View source for Zoning

{{Short description|Government policy allowing certain uses of land in different places}}
{{About|the land-use planning practice}}
{{distinguish|text=[[Building code]]s}}
{{use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}

[[File:GUP Skopje 2002 mal.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|The Zoning Scheme of the General Spatial Plan for the [[Skopje|City of Skopje]], [[North Macedonia]]. Different urban zoning areas are represented by different colours.]]

In [[urban planning]], '''zoning''' is a method in which a [[municipality]] or other tier of [[government]] divides land into [[Land use|land-use]] and building "zones", each of which has a set of regulations for new development that differs from other zones. Zones may be defined for a single use (e.g. [[residential area|residential]], [[Manufacturing|industrial]]), they may combine several compatible activities by use, or in the case of form-based zoning, the differing regulations may govern the density, size and shape of allowed buildings whatever their use. The planning rules for each zone determine whether planning permission for a given development may be granted. Zoning may specify a variety of outright and conditional uses of land. It may indicate the size and dimensions of [[land lot|lots]] that land may be [[Subdivision (land)|subdivided]] into, or the form and scale of buildings. These guidelines are set in order to guide urban growth and development.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Urban Stormwater Management in the United States |publisher=National Academy of Sciences |year=2009}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Planning Canadian Communities |last=Hodge |first=Gerald |publisher=Thomson |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-17-650982-8 |location=Toronto |pages=388–390}}</ref>

Zoning is the most common regulatory urban planning method used by local governments in developed countries.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the City |last=Caves |first=R. W. |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=978-0415862875 |pages=784}}</ref><ref>''E.g.'', Lefcoe, George, "The Regulation of Superstores: The Legality of Zoning Ordinances Emerging from the Skirmishes between Wal-Mart and the United Food and Commercial Workers Union" (April 2005). USC Law, Legal Studies Research Paper No. 05-12; and USC Law and Economics Research Paper No. 05-12. Available at {{SSRN|712801}}</ref><ref>{{in lang|de}} [http://www.bmvbs.de/ BMVBS - Startseite]. Bmvbs.de. Retrieved on 2013-07-19.</ref> Exceptions include the [[town and country planning in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] and the city of [[Houston]], Texas.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://kinder.rice.edu/urbanedge/2020/01/09/no-zoning-in-Houston-there-are-workarounds/ |title=Houston Doesn't have zoning, but there are workarounds |publisher=Rice Kinder Institute for Urban Research |year=2020}}</ref>
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Most zoning systems have a procedure for granting [[Variance (land use)|variance]]s (exceptions to the zoning rules), usually because of some perceived hardship caused by the particular nature of the property in question.

== History ==
The origins of zoning districts can be traced back to [[ancient history|antiquity]].<ref>Cornelius Steckner: ''Baurecht und Bauordnung. Architektur, Staatsmedizin und Umwelt bei Vitruv'', in: Heiner Knell, Burkhardt Wesenberg (Hrsg.), ''Vitruv – Kolloquium 1982'', Technische Hochschule Darmstadt 1984, S. 259–277.</ref> The ancient walled city was the predecessor for classifying and regulating land, based on use. Outside the city walls were the undesirable functions, which were usually based on noise and smell. The space between the walls is where unsanitary and dangerous activities occurred such as butchering, waste disposal, and brick-firing. Within the walls were civic and religious places, and where the majority of people lived.<ref name="Hirt 2014">{{cite book |last1=Hirt |first1=Sonia A. |title=Zoned in the USA: The Origins and Implications of American Land-Use Regulation |date=2014 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-5305-2 |pages= |oclc=879527609 |author-link=Sonia Hirt}}{{Page needed|date=February 2022}}</ref>

Beyond distinguishing between urban and non-urban land, most ancient cities further classified land types and uses inside their walls. This was practiced in many regions of the world – for example, in China during the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou Dynasty]] (1046 – 256 BC), in India during the [[Vedic period|Vedic Era]] (1500 – 500 BC), and in the military camps that spread throughout the [[Roman Empire]] (31 BC – 476 AD).

Throughout the [[Age of Enlightenment]] and [[Industrial Revolution]], cultural and socio-economic shifts led to the rapid increase in the enforcement and invention of urban regulations.<ref name="Hirt 2014"/> The shifts were informed by a new scientific rationality, the advent of mass production and complex manufacturing, and the subsequent onset of urbanisation. Industry leaving the home reshaped modern cities. The definition of home was tied to the definition of economy, which caused a much greater mixing of uses within the residential quarters of cities.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Human Condition |url=https://archive.org/details/humancondition0000aren |url-access=registration |last=Arendt |first=Hannah |author-link=Hannah Arendt |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1958 |isbn=978-0-226-02598-8}}</ref>

Separation between uses is a feature of many [[planned_community|planned cities]] designed before the advent of zoning. A notable example is [[Adelaide]] in [[South Australia]], whose city centre, along with the suburb of [[North Adelaide]], is surrounded on all sides by a park, the [[Adelaide Park Lands]]. The park was designed by [[William_Light|Colonel William Light]] in 1836 in order to physically separate the city centre from its suburbs. Low density residential areas surround the park, providing a pleasant walk between work in the city within and the family homes outside.

[[Sir Ebenezer Howard]], founder of the [[garden city movement]], cited Adelaide as an example of how green open space could be used to prevent cities from expanding beyond their boundaries and coalescing.<ref name="Howard1902">{{Cite book|title=Garden Cities of To-morrow|last=Howard|first=Ebenezer|publisher=S Sonnenschein & Co, reprinted by Dodo Press|year=1902|isbn=9781409950318}}</ref>{{rp|94}} His design for an ideal city, published in his 1902 book [[Garden Cities of To-morrow]], envisaged separate concentric rings of public buildings, parks, retail space, residential areas and industrial areas, all surrounded by open space and farmland. All retail activity was to be conducted within a single glass-roofed building, an early concept for the modern [[shopping_center|shopping centre]] inspired by [[the Crystal Palace]]. {{r|Howard1902|p=4}}

However, these planned or ideal cities were static designs embodied in a single [[Comprehensive_planning|masterplan]]. What was lacking was a regulatory mechanism to allow the city to develop over time, setting guidelines to developers and private citizens over what could be built where. The first modern zoning systems were applied in the [[Zoning in the United States|United States]] with the [[Los Angeles]] zoning ordinances of 1904<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Kolnick |first=Kathy A. |title=Order before zoning : land use regulation in Los Angeles, 1880-1915 |date=2008 |oclc=309352342}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> and the [[New York City]] [[1916 Zoning Resolution]].<ref name="dunlap2">{{cite news |last=Dunlop |first=David W. |date=25 July 2016 |title=Zoning Arrived 100 Years Ago. It Changed New York City Forever. |work=New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/26/nyregion/new-yorks-first-zoning-resolution-which-brought-order-to-a-chaotic-building-boom-turns-100.html?_r=1 |url-status=live |access-date=19 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201053327/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/26/nyregion/new-yorks-first-zoning-resolution-which-brought-order-to-a-chaotic-building-boom-turns-100.html?_r=1 |archive-date=1 December 2017}}</ref>

But the first formal zoning ordinance in the United States was aimed at [[racial segregation]]. In 1885, the city of [[Modesto, California]] passed a law restricting the establishment of laundries into the city's [[Chinatown]], a move aimed at stopping the encroachment of [[Chinese immigrants]] into previously white areas of the city.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Weingarten |first1=Marc |title='Stuck' in place: Author traces America's mobility crisis to a Modesto law enacted in 1885 |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/books/story/2025-02-19/stuck-book-review-housing-crisis |access-date=1 March 2025 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=19 February 2025}}</ref>

== Types ==
There are a great variety of zoning types, some of which focus on regulating building form and the relation of buildings to the street with mixed uses, known as form-based, others with separating land uses, known as use-based, or a combination thereof. Use-based zoning systems can comprise single-use zones, mixed-use zones - where a compatible group of uses are allowed to co-exist - or a combination of both single and mixed-use zones in one system.

The main approaches include use-based, form-based, performance and incentive zoning.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zoning - GIS Wiki {{!}} The GIS Encyclopedia |url=http://wiki.gis.com/wiki/index.php/Zoning |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=wiki.gis.com}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2017-12-02 |title=Types of Land Use Zoning {{!}} The Geography of Transport Systems |url=https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter8/urban-land-use-transportation/land-use-zoning/ |access-date=2024-02-09 |language=en-US}}</ref> There are also several additional zoning provisions used in combination with the main approaches. 

=== Main approaches to zoning ===

==== Use-based zoning ====

{{Main|Functional zoning}}

Use-based or [[functional zoning]]<ref name=":14" /> systems can comprise single-use zones, mixed-use zones—where a compatible group of uses are allowed to co-exist —or a combination of both single- and mixed-use zones in one system.<ref name=":16">Mandelker,  Daniel R., Zoning for Mixed-Use Development (July 14, 2023). 58 Real Property, Trust and Estate Law Journal, Spring 2023, Washington University in St. Louis Legal Studies Research Paper No. 23-07-01,  Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4510458</ref>

===== Single-use zoning =====
{{See also|Single-family zoning}}
[[File:Aerial_View_Chatswood_to_Sydney_CBD.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Aerial view of [[Chatswood,_New_South_Wales|Chatswood]], Australia, looking towards [[Sydney]]. The boundaries between low density residential, commercial and industrial zones are clearly visible.]]

