|author-link=Sarah Ladipo Manyika|date=23 March 2022|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=1 July 2023|language=en}}</ref> was also shortlisted for the Booker Prize. Zimbabwean author [[Tsitsi Dangarembga]]'s novels have received widespread critical acclaim and her third, ''[[This Mournable Body]]'', was shortlisted for the Booker Prize in 2020.

Notable Zimbabwean artists include Henry Mudzengerere and Nicolas Mukomberanwa. A recurring theme in Zimbabwean art is the metamorphosis of man into beast.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://karaart.com/collections/shona/origins3.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001001084811/http://karaart.com/collections/shona/origins3.html |url-status=dead |archive-date= 1 October 2000 |title=Cultural Origins of art |access-date=6 January 2008 }}</ref> Zimbabwean musicians like [[Thomas Mapfumo]], [[Oliver Mtukudzi]], the [[Bhundu Boys]], [[Stella Chiweshe]], [[Alick Macheso]] and [[Audius Mtawarira]] have achieved international recognition. Among members of the white minority community, Theatre has a large following, with numerous theatrical companies performing in Zimbabwe's urban areas.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/African-theatre-art/Southern-and-South-Africa|title=African theatre – Southern and South Africa {{!}} art|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=19 January 2018|language=en}}</ref>

===Cuisine===
[[File:Goat Offal.JPG|thumb|A meal of ''sadza'' ''(right)'', greens, and goat [[offal]]. The goat's small intestines are wrapped around small pieces of large intestines before cooking.]]
Like in many African countries, the majority of Zimbabweans depend on a few staple foods. "Mealie meal", also known as [[cornmeal]], is used to prepare ''[[Ugali|sadza]]'' or ''isitshwala'', as well as [[porridge]] known as ''bota'' or ''ilambazi''. ''Sadza'' is made by mixing the cornmeal with water to produce a thick paste/porridge. After the paste has been cooking for several minutes, more cornmeal is added to thicken the paste. This is usually eaten as lunch or dinner, usually with sides such as gravy, vegetables (spinach, [[chomolia]], or [[spring greens]]/collard greens), beans, and meat (stewed, grilled, roasted, or sundried). ''Sadza'' is also commonly eaten with curdled milk ([[Soured milk|sour milk]]), commonly known as "lacto" (''mukaka wakakora''), or dried [[Kapenta|Tanganyika sardine]], known locally as ''kapenta'' or ''matemba''. ''Bota'' is a thinner porridge, cooked without the additional cornmeal and usually flavoured with peanut butter, milk, butter, or jam.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zambuko.com/mbirapage/resource_guide/pages/culture/sadza_text.html | publisher=Zambuko.com |title=Sadza ne Nyama: A Shona Staple Dish |access-date=3 November 2007}}</ref> ''Bota'' is usually eaten for breakfast.

Graduations, weddings, and any other family gatherings will usually be celebrated with the killing of a goat or cow, which will be barbecued or roasted by the family.

[[File:Boerewors raw.jpg|thumb|Raw ''[[boerewors]]'']]
Even though the Afrikaners are a small group (10%) within the white minority group, Afrikaner recipes are popular. ''[[Biltong]]'', a type of jerky, is a popular snack, prepared by hanging bits of spiced raw meat to dry in the shade.<ref>{{cite web|author=Stephanie Hanes|title=Biltong: much more than just a snack|work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]|date=20 September 2006|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0920/p13s01-lifo.html|access-date=3 October 2006}}</ref> ''Boerewors'' is served with ''sadza''. It is a long sausage, often well-spiced, composed of beef and any other meat like pork, and barbecued.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zimbabwean Twist: Cooking Traditional South African Farmers' Boerewors {{!}} culinary creationss |url=https://culinarycreationss.com/posts/zimbabwean-twist-cooking-traditional-south-african-farmers-boerewors |access-date=2024-06-21 |website=culinarycreationss.com}}</ref>

As Zimbabwe was a British colony, some people there have adopted some colonial-era English eating habits. For example, most people will have porridge in the morning, as well as 10 o'clock tea (midday tea). They will have lunch, often leftovers from the night before, freshly cooked ''sadza'', or sandwiches (which is more common in the cities). After lunch, there is usually 4 o'clock tea (afternoon tea), which is served before dinner. It is not uncommon for tea to be had after dinner.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eating Practices |url=http://countrystudyzimbabwe.weebly.com/eating-practices.html |access-date=2024-06-21 |website=Country Study Zimbabwe}}</ref>

Rice, pasta, and [[Potato production in Zimbabwe|potato-based foods]] (French fries and mashed potato) also make up part of Zimbabwean cuisine. A local favourite is rice cooked with peanut butter, which is taken with thick gravy, mixed vegetables and meat.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-09-27 |title=Rice with peanut butter Recipe by privie |url=https://cookpad.com/ng/recipes/13726045-rice-with-peanut-butter |access-date=2024-06-21 |website=Cookpad |language=en-NG}}</ref> A potpourri of peanuts known as ''nzungu'', boiled and sundried maize, black-eyed peas known as ''nyemba'', and [[Vigna subterranea|Bambara groundnuts]] known as ''nyimo'' makes a traditional dish called ''mutakura''.