The primary purpose of single-use zoning is to geographically separate uses that are thought to be incompatible. In practice, zoning is also used to prevent new development from interfering with existing uses and/or to preserve the character of a community.

Single-use zoning is where only one kind of use is allowed per zone, or district. It is also known as exclusionary zoning<ref name="Hirt 2014" />{{rp||page=65}} or, in the United States, as ''[[Euclidean zoning]]'' because of a court case in [[Euclid, Ohio]], ''[[Village of Euclid, Ohio v. Ambler Realty Co.]]'' {{ussc|272|365|1926}}, which established its constitutionality.<ref>Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co., 272 U.S. 365 (SC November 22, 1926).</ref> It has been the dominant system of zoning in North America, especially the [[Zoning in the United States|United States]], since its first implementation.<ref name="Hirt 2014" />{{rp||pages=61-63}}

Commonly defined single-use districts include: residential, commercial, and industrial.<ref name=":15">American Society of Planning Officials. January, 1952. [https://www.planning.org/pas/reports/report34.htm The Special District — A New Zoning Development], Information Report No. 34. Chicago, IL, USA.</ref> Each category can have a number of sub-categories, for example, within the commercial category there may be separate districts for small retail, large retail, office use, lodging and others, while industrial may be subdivided into heavy manufacturing, light assembly and warehouse uses.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Owens |first=David W. |title=Introduction to Zoning and Development Regulation |date=January 15, 2014 |publisher=UNC School of Government |isbn=978-1-56011-744-5 |edition=4th |location=Chapel Hill, NC, USA |pages=34 |language=en}}</ref> Special districts may also be created for purposes like public facilities, recreational amenities, and green space.<ref name=":15" />

The application of single-use zoning has led to the distinctive form of many cities in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], and [[New Zealand]], in which a very dense [[Central business district|urban core]], often containing [[skyscraper]]s, is surrounded by low density residential [[suburb]]s, characterised by large [[garden]]s and [[Avenue (landscape)|leafy streets]]. Some metropolitan areas such as [[Minneapolis–Saint Paul]] and [[Sydney]] have several such cores.

===== Mixed-use zoning =====
{{See also|Mixed-use development}}

Mixed-use zoning combines residential, commercial, office, and public uses into a single space.<ref name=":16" /> Mixed-use zoning can be vertical, within a single building, or horizontal, involving multiple buildings.<ref name=":16" /> 

Planning and community activist [[Jane Jacobs]] wrote extensively on the connections between the separation of uses and the failure of [[urban renewal]] projects in New York City. She advocated dense [[Mixed-use development|mixed-use developments]] and [[Walkability|walkable streets]]. In contrast to villages and towns, in which many residents know one another, and low-density outer suburbs that attract few visitors, cities and inner city areas have the problem of maintaining order between strangers.<ref name="Jacobs1961">{{Cite book |last=Jacobs |first=Jane |title=The Death and Life of Great American Cities |publisher=Bodley Head |year=1961 |isbn=9781847926180}}</ref>{{rp|26,39–44}} This order is maintained when, throughout the day and evening, there are sufficient people present with [[Natural surveillance|eyes on the street]]. {{r|Jacobs1961|p=45-65}} This can be accomplished in successful urban districts that have a great diversity of uses, creating interest and attracting visitors. {{r|Jacobs1961|p=155-190}} Jacobs' writings, along with increasing concerns about urban sprawl, are often credited with inspiring the [[New Urbanism]] movement.

To accommodate the New Urbanist vision of walkable communities combining [[Coffeehouse|cafés]], [[Restaurant|restaurants]], [[Office|offices]] and residential development in a single area, mixed-use zones have been created within some zoning systems. These still use the basic regulatory mechanisms of zoning, excluding incompatible uses such as [[heavy industry]] or [[Sewage farm|sewage farms]], while allowing compatible uses such as residential, commercial and retail activities so that people can live, work and socialise within a compact geographic area.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mixed-Use Zoning |url=https://sustainablecitycode.org/brief/mixed-use-zoning-3/ |publisher=Sustainable City Code}}</ref>

The mixing of land uses is common throughout the world. Mixed-use zoning has particular relevance in the United States, where it is proposed as a remedy to the problems caused by widespread single-use zoning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hirt |first=Sonia |date=July 12, 2012 |title=Mixed Use by Default: How the Europeans (Don't) Zone |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0885412212451029 |journal=Journal of Planning Literature |language=en |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=375–393 |doi=10.1177/0885412212451029 |issn=0885-4122}}</ref>

==== Form-based zoning ====
{{Main|Form-based code}}

Form-based or intensity<ref name=":14" /> zoning regulates not the type of land use, but the form that land use may take.<ref name=":26">{{Cite web |title=Form-Based Codes Defined |url=https://formbasedcodes.org/definition/ |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=Form-Based Codes Institute at Smart Growth America |language=en-US}}</ref> For instance, form-based zoning in a dense area may insist on low setbacks, high density, and pedestrian accessibility. [[Form-based code|Form-based codes]] (FBCs) are designed to directly respond to the physical structure of a community in order to create more walkable and adaptable environments.<ref name=":27" />[[File:Eiffel_Tower_from_the_Tour_Montparnasse_3,_Paris_May_2014.jpg|thumb|[[Paris]], looking toward the high density district of [[La Défense]]]]
Form-based zoning codes have five main elements: a regulating plan, public standards, building standards, and precise definitions of technical terms.<ref name=":26" /> Form-based codes recognize the interrelated nature of all components of land-use planning—zoning, subdivision, and public works—and integrate them to define districts based on the community's desired character and intensity of development.<ref name=":27">{{Cite web |last1=Madden |first1=Mary |last2=Russell |first2=Joel |date=December 5, 2014 |title=An Introduction to Form-Based Codes |url=https://plannersweb.com/2014/12/fbc1/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303165345/https://plannersweb.com/2014/12/fbc1/ |archive-date=March 3, 2024 |access-date=March 3, 2024 |website=Planners Web: News & Information for Citizen Planners}}</ref>

The French planning system is mostly form-based; zones in French cities generally allow many types of uses.<ref>{{cite web |date=24 January 2019 |title=How Paris is betting on mixed-use development |url=https://www.jll.cl/es/trends-and-insights/cities/how-paris-is-betting-on-mixed-use-development |publisher=JLL website}}</ref> The city of [[Paris]] has used its zoning system to concentrate high-density office buildings in the district of [[La Défense]] rather than allow heritage buildings across the city to be demolished to make way for them, as is often the case in London or New York.<ref>{{cite web |year=2016 |title=Londoners back limit on skyscrapers as fears for capital's skyline grow |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/aug/27/londoners-back-skyscraper-limit-skyline |work=The Guardian}}</ref> The construction of the [[Tour Montparnasse|Montparnasse Tower]] in 1973 led to an outcry. As a result, two years after its completion the construction of buildings over seven storeys high in the city centre was banned.<ref>{{cite news |last=Laurenson |first=John |date=2013-06-18 |title=Does Paris need new skyscrapers? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-22811518 |access-date=2013-06-18 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>

==== Performance zoning ====
{{See also|Performance-based building design}}

Performance zoning, also known as flexible or impact zoning<ref>{{Cite web |last=Commission |first=Chester County Planning |title=Chester County Planning Commission |url=https://www.chescoplanning.org/ |access-date=2024-02-09 |website=www.chescoplanning.org |language=en}}</ref> or effects-based planning, was first advocated by Lane Kendig in 1973.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fall Speaker Series: Using the New Performance Zoning with Lane Kendig |url=https://planning.unc.edu/event/fall-speaker-series-lane-kendig/ |access-date=2024-02-12 |website=CAROLINA PLANNING |language=en-US}}</ref> It uses performance-based or goal-oriented criteria to establish review parameters for proposed development projects.<ref name="Hirt 2014" />{{rp|77}} Performance zoning may use a menu of compliance options where a property developer can earn points or credits for limiting environmental impacts, including affordable housing units, or providing public amenities. In addition to the menu and points system, there may be additional discretionary criteria included in the review process.<ref name=":3" /> Performance zoning may be applied only to a specific type of development, such as housing, and may be combined with a system of use-based districts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nolon |first=John |date=2002-10-16 |title=Performance Zoning: Shaping Land Development Patterns Today |url=https://digitalcommons.pace.edu/lawfaculty/700 |journal=Elisabeth Haub School of Law Faculty Publications}}</ref> 

Performance zoning is flexible, logical, and transparent while offering a form of accountability.<ref name=":3">{{cite book |url=http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=12465&page=90 |title=Urban Stormwater Management in the United States |date=17 February 2009 |isbn=978-0-309-12539-0 |doi=10.17226/12465 |access-date=10 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911001821/http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=12465&page=90 |archive-date=11 September 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> These qualities are in contrast with the seemingly arbitrary nature of use-based zoning. Performance zoning can also fairly balance a region's environmental and housing needs across local jurisdictions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yannacone |first1=Victor John |last2=Rahenkamp |first2=John |last3=Cerchione |first3=Angelo J. |date=1976 |title=Impact Zoning: Alternative to Exclusion in the Suburbs |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27890703 |journal=The Urban Lawyer |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=417–448 |jstor=27890703 |issn=0042-0905}}</ref>  Performance zoning balances principles of markets and private property rights with environmental protection goals.<ref name=":3" /> However, performance zoning can be extremely difficult to implement due to the complexity of preparing an impact study for each project,<ref name="Hirt 2014" />{{rp||pages=|page=77}} and can require the supervising authority to exercise a lot of discretion.<ref name=":3" /> Performance zoning has not been adopted widely in the US.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gray |first=M. Nolan |title=Arbitrary lines: how zoning broke the American city and how to fix it |date=2022 |publisher=Island Press |isbn=978-1-64283-254-9 |location=Washington Covelo [Calif.] |pages=47 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":7" /> 

==== Incentive zoning ====
Incentive zoning allows property developers to develop land more intensively, such as with greater density or taller buildings, in exchange for providing some public benefits, such as environmental amenities or affordable housing units.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Homsy |first1=George C. |last2=Kang |first2=Ki Eun |date=2023-01-02 |title=Zoning Incentives: Exploring a Market-Based Land Use Planning Tool |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01944363.2022.2050935 |journal=[[Journal of the American Planning Association]] |language=en |volume=89 |issue=1 |pages=61–71 |doi=10.1080/01944363.2022.2050935 |issn=0194-4363}}</ref> The public benefits most often incentivised by US cities are "mixed-use development, open space conservation, walkability, affordable housing, and public parks."<ref name=":1" /> 

Incentive zoning allows for a high degree of flexibility, but may be complex to administer. The more a proposed development takes advantage of incentive criteria, the more closely it has to be reviewed on a discretionary basis. The initial creation of the incentive structure in order to best serve planning priorities also may be challenging and often requires extensive ongoing revision to maintain balance between incentive magnitude and value given to developers.<ref name=":82" /> Incentive zoning may be most effective in communities with well-established standards and where demand for both land and for specific amenities is high. However, hidden costs may still offset its benefits.<ref name=":7" /> Incentive zoning has also been criticized for increasing traffic, reducing natural light, and offering developers larger rewards than those reaped by the public.<ref name=":82">{{Cite news |last=Lueck |first=Thomas J. |date=1989-07-23 |title=The Bulk-for-Benefits Deal in Zoning |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/23/realestate/the-bulk-for-benefits-deal-in-zoning.html |access-date=2021-12-05 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

=== Additional provisions ===
Additional zoning provisions exist that are not their own distinct types of zoning but seek to improve existing varieties through the incorporation of flexible practices and other elements such as [[Information and communications technology|information and communication technologies]] (ICTs).<ref name=":9">{{Citation |last1=Arif |first1=Hassan |title=Experiments with Smart Zoning for Smart Cities |date=2015 |work=Smart Cities as Democratic Ecologies |pages=173–199 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137377203_12 |access-date=2021-12-05 |place=London |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |doi=10.1057/9781137377203_12 |isbn=978-1-137-37719-7 |last2=Cole |first2=Roland J. |last3=Cole |first3=Isabel A.}}</ref>

==== Smart zoning ====
{{See also|Smart growth|Smart city}}Smart zoning is a broad term that consists of several alternatives to use-based zoning that incorporate information and communication technologies.<ref name=":92">{{Citation |last1=Arif |first1=Hassan |title=Experiments with Smart Zoning for Smart Cities |date=2015 |work=Smart Cities as Democratic Ecologies |pages=173–199 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137377203_12 |access-date=2021-12-05 |place=London |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |doi=10.1057/9781137377203_12 |isbn=978-1-137-37719-7 |last2=Cole |first2=Roland J. |last3=Cole |first3=Isabel A.}}</ref> There are a number of different techniques to accomplish smart zoning. Floating zones, cluster zoning, and planned unit developments (PUDs) are possible—even as the conventional use-based code exists{{r|Hirt 2014}}—or the conventional code may be completely replaced by a smart performance or form-based code, as the city of Miami did in 2019.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Miami21: Your City, Your Plan |url=http://www.miami21.org/ |access-date=2021-12-05 |website=www.miami21.org}}</ref> The incorporation of ICTs to measure metrics such as [[walkability]], and the flexibility and adaptability that smart zoning can provide, have been cited as advantages of smart zoning over "non-smart" performance or form-based codes.<ref name=":92" />

==== Floating zones ====
Floating zones describe a zoning district's characteristics and codify requirements for its establishment, but its location remains unspecified until conditions exist to implement that type of zoning district.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=Property Topics and Concepts |url=https://www.planning.org/divisions/planningandlaw/propertytopics.htm |access-date=2021-12-05 |website=American Planning Association}}</ref> When the criteria for implementation of a floating zone are met, the floating zone ceases "to float" and its location is established by a zoning amendment.<ref name=":7" /> 

==== Cluster zoning ====
Cluster zoning permits residential uses to be clustered more closely together than normally allowed, thereby leaving substantial land area to be devoted to open space.<ref name=":10" /> Cluster zoning has been favored for its preservation of open space and reduction in construction and utility costs via consolidation,<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |title=Cluster Subdivisions |url=https://www.planning.org/pas/reports/report135/ |access-date=2021-12-05 |website=American Planning Association}}</ref> although existing residents may often disapprove due to a reduction in lot sizes.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |title=Residents object to cluster development plans |url=https://www.candgnews.com/news/residents-object-to-cluster-development-plans-109514 |access-date=2021-12-05 |website=www.candgnews.com |language=en}}</ref>

==== Planned unit development (PUD) ====
{{Main|Planned unit development}}
The term planned unit development (PUD) can refer either to the regulatory process or to the development itself.<ref name=":17">{{Cite web |title=FAQs • What is a Planned Unit Development (PUD)? |url=https://www.greenbaywi.gov/Faq.aspx?QID=188 |access-date=2024-02-24 |website=www.greenbaywi.gov}}</ref> A PUD groups multiple compatible land uses within a single unified development.<ref name=":17" /> A PUD can be residential, mixed-use, or a larger master-planned community.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web |date=2024-01-17 |title=Planned Unit Developments: What Real Estate Agents Should Know |url=https://www.nar.realtor/residential-real-estate/planned-unit-developments |access-date=2024-02-24 |website=www.nar.realtor |language=en}}</ref> Rather than being governed by standard zoning ordinances, the developer negotiates terms with the local government.<ref name=":18" /> At best, a PUD provides flexibility to create convenient ways for residents to access commercial and other amenities.<ref name=":18" /> In the US, residents of a PUD have an ongoing role in management of the development through a [[Homeowner association|homeowner's association]].<ref name=":18" />

==== Pattern zoning ====
Pattern zoning is a zoning technique in which a municipality provides licensed, pre-approved building designs, typically with an expedited permitting process.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Steuteville |first=Robert |date=2020-05-12 |title='Pattern zone' enables quality infill development |url=https://www.cnu.org/publicsquare/2020/05/12/pattern-zone-enables-quality-infill-development |access-date=2021-04-18 |website=CNU |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Progress |first=Cydney Baron/Special to the |title=City forges ahead with zoning overhaul |url=https://www.claremoreprogress.com/news/city-forges-ahead-with-zoning-overhaul/article_ea42ffa8-1d57-11eb-b83e-bf1020a81e6f.html |access-date=2021-04-18 |website=Claremore Daily Progress |date=3 November 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Third Place » Montgomery County Needs 'Cookie Cutter' Urban Design to 'bake' a Better Future {{!}} MontgomeryPlanning.org |url=https://montgomeryplanning.org/blog-design/2020/10/montgomery-county-needs-cookie-cutter-urban-design-to-bake-a-better-future/ |access-date=2021-04-18 |website=montgomeryplanning.org}}</ref> Pattern zoning is used to reduce barriers to housing development, create more affordable housing, reduce burdens on permit-review staff, and create quality housing designs within a certain neighborhood or jurisdiction.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=MRSC - What's Not to Like? – Pre-Approved Plans Offer Faster Permitting, Cheaper Housing, Quality Design |url=https://mrsc.org/Home/Stay-Informed/MRSC-Insight/July-2014/What%E2%80%99s-Not-to-Like-%E2%80%93-Pre-Approved-Plans-Offer-Fast.aspx |access-date=2021-04-18 |website=mrsc.org}}</ref> Pattern zoning may also be used to promote certain building types such as [[missing middle housing]] and affordable small-scale commercial properties.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Petty |first=Matthew |date=2018-07-30 |title=Save the Suburbs with Pattern Zones |url=http://buildabetterburb.org/save-the-suburbs-with-pattern-zones/ |access-date=2021-04-18 |website=Build a Better Burb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Grabar |first=Henry |date=2021-04-12 |title="Good Design" Is Making Bad Cities |url=https://slate.com/business/2021/04/good-design-bad-cities-zoning-commissions-preservation-boards.html |access-date=2021-04-18 |website=Slate Magazine |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=July 2018 |title=Metrotrends Demographic Review and Outlook |url=https://nebula.wsimg.com/0fa4fd0bda312c3d89f4553866d9a4cf?AccessKeyId=3FD24017074D10E681BB&disposition=0&alloworigin=1 |website=Metroplan}}</ref> In some cases, a municipality purchases design patterns and constructs the properties themselves while in other cases the municipality offers the patterns for private development.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pattern Zoning in Midtown |url=https://www.bryantx.gov/midtownpatterns/ |access-date=2021-04-18 |website=City of Bryan, Texas |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Milwaukee's New Home Catalogue |url=https://city.milwaukee.gov/DCD/CityRealEstate/NewHomeCatalogue |access-date=2021-04-18 |website=city.milwaukee.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tribune |first=George Myers Kokomo |title=Urban infill project targets Kokomo neighborhoods |url=https://www.kokomotribune.com/news/local_news/urban-infill-project-targets-kokomo-neighborhoods/article_a9e75f0c-baae-11e8-a896-fb406ecd6aeb.html |access-date=2021-04-18 |website=Kokomo Tribune |date=18 September 2018 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Residential Plans Library {{!}} Roanoke, VA |url=https://www.roanokeva.gov/1297/Residential-Plans-Library |access-date=2021-09-26 |website=www.roanokeva.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=South Bend's Infill Plans Include Pre-Approved Multi-Family Designs |url=https://www.planetizen.com/news/2022/08/118531-south-bends-infill-plans-include-pre-approved-multi-family-designs |access-date=2022-09-03 |website=www.planetizen.com |language=en}}</ref>