=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sport in Zimbabwe}}

[[File:Canada wins Zimbabwe in Rio Olympics 07.jpg|thumb|[[Zimbabwe women's national football team]] at the [[Football at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's tournament|2016 Olympic Games]]]]
Soccer is the most popular sport in Zimbabwe.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Alao |first1=Abiodun |author1-link=Abiodun Alao |last2=Tofa |first2=Moses |author2-link=Moses Tofa |editor1-last=Falola |editor1-first=Toyin |editor1-link=Toyin Falola |editor2-last=Jean-Jacques |editor2-first=Daniel |editor2-link=Daniel Jean-Jacques |encyclopedia=Africa: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 Volumes] |title=Zimbabwe |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=YjoVCwAAQBAJ |page=1316}} |date=2015 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1598846652 |pages=1305–1326}}</ref> [[Zimbabwe national football team|The Warriors]] have qualified for the [[Africa Cup of Nations]] five times (2004, 2006, 2017, 2019, 2021), and won the [[COSAFA Cup|Southern Africa championship]] on six occasions (2000, 2003, 2005, 2009, 2017, 2018) and the [[CECAFA Cup|Eastern Africa cup]] once (1985). The team is ranked 68th in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Men's Ranking |url=https://www.fifa.com/fifa-world-ranking/origin1904-p.cxm.fifa.com/fifa-world-ranking/men |access-date=2022-07-23 |website=www.fifa.com |language=en }}{{dead link|date=August 2023|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

[[Rugby union]] is a significant sport in Zimbabwe. [[Zimbabwe national rugby union team|The national side]] have represented the country at 2 [[Rugby World Cup]] tournaments in 1987 and 1991.<ref>{{cite web |last=worldrugby.org |title=World Rugby |url=https://www.world.rugby/tournaments/rankings/mru}}</ref>

[[Cricket]] is also a very popular sport in Zimbabwe. It used to have a following mostly among the white minority, but it has recently grown to become a widely popular sport among most Zimbabweans.<ref>{{cite web |last=VOA News |title=Black Cricket's Spiritual Home in Zimbabwe Becomes International Venue for Game|date=2 July 2023 |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/black-cricket-s-spiritual-home-in-zimbabwe-becomes-international-venue-for-game/7164431.html}}</ref>

===Media===
The [[Mass media in Zimbabwe|media of Zimbabwe]] is now once again diverse, having come under tight restriction between 2002 and 2008 by the government during the economic and political crisis. The Zimbabwean constitution promises freedom of the media and expression. Since the appointment of a new media and information minister in 2013 the media is facing less political interference, and the supreme court has ruled some sections of the strict media laws as unconstitutional.<ref>{{cite web|title=Supreme Court strikes down repressive media legislation|url=http://cpj.org/2003/05/supreme-court-strikes-down-repressive-media-legisl.php|website=Committee to Protect Journalist|date=7 May 2003}}</ref> In July 2009 the BBC and CNN were able to resume operations and report legally and openly from Zimbabwe. The Zimbabwe Ministry of Media, Information and Publicity stated that, "the Zimbabwe government never banned the BBC from carrying out lawful activities inside Zimbabwe".<ref name="Telegraph" /><ref name="BBC1">{{cite web|author=Williams, Jon |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/theeditors/2009/07/resuming_operations_in_zimbabw.html |title=Resuming operations in Zimbabwe |publisher=BBC |date= 29 July 2009}}</ref>