==== Hybrid zoning ====
A hybrid zoning code combines two or more approaches, often use-based and form-based zoning.<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal |last=Strungys |first=Arista |date=May 2008 |title=The Five Steps to a Hybrid Code |url=https://planning-org-uploaded-media.s3.amazonaws.com/document/Zoning-Practice-2008-05.pdf |journal=Zoning Practice |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=2–7}}</ref> Hybrid zoning can be used to introduce form and design considerations into an existing community's zoning without completely rewriting the zoning ordinance.<ref name=":24" />

Composite zoning is a particular type of hybrid zoning that combines use, form, and site design components: 

* the use component establishes how land can be used within a district, as in use-based or functional zoning;
* the form (also known as architectural) component sets standards for building design, such as height and facades; 
* the site design component specifies how buildings are situated on the site, such as setbacks and open space.<ref name=":25">[https://salisbury.md/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Zoning-Best-Practices_Summary09182020.pdf Analysis of Zoning Code Best Practices: City of Salisbury, MD – Zoning Code Rewrite]. September, 2020. p. 5</ref>

An advantage of composite zoning is the ability to create flexible zoning districts for smoother transitions between adjacent properties with different uses.<ref name=":25" />

==== Inclusionary zoning ====
{{Main|Inclusionary zoning}}
Inclusionary zoning refers to policies to increase the number of housing units within a development that are affordable to low and middle-income households. These policies can be mandatory as part of performance zoning<ref name=":3" /> or based on voluntary incentives,<ref name=":1" /> such as allowing greater density of development.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inclusionary Zoning and Mixed-Income Communities {{!}} HUD USER |url=https://www.huduser.gov/portal/periodicals/em/spring13/highlight3.html |access-date=2024-02-24 |website=www.huduser.gov |archive-date=17 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117064654/https://www.huduser.gov/portal/periodicals/em/spring13/highlight3.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==== Overlay zoning ====
An overlay zone is a zoning district that overlaps one or more zoning districts to address a particular concern or feature of that area, such as wetlands, historic buildings or [[transit-oriented development]].<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.reconnectingamerica.org/assets/Uploads/bestpractice230.pdf |title=Model Transit-Oriented District Overlay Zoning Ordinance |author=Community Design + Architecture, Inc |date=June 29, 2001 |publisher= |page= |docket= |quote= |author-link= |access-date=March 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303173601/http://www.reconnectingamerica.org/assets/Uploads/bestpractice230.pdf |archive-date=March 3, 2024}}</ref> Overlay zoning has the advantage of providing targeted regulation to address a specific issue, such as a natural hazard, without having to significantly rewrite an existing zoning ordinance.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |title=Overlay Zoning {{!}} Planning For Hazards |url=https://planningforhazards.com/overlay-zoning |access-date=2024-02-25 |website=planningforhazards.com |archive-date=25 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225151420/https://planningforhazards.com/overlay-zoning |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, development of overlay zoning regulation often requires significant technical expertise.<ref name=":22" />

==== Transferable development rights ====
{{Main|Transferable development rights}}

Transferable development rights, also known as transfer of development credits and transferable development units,<ref>American Farmland Trust. April, 2008. "[http://www.farmland.org//programs/states/wa/documents/APPENDIXH-Transferofdevelopmentrights.pdf Transfer of Development Rights: Fact Sheet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110116082248/http://www.farmland.org//programs/states/wa/documents/APPENDIXH-Transferofdevelopmentrights.pdf |date=16 January 2011 }}." Washington, D.C.</ref> are based on the concept that with land ownership comes the right of use of land, or [[land development]]. These land-based development rights can, in some jurisdictions, be used, unused, sold, or otherwise transferred by the owner of a parcel.<ref name=":23">{{Cite book |last1=Nelson |first1=Arthur C. |title=The TDR Handbook: Designing and Implementing Transfer of Development Rights Programs |last2=Pruetz |first2=Rick |last3=Woodruff |first3=Doug |publisher=Island Press |year=2011 |isbn=9781610911597 |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=3 |language=en}}</ref> These are typically used to transfer development rights from rural areas (sending sites) to urban areas (receiving sites) with more demand and infrastructure to support development.<ref name=":23" />

==== Spot zoning ====
{{Main|Spot zoning}}

Spot zoning is a controversial practice in which a small part of a larger zoning district is rezoned in a way that is not consistent with the community's broader planning process.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Owens |first=David |date=2011-03-09 |title=Is This Spot Legal? |url=https://canons.sog.unc.edu/2011/03/is-this-spot-legal/ |access-date=2024-02-25 |website=Coates’ Canons NC Local Government Law |language=en-US}}</ref> While a jurisdiction can rezone even a single parcel of land in some cases, spot zoning is often disallowed when the change would conflict with the policies and objectives of existing land-use plans.<ref name=":28">{{Cite journal |last=Widner |first=Robert C. |date=Spring 2001 |title=Avoiding Spot Zoning |url=https://plannersweb.com/wp-content/uploads/2001/04/265.pdf |journal=Planning Commissioners Journal |volume=2001 |issue=2 |pages=15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303180158/https://plannersweb.com/wp-content/uploads/2001/04/265.pdf |archive-date=March 3, 2024}}</ref> Other factors that may be considered in these cases are the size of the parcel, the zoning categories involved, how adjacent properties are zoned and used, and expected benefits and harms to the landowner, neighbors, and community.<ref name=":28" />

==== Conditional zoning ====
Conditional zoning is a legislative process in which site-specific standards and conditions become part of the zoning ordinance at the request of the property owner.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web |last=Owens |first=David |date=2012-11-13 |title=A Conditional What? Clarifying Some Confusing Zoning Terminology |url=https://canons.sog.unc.edu/2012/11/a-conditional-what-clarifying-some-confusing-zoning-terminology/ |access-date=2024-02-25 |website=Coates’ Canons NC Local Government Law |language=en-US}}</ref> The conditions may be more or less restrictive than the standard zoning.<ref name=":19" /> Conditional zoning can be considered [[spot zoning]] and can be challenged on those grounds.<ref name=":19" />

Conditional zoning should not be confused with conditional-use permits (also called [[Special-use permit|special-use permits]]), a quasi-judicial process that enables land uses that, because of their special nature, may be suitable only in certain locations, or when arranged or operated in a particular manner.<ref name=":20">{{cite web |year=2015 |title=Zoning and Conditional Use Permits |url=https://www.ca-ilg.org/hn-online-guide/zoning-and-conditional-use-permits |publisher=Institute for Local Government}}</ref><ref name=":19" /> Uses which might be disallowed under current zoning, such as a school or a community center, can be permitted via conditional-use permits.<ref name=":20" />

==== Contract zoning ====
{{Main|Contract zoning}}Contract zoning is a controversial practice in which there is a bilateral agreement between a property owner and a local government to rezone a property in exchange for a commitment from the developer.<ref>Fraietta,  Philip, Contract & Conditional Zoning Without Romance: A Public Choice Analysis (March 1, 2013). Fordham Law Review, Vol. 81, No. 4, 2013,  Available at SSRN: <nowiki>https://ssrn.com/abstract=2207482</nowiki> or <nowiki>http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2207482</nowiki> </ref> It typically involves loosening restrictions on how the property can be used.<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal |last=Trager |first=David G. |date=1963 |title=Contract Zoning |url=http://digitalcommons.law.umaryland.edu/mlr/vol23/iss2/2 |journal=Maryland Law Review |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=121–155}}</ref> Contract zoning is controversial and sometimes prohibited because it deviates from the broader planning process and has been considered an illegal bargaining away of the government's police powers to enforce zoning.<ref name=":21" />

==== Fiscal zoning ====
Fiscal zoning is a controversial practice in which local governments use land use regulation, including zoning, to encourage land uses that generate high tax revenue and exclude uses that place a high demand on public services.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/economics/local-taxation-land-use-regulation-and-land-use_52da7c6a-en |title=Local taxation, land use regulation, and land use: A survey of the evidence |last1=Blöchliger |first1=Hansjörg |last2=Hilber |first2=Christian |date=2017-03-07 |publisher=OECD |location=Paris |language=en |last3=Schöni |first3=Olivier |last4=Ehrlich |first4=Maximilian von}}</ref>

==Effectiveness and criticism==
{{more citations needed section|date=December 2020}}

Environmental activists argue that putting everyday uses out of walking distance of each other leads to an increase in traffic, since people have to own cars in order to live a normal life where their basic human needs are met, and get in their cars and drive to meet their needs throughout the day. Single-use zoning and [[urban sprawl]] have also been criticized as making work–family balance more difficult to achieve, as greater distances need to be covered in order to integrate the different life domains.<ref>Katharine Baird Silbaugh: ''Women's Place: Urban Planning, Housing Design, and Work-Family Balance'', Fordham Law Review, Vol. 76, 2008 Boston Univ. School of Law Working Paper No. 07-12. Downloaded on January 15, 2012, from: Social Science Research Network {{SSRN|995184}}, see page 1825</ref> These issues are especially acute in the United States, with its high level of [[economics of car use|car usage]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2016/04/absurd-primacy-of-the-car-in-american-life/476346/ |title=The Absurd Primacy of the Automobile in American Life |publisher=The Atlantic |year=2016}}</ref> combined with insufficient or poorly maintained [[urban rail transit|urban rail]] and [[rapid transit|metro]] systems.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2018-08-31/why-is-american-mass-transit-so-bad-it-s-a-long-story |title=Why Did America Give Up on Mass Transit? |newspaper=Bloomberg.com |publisher=Bloomberg |year=2018}}</ref>

Some economists<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/466803 | doi=10.1086/466803 | title=The Choice of the Institutional Framework: A Comment | date=1974 | last1=Coase | first1=R. H. | journal=The Journal of Law and Economics | volume=17 | issue=2 | pages=493–496 }}</ref> claim that zoning laws work against economic efficiency, reduce responsiveness to consumer demands and hinder development in a free economy, as poor zoning restrictions hinder the more efficient usage of a given area. Even without zoning restrictions, a landfill, for example, would likely gravitate to cheaper land and not a residential area. Single-use zoning laws can get in the way of creative developments like mixed-use buildings and can even stop harmless activities like yard sales.<ref>[https://mises.org/daily/2077 Zoning is Theft - Jim Fedako - Mises Daily]. Mises.org. Retrieved on 2013-07-19.</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=October 2020|certain=y}} The Houston example of ''non-zoning'' or ''private zoning'' with no restriction on particular land use but with other development code<ref>[https://kinder.rice.edu/urbanedge/2020/01/09/no-zoning-in-Houston-there-are-workarounds Fulton, B. (2020, January 12). Houston doesn’t have zoning, but there are workarounds.]</ref> shows a combination of private and public planning.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Lai | first1=Lawrence WC | title="As planning is everything, it is good for something!" A Coasian economic taxonomy of modes of planning | journal=Planning Theory | date=2016 | volume=15 | issue=3 | pages=255–273 | doi=10.1177/1473095214542632 | url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1473095214542632 }}</ref>

Other critics of zoning argue that zoning laws are a disincentive to provide housing which results in an increase in housing costs and a decrease in productive economic output.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/chasing-the-dream/2021/02/how-zoning-can-restrict-affordable-housing/ |title=How zoning can restrict, or even prevent, affordable housing |publisher=PBS |date=1 February 2021}}</ref> For example, A 2017 study showed that if all states deregulated their zoning laws only halfway to the level of Texas, a state known for low zoning regulations, their GDP would increase by 12 percent due to more productive workers and opportunity.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.nber.org/papers/w23790 |title=Tarnishing the Golden and Empire States: Land-Use Restrictions and the U.S. Economic Slowdown |publisher=National Bureau of Economic Research |date=September 2017|doi=10.3386/w23790 |last1=Herkenhoff |first1=Kyle |last2=Ohanian |first2=Lee |last3=Prescott |first3=Edward |doi-access=free }}</ref> Furthermore, critics note that it impedes the ability of those that wish to provide charitable housing from doing so. For example, in 2022, Gloversville's Free Methodist Church in New York wished to provide 40 beds for the homeless population in {{Convert|-4|F|C}} weather and were inhibited from doing so.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://reason.com/2022/01/14/while-temperatures-drop-below-zero-degrees-zoning-officials-wont-let-this-cold-weather-homeless-shelter-open/ |magazine=[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]| title=Zoning Officials Stop Church From Opening 40-Bed Shelter in Sub-Zero Temperatures |date=14 January 2022}}</ref> 

[[Corruption]] is a challenge for zoning.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24579486C | jstor=24579486 | title=Corruption in land-use issues: A crucial challenge for planning theory and practice | last1=Chiodelli | first1=Francesco | last2=Moroni | first2=Stefano | journal=The Town Planning Review | date=2015 | volume=86 | issue=4 | pages=437–455 | doi=10.3828/tpr.2015.27 | hdl=11311/973651 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> Some have argued that zoning laws increase [[economic inequality]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/11/zoning-laws-and-the-rise-of-economic-inequality/417360/|title=How Zoning Laws Exacerbate Inequality |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |date=23 November 2015}}</ref> Empirical effectiveness estimates show some zoning approaches can contribute to [[housing crisis]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Kwong | first1=Jason W.Y. | last2=Lai | first2=Lawrence W.C. | last3=Chau | first3=K.W. | last4=Chan | first4=Vincent N.H. | title=A race between urban growth and regulation: An empirical case study on the layout plan | journal=Land Use Policy | date=2021 | volume=101 | article-number=105184 | doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105184 | bibcode=2021LUPol.10105184K | url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105184 }}</ref>

==Alternatives==
In [[Houston, Texas]], the lack of a local zoning ordinance means that property owners make heavy use of [[deed restriction]]s to prevent unwanted development.<ref name="Houston Landing">{{cite news |url=https://houstonlanding.org/no-zoning-in-houston-provides-flexibility-complications-experts-say-why-does-it-matter/ |publisher=Houston Landing |title='No zoning' in Houston provides flexibility, complications, experts say. Why does it matter? |author1=Hanna Holthaus |author2=Elena Bruess |date=January 3, 2025}}</ref> This practice is sometimes known as "private zoning".<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://scholarship.law.vanderbilt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3375&context=vlr |journal=Vanderbilt Law Review |volume=24 |issue=5 |date=October 1971 |title=Legal and Policy Conflicts Between Deed Covenants and Subsequently Enacted Zoning Ordinances |author=Wade B. Perry, Jr}}</ref> Non-zoned land regulations can still include requirements like minimum lot size and setbacks.<ref name="Planetizen" />

==By country==
{{more citations needed|section|date=May 2021}}
{{globalize|section|English-speaking world|date=May 2021}}

===Australia===
{{Main article|Urban planning in Australia}}

The legal framework for land use zoning in Australia is established by [[states and territories of Australia|States and Territories]], hence each State or Territory has different zoning rules. Land use zones are generally defined at [[local government in Australia|local government level]], and most often called Planning Schemes. In reality, however in all cases the state governments have an absolute ability to overrule the local decision-making. There are administrative appeal processes such as [[Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal|VCAT]] to challenge decisions.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!  State / Territory
!  Planning framework
!  Land use regulation
|-
| [[Australian Capital Territory|ACT]]
|  [http://www.legislation.act.gov.au/ni/2008-27/20110415-47623/default.asp Territory Plan 2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316102917/http://www.legislation.act.gov.au/ni/2008-27/20110415-47623/default.asp |date=16 March 2012 }}
|  Land Use Policy
|-
| [[New South Wales|NSW]]
|  Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979
|  Local Environmental Plans (LEP)
|-
| [[Northern Territory|NT]]
|  Planning Act
|  Planning Scheme
|-
| [[Queensland|QLD]]
|  Sustainable Planning Act 2009 repealed. Planning Act 2016
|  Planning Schemes
|-
| [[South Australia|SA]]
|  Planning, Development and Infrastructure Act 2016
|  Planning and Design Code
|-
| [[Tasmania|TAS]]
|  Land Use Planning and Approvals Act 1993
|  Planning Schemes
|-
| [[Victoria (Australia)|VIC]]
| [[Planning and Environment Act 1987]]
|  Planning Schemes
|-
| [[Western Australia|WA]]
|  Planning and Development Act 2005
|  Planning Schemes
|}

[[Urban planning|Statutory planning]], otherwise known as town planning, development control or development management, refers to the part of the planning process that is concerned with the regulation and management of changes to land use and development.<ref>Gleeson B. and Low N., ''Australian Urban Planning: New Challenges, New Agendas'', Allen & Unwin, St Leonards, 2000.</ref> Planning and zoning have a great political dimension, with governments often criticized for favouring developers; also [[nimbyism]] is very prevalent.

===Canada===

In Canada, land-use control is a provincial responsibility deriving from the constitutional authority over property and civil rights. This authority had been granted to the provinces under the [[British North America Acts]] of 1867 and was carried forward in the [[Constitution Act, 1982]]. The zoning power relates to ''real property'', or land and the improvements constructed thereon that become part of the land itself (in Québec, ''immeubles''). The provinces empowered the municipalities and regions to control the use of land within their boundaries, letting the municipalities establish their own zoning by-laws. There are provisions for control of land use in unorganized areas of the provinces. Provincial tribunals are the ultimate authority for appeals and reviews.