In 2010 the Zimbabwe Media Commission was established by the inclusive, power-sharing government. In May 2010 the commission licensed three privately owned newspapers, including the previously banned ''[[Daily News (Harare)|Daily News]]'', for publication.<ref name="Reuters">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE64P5NX20100526 |title=Zimbabwe licenses new private newspapers |work=Reuters |date=26 May 2010|author=Banya, Nelson }}</ref> [[Reporters Without Borders]] described the decisions as a "major advance".<ref name="IFEX">[http://www.ifex.org/zimbabwe/2010/05/28/licences_granted/ "independent dailies allowed to resume publishing"], ''[[International Freedom of Expression Exchange]]'', 28 May 2010.</ref> In June 2010 ''[[NewsDay (Zimbabwean newspaper)|NewsDay]]'' became the first independent daily newspaper to be published in Zimbabwe in seven years.<ref name="Reuter">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSLDE65312720100604 |title=Zimbabwe gets first private daily newspaper in years |work=Reuters |date=4 June 2010|author=Chinaka, Cris }}</ref> The [[Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation]]'s monopoly in the broadcasting sector was ended with the licensing of two private radio stations in 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=Finally, Zimbabwe's 'private' radio station goes on air |url=http://www.zimeye.org/finally-zimbabwes-private-radio-station-goes-on-air/ |publisher=zimeye.org |date=26 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725060843/http://www.zimeye.org/finally-zimbabwes-private-radio-station-goes-on-air/ |archive-date=25 July 2014 }}</ref> The main published newspapers are [[The Herald (Zimbabwe)|''The Herald'']] and [[The Chronicle (Zimbabwe)|''The Chronicle'']] which are printed in Harare and Bulawayo respectively.

Since the [[Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act (Zimbabwe)|2002 Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act]] was passed, a number of privately owned news outlets were shut down by the government, including ''Daily News'' whose managing director Wilf Mbanga went on to form the influential ''[[The Zimbabwean]]''.<ref name="rwb" /><ref name="cgmg">Ruzengwe, Blessing  (17 March 2005) [https://web.archive.org/web/20060301060504/http://cgmg.jour.city.ac.uk/news.php?story=249 "The nine lives of Wilf Mbanga"], ''The London Globe'' via ''[[Metrovox]]''.</ref> As a result, many press organisations have been set up in both neighbouring and Western countries by exiled Zimbabweans. Because the internet is unrestricted, many Zimbabweans are allowed to access online news sites set up by exiled journalists.<ref name="fh">{{cite web |url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=251&year=2007 |title=Freedom House 2007 Map of Press Freedom: Zimbabwe |publisher=Freedomhouse.org |access-date=6 June 2012 |archive-date=27 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227144203/http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=251&year=2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Reporters Without Borders claims the media environment in Zimbabwe involves "surveillance, threats, imprisonment, censorship, blackmail, abuse of power and denial of justice are all brought to bear to keep firm control over the news."<ref name="rwb" /> In its 2021 report, Reporters Without Borders ranked the Zimbabwean media as 130th out of 180, noting that "access to information has improved and self-censorship has declined, but journalists are still often attacked or arrested".<ref name="rwb">{{cite web|url=https://rsf.org/en/zimbabwe |title=Reporters without Borders Press Freedom Index |publisher=Reports Without Borders |access-date=24 February 2022}}</ref> The government also bans many foreign broadcasting stations from Zimbabwe, including the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]], Sky News, [[Channel 4]], [[American Broadcasting Company]], [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]], and [[Fox News]]. News agencies and newspapers from other Western countries and South Africa have also been banned from the country.{{citation needed|date=October 2023}}

===National symbols===
[[File:Zimbabwe Bird.svg|thumb|upright|Traditional Zimbabwe Bird design]]
The stone-carved [[Zimbabwe Bird]] appears on the national flags and the coats of arms of both Zimbabwe and Rhodesia, as well as on [[Rhodesian dollar|banknotes]] and coins (first on [[Coins of the Rhodesian pound|Rhodesian pound]] and then [[Coins of the Rhodesian dollar|Rhodesian dollar]]). It probably represents the [[Bateleur|bateleur eagle]] or the [[African fish eagle]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Soapstone Birds from Great Zimbabwe|journal=African Arts|year=1985|volume=18|pages=68–73, 99–100|author=Huffman, Thomas N.|jstor=3336358|issue=3|doi=10.2307/3336358}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Review: The Soapstone Birds of Great Zimbabwe Symbols of a Nation by Edward Matenga|journal=The South African Archaeological Bulletin|year=2001|volume=56|pages=105–106|author=Sinclair, Paul |jstor=3889033|issue=173/174|doi=10.2307/3889033}}</ref> The famous soapstone bird carvings stood on walls and monoliths of the ancient city of Great Zimbabwe.<ref>{{cite web|title=Great Zimbabwe|url=http://usp.nus.edu.sg/post/zimbabwe/art/greatzim/gz1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809145423/http://usp.nus.edu.sg/post/zimbabwe/art/greatzim/gz1.html|archive-date=9 August 2007|author=Landow, George P.|publisher=Brown University}}</ref>