=== France ===

In France, the Code of Urbanism ({{langx|fr|[[:fr:Code de l'urbanisme (France)|Code de l’urbanisme]]}}, also called the Town Planning Code), a national law, guides regional and local planning and outlines procedures for obtaining building permits. Unlike England where planners must use their discretion to allow use or building type changes, private development in France is permitted as long as the developer follows the legally-binding regulations.

=== Japan ===

Zoning districts are classified into twelve use zones.<ref name="mlit:1">{{Cite web |date=January 2003 |title=Introduction to Land use Planning System in Japan |url=http://www.mlit.go.jp/common/000234477.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913101110/http://www.mlit.go.jp/common/000234477.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2014 |access-date=June 7, 2022 |publisher=[[Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism]]}}</ref> Each zone determines a building's shape and permitted uses. A building's shape is controlled by zonal restrictions on allowable [[floor area ratio]] and height (in absolute terms and in relation with adjacent buildings and roads).<ref name=":1" /> These controls are intended to allow adequate light and ventilation between buildings and on roads.<ref name=":1" /> Instead of single-use zoning, zones are defined by the "most intense" use permitted. Uses of lesser intensity are permitted in zones where higher intensity uses are permitted but higher intensity uses are not allowed in lower intensity zones.<ref name=":1" />

{{Excerpt|Japanese land law|Land Use Zones|only=table}}

===New Zealand===
{{Main article|Resource Management Act 1991}}

New Zealand's planning system is grounded in effects-based Performance Zoning under the Resource Management Act.

===Philippines===
Zoning and land use planning in the Philippines is governed by the [[Department of Human Settlements and Urban Development]] (DHSUD) and previously by the Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board (HLURB), which lays out national zoning guidelines and regulations, and oversees the preparation and implementation of comprehensive land use plans (CLUPs) and zoning ordinances by city and municipal governments under their mandate in the [[Local Government Code of 1991]] (Republic Act No. 7160).

The present zoning scheme used in the Philippines is detailed in the HLURB's Model Zoning Ordinance published in 2014, which outlines 26 basic zone types based on primary usage and building regulations (as defined in the National Building Code), and also includes [[Public domain (land)|public domain]] and water bodies within the municipality's jurisdiction.<ref name="CLUP 3">{{cite book |title=CLUP Guidebook – A Guide to Comprehensive Land Use Plan Preparation |url=https://dhusd.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/Publication/Guidebooks/HLURB_CLUP_Vol_3.pdf |publisher=Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board |volume=3 |date=2014 |access-date=May 4, 2021}}</ref> Local governments may also add overlays identifying special use zones such as areas prone to [[natural disaster]]s, [[ancestral land]]s of [[Indigenous peoples of the Philippines|indigenous peoples]] (IPs), heritage zones, [[ecotourism]] areas, [[transit-oriented development]]s (TODs), and scenic corridors. Residential and commercial zones are further subdivided into subclasses defined by density, commercial zones also allow for residential uses, and industrial zones are subdivided by their intensity and the environmental impact of the uses allowed.<ref name="CLUP 3" />  Regulations on residential, commercial, and industrial zones may differ between municipalities, so one municipality may permit 4-storey buildings on medium-density residential zones, while another may only permit 2-storey buildings.<ref>{{cite web |title=4.15. Zoning Ordinance |url=http://www.cookbook.hlurb.gov.ph/4-15-zoning-ordinance |publisher=Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board |date=November 26, 2007 |access-date=January 15, 2018 |archive-date=24 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224135818/http://www.cookbook.hlurb.gov.ph/4-15-zoning-ordinance |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{|class="wikitable"
!Type
!Description
|-
|Forest
|Forested areas, subdivided into protection forests and productions forests. Protection forests includes forest reserves, [[List of national parks of the Philippines|national parks]] and [[List of protected areas of the Philippines|protected areas]], military reserves and civil reserves, and forested urban buffer zones. Production forest includes forestry lands, special use zones, and grazing lands.
|-
|Agriculture
|Land intended for agricultural activities, including land cultivation, tree growing, livestock, poultry, fisheries and aquaculture. Subdivided into protection agriculture (agriculture protection zones as designated by the [[Department of Agriculture (Philippines)|Department of Agriculture]]) and production agriculture
|-
|Agro-industrial
|Intended for integrated farms and processing of harvested crops.
|-
|Municipal waters
|All water bodies under the jurisdiction of the municipality, as defined in the Fisheries Code (Republic Act 8550), excluding areas designated as protected areas by the national government. Subdivided into [[Marine sanctuary|fishery refuge and sanctuary]], [[foreshore]] land, [[mangrove]], [[River delta|delta]]/[[estuary]], lakes, aquaculture zones, commercial fishing zones, municipal fishing zones, and [[sea lane]]s.
|-
|Mineral land
|Lands intended for mining. Subdivided into mineral reservations, small-scale mining zones and [[quarry|quarries]].
|-
|General residential
|Intended principally for housing.
|-
|Residential-1 (R-1)
|Intended for low-rise, low-density, single-family housing, such as single-detached homes, [[Duplex (building)|duplex]] houses, and [[Subdivision (land)|subdivisions]]. Also permitted are home occupations and businesses, [[sari-sari stores]], home-based [[cottage industries]], local recreational facilities, nurseries and daycares, elementary schools, tutors, places of worship, [[barangay]] halls, and local health centers. Buildings can be up to three stories and a height of {{convert|10|m|sp=us}}.
|-
|Residential-2 (R-2)
|Intended for low-rise, medium-density, multi-family dwellings. Buildings can be up to five stories and a height of {{convert|15|m|sp=us}}. All uses in R-1 zones, apartments, [[boarding house]]s, [[Dormitory|dormitories]], high schools, technical schools, museums, and libraries permitted. Subdivided into basic R-2 and maximum R-2, with the former having a limit of three stories and {{convert|10|m|sp=us}}.

|-
|Residential-3 (R-3)
|Intended for low- to medium-rise, medium- to high-density, multi-family dwellings. Buildings can be up to twelve stories and a height of {{convert|36|m|sp=us}} All uses in R-1 and R-2 zones, residential [[Condominium (living space)|condominium]]s, and commercial accommodation (hotels, pension houses, hotel apartments, except motels), and parking buildings permitted. Subdivided into basic R-3 and maximum R-3, with the former having a height limit of three stories and {{convert|10|m|sp=us}}.

|-
|Residential-4 (R-4)
|Intended for [[townhouse]]s. Buildings can be up to three stories and a height of {{convert|10|m|sp=us}} All uses in R-1 and R-2 zones permitted.

|-
|Residential-5 (R-5)
|Intended for medium- to high-rise, high-density, and multi-family dwellings such as high-rise residential condominiums. Buildings can be up to 18 stories and a height of {{convert|54|m|sp=us}}. All uses in R-1 through R-4 zones permitted.

|-
|Socialised housing
|Intended for areas designated for [[Affordable housing|socialised housing]] projects undertaken by the Philippine government or the private sector to house underprivileged citizens and the homeless. Allowed uses defined in Batas Pambansa No. 220.

|-
|General commercial
|Intended for businesses, trade and services.

|-
|Commercial-1 (C-1)
|Intended for low-density, neighborhood-scale businesses. All uses in R-1 zones also permitted. Buildings can be up to 3 stories and a height of {{convert|10|m|sp=us}}.

|-
|Commercial-2 (C-2)
|Intended for medium- to high-density business activity complementing or supplementing the city or municipality's [[central business district]] (CBD).

All uses in R-1, R-2, and C-1 zones allowed, with the addition of wholesale stores, [[Palengke|public markets]], malls, supermarkets, [[call center|call centre]]s, broadcasting and film studios, [[car dealerships]], automotive-related services, scrap dealers, hardware stores, construction-related businesses, garden stores, signmakers, welders, furniture makers, commercial condominiums, ''[[lechon]]'' stores, ''[[chicharon]]'' factories, and [[motel]]s. Buildings can be up to 6 stories and a height of {{convert|18|m|sp=us}}.

|-
|Commercial-3 (C-3)
|High-density commercial area forming a city or municipality's CBD.

All uses in R-3, R-4, R-5, C-1 and C-2 zones allowed, with the addition of regional shopping malls. Buildings can be up to 60 stories and a height of {{convert|180|m|sp=us}}.

|-
|Industrial-1 (I-1)
|Intended for light manufacturing or production activities that are non-polluting.

Some allowed uses are [[dried fish]] production, biscuit factories, boat, [[pump boat]]/motor ''banca'' and small watercraft manufacturing, printing presses, most electronics factories, medical equipment manufacturing, wooden furniture manufacturing, garments factories, water pumping station, sewage or wastewater treatment plants, and warehouses for non-polluting and non-hazardous products. Areas can have parks or playgrounds. Buildings can be up to a height of {{convert|15|m|sp=us}}.

|-
|Industrial-2 (I-2)
|Intended for medium-intensity manufacturing or production activities that are polluting.

Some permitted uses are canning plants, rice or corn mills, animal feed mills medicine and pharmaceutical manufacturers, metal and plastic furniture manufacturers, glass factories garments and textile factories, rice mills, flour mills, cigar and cigarette factories, vehicle manufacturers, shipyards, hangars, warehouses for polluting and hazardous products, paint stores, and large slaughterhouses. Areas can have parks or playgrounds. Buildings can be up to a height of {{convert|21|m|sp=us}}.

|-
|Industrial-3 (I-3)
|Intended for high-intensity manufacturing or production activities that are usually highly polluting and extremely hazardous.

Some permitted uses include meat processing plants (except those for ham, bacon, sausages and chicharon) soft drink factories, sugar mills, paper mills, cement factories, chemical plants, steel plants, textile factories, canned fish factories, ''[[bagoong]]'' and ''[[Fish sauce|patis]]'' factories,  oil depots, terminals and refineries, warehouses for highly polluting and hazardous products, and power plants. Areas can have parks or playgrounds. Buildings can be up to a height of {{convert|27|m|sp=us}}.

|-
| General institutional
| Intended primarily for government or civic centers, police and fire stations, government buildings, higher education institutions (college, universities, vocational, technical or trade schools), learning facilities (libraries, training centres), scientific, cultural and academic centres, convention centres, hospitals and medical centres, places of worship, seminaries or convents, and embassies/consulates. Buildings can be up to a height of {{convert|15|m|sp=us}}.

|-
| Special institutional
| Intended primarily for social welfare institutions (orphanages, Boys/Girls Town, [[Nursing home|homes for the aged]]), [[rehabilitation center|rehabilitation centre]]s, military installations, prisons and other correctional institutions, [[Leprosarium|leprosaria]], and [[Psychiatric hospital|mental health asylum]]s. Buildings can be up to a height of {{convert|15|m|sp=us}}.

|-
| Parks and recreation
| Intended for parks and recreational facilities like playgrounds, resort complexes, sports facilities, memorials/shrines and open spaces serving as [[buffer zone]]s or [[easement]]s. Buildings can be up to a height of {{convert|15|m|sp=us}}.

|-
| Cemetery/memorial park
| Area intended for cemeteries or memorial parks, including columbaria, crematoria, and ossuaries. Buildings can be up to a height of {{convert|15|m|sp=us}}, and site subject to DHUSD regulations.

|-
| Buffer/greenbelt
| Yard, parks or open spaces intended to serve as a buffer zone or [[greenbelt]] between conflicting land use zones. Allowed uses are parks and related structures, plant nurseries, agriculture, silviculture and horticulture. No permanent structures are permitted, and any buildings can be only up to a height of {{convert|6|m|sp=us}}.

|-
| Utilities, transportation and services
| Area designated for use by functional buildings and structures used for utilities, transportation, and other public services. Permitted uses include bus terminals and train stations, ports, airports, power plants, landfills and waste management facilities, weather and climate management stations, telecommunications facilities, and large complexes for other public services. Buildings can be up to a height of {{convert|15|m|sp=us}}.

|-
|Tourism
|Areas dedicated for tourism activity. Allowed uses include [[agritourism]], resort areas, [[theme park]]s, heritage/historical sites, tourist accommodation, souvenir shops, and outdoor sports grounds.
|}

===Singapore===
{{Main article|Urban planning in Singapore}}

The framework for governing land uses in Singapore is administered by the [[Urban Redevelopment Authority]] (URA) through the Master Plan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ura.gov.sg/MP08|title=URA Master Plan 2008 website}}</ref> The Master Plan is a statutory document divided into two sections: the plans and the Written Statement. The plans show the land use zoning allowed across Singapore, while the Written Statement provides a written explanation of the zones available and their allowed uses.

===South Africa===
There are [https://glensburg.co.za/faq/rezoning-south-africa-faqs-zoning-categories/#what-are-the-different-zoning-categories-in-south-africa five (5) zoning categories in South Africa]; residential, business, industrial, agricultural, and open space zoning.<ref name="GTP-SA:3">{{Cite web |date=12 September 2022 |title=Ultimate guide to rezoning a property in South Africa |url=https://glensburg.com/za/faq/rezoning-a-property-in-south-africa/ |access-date=23 September 2023 |website=Glensburg Town Planners }}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nel |first=Verna |date=2016-09-01 |title=A better zoning system for South Africa? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837716300321 |journal=Land Use Policy |volume=55 |pages=257–264 |doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.04.007 |issn=0264-8377}}</ref> These five categories are further classified into subcategories. The zoning categories are governed by the Spatial Planning and Land Use Management Act enacted in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SPLUMA South Africa: FAQs for Homeowners & Developers |url=https://glensburg.co.za/faq/spluma-act-south-africa/ |access-date=24 April 2025 |website=Glensburg Town Planners}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nel |first=Verna |date=2015-10-22 |title=Spluma, Zoning and Effective Land Use Management in South Africa |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12132-015-9265-5 |journal=Urban Forum |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=79–92 |doi=10.1007/s12132-015-9265-5 |issn=1015-3802}}</ref> To change a land use from one zone to another requires a process of [https://glensburg.co.za/faq/rezoning-south-africa-faqs-zoning-categories/ rezoning].<ref name=":3" />

===United Kingdom===
{{Main article|Development control in the United Kingdom}}

The United Kingdom does not use zoning as a technique for controlling land use. British land use control began its modern phase after the [[Town and Country Planning Act 1947|Town and Country Planning Act of 1947]]. Rather than dividing municipal maps into land use zones, English planning law places all development under the control of local and regional governments, effectively abolishing the ability to develop land by-right. However, existing development allows land use by-right as long as the use does not constitute a change in the type of land use. A property owner must apply to change land use type of any existing building, and such changes must be consistent with the local and regional land use plans.

Development control or planning control is the element of the United Kingdom's system of [[Town and country planning in the United Kingdom|town and country planning]] through which [[Local government in the United Kingdom|local government]] regulates [[land use]] and new building. There are 421 [[Local Planning Authority|Local Planning Authorities]] (LPAs) in the United Kingdom. Generally they are the local [[Borough status in the United Kingdom#Modern borough status|borough]] or [[Districts of England#Types|district council]] or a [[unitary authority]]. They each use a discretionary "plan-led system" whereby [[development plan]]s are formed and the public consulted. Subsequent development requires [[planning permission]], which will be granted or refused with reference to the development plan as a material consideration.<ref name="hirt">{{cite book |author=Hirt, Sonia A. |author-link=Sonia Hirt |title=Zoned in the USA: The Origins and Implications of American Land-Use Regulation |pages=63{{endash}}71 |location=Ithaca, New York |year=2014 |publisher=Cornell University Press}}</ref>

The plan does not provide specific guidance on what type of buildings will be allowed in a given location, rather it provides general principles for development and goals for the management of urban change. Because planning committees (made up of directly elected local councillors) or in some cases planning officers themselves (via delegated decisions) have discretion on each application for development or change of use made, the system is considered a 'discretionary' one.

Planning applications can differ greatly in scale, from [[airport]]s and [[new town]]s to minor modifications to individual houses. In order to prevent local authorities from being overwhelmed by high volumes of small-scale applications from individual householders, a separate system of [[permitted development]] has been introduced. Permitted development rules are largely form-based, but in the absence of zoning, are applied at the national level. Examples include allowing a two-storey extension up to three metres at the rear of a property, extensions up to 50% of the original width at each side, and certain types of outbuildings in the garden, provided that no more than 50% of the land area is built over.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.planningportal.co.uk/info/200187/your_responsibilities/37/planning_permission/2 |title=Permitted Development Rights |publisher=United Kingdom Planning Portal}}</ref> These are appropriately sized for a typical three bedroom [[semi-detached]] property, but must be applied across a wide variety of housing types, from [[Two-up two-down|small terraces]], to larger [[Single-family detached home|detached properties]] and [[manor house]]s.

In August 2020, the UK Government published a consultation document called Planning for the Future.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/planning-for-the-future. |title=Planning for the Future |publisher=HM Government |year=2020}}</ref> The proposals hinted at a move toward zoning in England, with areas given a Growth, Renewal or Protected designation, with the possibility of "sub-areas within each category", although the document did not elaborate on what the details of these might have been. Nothing was done with these proposals and following the [[2024_United_Kingdom_general_election|2024 general election]] there are no plans for the UK to adopt zoning within its planning system.

===United States===
{{Main article|Zoning in the United States}}

[[File:TallaLandUse.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.25|Zoning scheme of the center of [[Tallahassee, Florida]], United States]]

Under the [[Police power (United States constitutional law)|police power]] rights, state governments may exercise over private [[real property]]. With this power, special laws and regulations have long been made restricting the places where particular types of business can be carried on. In 1904, [[Los Angeles]] established the nation's first land-use restrictions for a portion of the city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://urbanla.weebly.com/history-of-planning.html |title=History of Planning |website=Urban Planning: Los Angeles}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://recode.la/sites/default/files/file_attachments/basic_page/OrdNo9774-ResidentialDistricts%28July%2025%201904%29.pdf |title=Ordinance #9774 Residential Districts}}</ref> [[New York City]] adopted the [[1916 Zoning Resolution|first zoning regulations]] to apply city-wide in 1916.