[[Balancing rocks of Zimbabwe|Balancing rocks]] are geological formations all over Zimbabwe. The rocks are perfectly balanced without other supports. They are created when ancient granite intrusions are exposed to weathering, as softer rocks surrounding them erode away. They have been depicted on both the [[banknotes of Zimbabwe]] and the Rhodesian dollar banknotes. The ones found on the current notes of Zimbabwe, named the Banknote Rocks, are located in [[Epworth, Zimbabwe|Epworth]], approximately {{convert|9|mi|km|0|order=flip|abbr=on}} southeast of Harare.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://members.fortunecity.com/madzimbabwe/Buildings/Natural/Balancing%20Rocks/BalancingRocks.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090817012750/http://members.fortunecity.com/madzimbabwe/Buildings/Natural/Balancing%20Rocks/BalancingRocks.html|archive-date=17 August 2009|title=Balancing Rocks|access-date=15 November 2007}}</ref> There are many different formations of the rocks, incorporating single and paired columns of three or more rocks. These formations are a feature of south and east tropical Africa from northern South Africa northwards to Sudan. The most notable formations in Zimbabwe are located in the Matobo National Park in Matabeleland.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite web|title=Zimbabwe {{!}} History, Map, Flag, Population, Capital, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Zimbabwe|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref>

The [[national anthem of Zimbabwe]] is "Raise the Flag of Zimbabwe" ({{Langx|sn|Simudzai Mureza wedu WeZimbabwe}}; {{Langx|nd|Kalibusiswe Ilizwe leZimbabwe}}). It was introduced in March 1994 after a nationwide competition to replace {{Lang|sn|[[Ishe Komborera Africa]]}} as a distinctly Zimbabwean song. The winning entry was a song written by Professor [[Solomon Mutswairo]] and composed by Fred Changundega. It has been translated into all three of the main languages of Zimbabwe.<ref name="britannica.com"/>

== See also ==

* [[Index of Zimbabwe-related articles]]
* [[Outline of Zimbabwe]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
===Notes===
{{reflist|group=note}}

=== Citations ===
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |ref=Parsons |last=Parsons |first=Neil |year=1993 |title=A New History of Southern Africa |url=https://archive.org/details/newhistoryofsout0000pars |url-access=registration |edition=2nd |location=London, England |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-84195319-2 }}
* {{Free-content attribution
| title = UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030
| author = 
| publisher = UNESCO
| page numbers = 
| source = 
| documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf
| license statement URL = 
| license = CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO
}}

{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite news
|title='Hungry kids collapse as looters take millions': life in today's Zimbabwe
|first=Jason
|last=Burke
|date=10 August 2019
|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]
|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/10/zimbabwe-emmerson-mnangagwa-battle-to-survive}}
* {{Citation |last=Barclay |first=Philip |title=Zimbabwe: Years of Hope and Despair |year=2010}}.
* Bourne, Richard. ''Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe?'' (2011); 302 pages.
* {{Citation |editor1-first=JoAnn |editor1-last=McGregor |editor2-first=Ranka |editor2-last=Primorac |title=Zimbabwe's New Diaspora: Displacement and the Cultural Politics of Survival |publisher= [[Berghahn Books]] |year=2010}}, 286 pages. Scholarly essays on displacement as a result of Zimbabwe's continuing crisis, with a focus on diasporic communities in Britain and South Africa; also explores such topics as the revival of Rhodesian discourse.
* [[Martin Meredith|Meredith, Martin]]. ''Mugabe: Power, Plunder, and the Struggle for Zimbabwe's Future'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/B003STCO04/ excerpt and text search].
* {{Citation |first1=Peter |last1=Orner |author1-link=Peter Orner |first2=Annie |last2=Holmes |title=Hope Deferred: Narratives of Zimbabwean Lives |year=2011 |publisher=Voice of witness |url= http://www.voiceofwitness.org/hope-deferred/}}.
* Smith, Ian Douglas. ''Bitter Harvest: Zimbabwe and the Aftermath of its Independence'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1857826043/ excerpt and text search].
* David Coltart. The struggle continues: 50 Years of Tyranny in Zimbabwe. Jacana Media (Pty) Ltd: South Africa, 2016.

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Zimbabwe}}
* [https://www.zim.gov.zw/ Official Government of Zimbabwe web portal]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223174502/http://www.zim.gov.zw/ |date=23 December 2017 }}.
* [https://www.parlzim.gov.zw/ Parliament of Zimbabwe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221030223602/https://parlzim.gov.zw/ |date=30 October 2022 }}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14113249 Zimbabwe profile] from the [[BBC News]]
* {{wikiatlas|Zimbabwe}}
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/zimbabwe/ Zimbabwe]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081024133532/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/zimbabwe.htm Zimbabwe] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ZW Key Development Forecasts for Zimbabwe] from [[International Futures]]
* [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/ZWE/Year/2012/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Zimbabwe]

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