The constitutionality of zoning ordinances was upheld by the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] in the 1926 case ''[[Village of Euclid, Ohio v. Ambler Realty Co.]]'' Among large populated cities in the United States, [[Houston]] is unique in having no zoning [[local ordinance|ordinances]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chron.com/CDA/archives/archive.mpl?id=2007_4475351|title=Houston Chronicle, 12-10, 2007}}</ref> The city instead has a proliferation of private [[deed restriction]]s<ref name="Houston Landing" /> and retains government regulations like minimum lot size and setbacks.<ref name="Planetizen">{{cite web |url=https://www.planetizen.com/node/109 |title=Zoning Without Zoning |website=Planetizen - Urban Planning News, Jobs, and Education}}</ref> 

====Scale====
Early zoning practices were subtle and often debated. Some claim the practices started in the 1920s<ref name="Rothwell2010">Rothwell, Jonathan T. and Massey, Douglas S. (2010) "Density Zoning and Class Segregation in U.S. Metropolitan Areas" Social Science Quarterly. Volume 91, Issue 5, pp.1123-1141</ref> while others suggest the birth of zoning occurred in New York in 1916.<ref>Natoli, Salvatore J. (1971) "Zoning and the Development of Urban Land Use Patterns" Economic Geography. Volume 47, Number 2, pp. 171-184</ref> Both of these examples for the start of zoning, however, were urban cases. Zoning becomes an increasing legal force as it continues to expand in its geographical range through its introduction in other urban centres and use in larger political and geographical boundaries. Regional zoning was the next step in increased geographical size of areas under zoning laws.<ref name="Whitnall">Whitnall, Gordon (1931) "History of Zoning" Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Volume 155, Part 2, pp.1-14</ref> A major difference between urban zoning and regional zoning was that "regional areas consequently seldom bear direct relationship to arbitrary political boundaries".<ref name="Whitnall" /> This form of zoning also included rural areas which was counter-intuitive to the theory that zoning was a result of population density.<ref name="Whitnall" /> Finally, zoning also expanded again but back to a political boundary again with state zoning.<ref name="Whitnall" />

====Types in use in the United States====
Use-based zoning, especially single-use zoning, is by far the most common type of zoning in the US, where it is known as Euclidean zoning, after Euclid, Ohio's role in a landmark U.S. Supreme Court case, ''[[Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co.]]''<ref>272 U.S. 365, 71 L.Ed. 303, 47 S.Ct. 114 (1926).</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The architecture student's handbook of professional practice |last=American Institute of Architects |publisher=Wiley |year=2017 |isbn=9781118738955 |location=Hoboken |pages=509 |quote=Euclidean zoning is the most prevalent form of zoning in the United States, and thus is most familiar to planners and design professionals.}}</ref>

====Single-use zoning in the United States====
Single-use zoning takes two forms, flat and hierarchical, also known as cumulative or pyramidal.<ref name="Hirt 2014"/>{{rp||pages=61-63}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 2019 |title=Zoning 101 Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://odh.ohio.gov/wps/wcm/connect/gov/791e1124-7fd6-4782-8392-367a68257391/FAQ_Factsheet_Land+Use+Zoning.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CONVERT_TO=url&CACHEID=ROOTWORKSPACE.Z18_M1HGGIK0N0JO00QO9DDDDM3000-791e1124-7fd6-4782-8392-367a68257391-mJMzfuy |access-date=February 9, 2024 |website=Ohio Department of Health |archive-date=12 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212000146/https://odh.ohio.gov/wps/wcm/connect/gov/791e1124-7fd6-4782-8392-367a68257391/FAQ_Factsheet_Land+Use+Zoning.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CONVERT_TO=url&CACHEID=ROOTWORKSPACE.Z18_M1HGGIK0N0JO00QO9DDDDM3000-791e1124-7fd6-4782-8392-367a68257391-mJMzfuy |url-status=dead }}</ref> Under flat zoning, each district is strictly designated for one use. In a simple hierarchical zoning system, districts are organized with residential (the most sensitive and least disruptive category) at the top, followed by commercial and industrial. Residential and commercial buildings are allowed in industrial zones and residential buildings are allowed in commercial zones.<ref name="Hirt 2014" />{{rp||pages=61-63}} More complex hierarchical systems account for multiple levels within categories, such as multiple types of residential buildings in multifamily residential districts.<ref name="Hirt 2014" />{{rp||pages=|page=130}}  Hierarchical zoning generally fell out of favor in the United States in the mid-twentieth century, with flat zoning becoming more popular, although many municipalities still incorporate some degree of hierarchy in their zoning ordinances.<ref name="Hirt 2014" />{{rp||pages=|page=65}}

Single-use zoning is used by many municipalities due to its ease of implementation (one set of explicit, prescriptive rules), long-established legal precedent, and familiarity to planners and design professionals. Single-use zoning has been criticized, however, for its lack of flexibility. Separation of uses can contribute to [[urban sprawl]], loss of open space, heavy infrastructure costs, and [[automobile dependency]].<ref name="Hirt 2014" />{{rp||pages=266-275}} In particular, [[single-family zoning]], residential districts where only single-family homes can be built, has been widely criticized as a cause of sprawl and racial segregation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Infranca |first=John |date=2023 |title=Singling Out Single-Family Zoning |url=https://www.law.georgetown.edu/georgetown-law-journal/wp-content/uploads/sites/26/2023/06/GT-GGLJ230012.pdf |journal=Georgetown Law Journal |volume=111 |pages=670}}</ref>

====Social problems in the United States====
The United States suffers from greater levels of [[deurbanization]] and [[urban decay]] than other developed countries,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/americas-cities-an-urban-_b_6896628 |title=America's Cities: An 'Urban Crisis' Ignored |work=The Huffington Post |year=2015}}</ref> and additional problems such as [[urban prairie]]s that do not occur elsewhere.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.buffalorising.com/2010/05/what-to-do-about-the-expanding-urban-prairie/ |title=What to do about the expanding urban prairie |publisher=Buffalo Rising |year=2010}}</ref> Jonathan Rothwell has argued that zoning encourages [[racial segregation]].<ref name="Rothwell">Rothwell, Jonathan T. and Massey, Douglas S. (2009) "The Effect of Density Zoning on Racial Segregation in U.S. Urban Areas" Urban Affairs Review. Volume 4, Number 6, pp. 779-806</ref> He claims a strong relationship exists between an area's allowance of building housing at higher density and racial integration between blacks and whites in the United States.<ref name="Rothwell" /> The relationship between segregation and density is explained by Rothwell and Massey as the restrictive density zoning producing higher housing prices in white areas and limiting opportunities for people with modest incomes to leave segregated areas.<ref name="Rothwell" /> Between 1980 and 2000, [[racial integration]] occurred faster in areas that did not have strict density regulations than those that did.<ref name="Rothwell" /> Rothwell and Massey suggest homeowners and business interests are the two key players in density regulations that emerge from a political economy.<ref name="Rothwell" /> They propose that in older states where rural jurisdictions are primarily composed of homeowners, it is the narrow interests of homeowners to block development because tax rates are lower in rural areas, and taxation is more likely to fall on the median homeowner. Business interests are unable to counteract the homeowners' interests in rural areas because business interests are weaker and business ownership is rarely controlled by people living outside the community. This translates into rural communities that have a tendency to resist development by using density regulations to make business opportunities less attractive. Density zoning regulations in the U.S increase [[residential segregation in the United States|residential segregation]] in metropolitan areas by reducing the availability of affordable housing in some jurisdictions; other zoning regulations like school infrastructure regulations and growth controls are also variables associated with higher segregation. With more permissive zoning regulations there are lower levels of segregation; desegregation is higher in places with more liberal regulations on zoning, allowing the residents to integrate racially.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Rothwell |first1=Jonathan |last2=Massey |first2=Douglas S. |title=The Effect of Density Zoning on Racial Segregation in U.S. Urban Areas |journal=Urban Affairs Review |date=July 2009 |volume=44 |issue=6 |pages=779–806 |doi=10.1177/1078087409334163 |pmid=25009413 |pmc=4083588}}</ref> Metropolitan areas that allowed higher density development moved rapidly toward racial integration than their counterparts with strict density limitations. The greater the allowable density, the lower the level of racial segregation.<ref name=":4" />

Zoning laws that limit the construction of new housing (like [[single-family zoning]]) are associated with reduced affordability and are a major factor in [[residential segregation in the United States]] by income and race.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Monkkonen |first1=Paavo |title=The Elephant in the Zoning Code: Single Family Zoning in the Housing Supply Discussion |journal=Housing Policy Debate |date=2019 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=41–43 |doi=10.1080/10511482.2018.1506392|s2cid=158380453 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2hk5k1k6 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Knaap |first1=Gerrit-Jan |last2=Meck |first2=Stuart |last3=Moore |first3=Terry |last4=Parker |first4=Robert |title=Do we know regulatory barriers when we see them? An exploration using zoning and development indicators |journal=Housing Policy Debate |date=2007 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=711–749 |doi=10.1080/10511482.2007.9521619|s2cid=154878958 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Garde |first1=Ajay |last2=Song |first2=Qi |title=Housing Affordability Crisis and Inequities of Land Use Change: Insights From Cities in the Southern California Region |journal=Journal of the American Planning Association |date=2022 |volume=88 |issue=1 |pages=67–82 |doi=10.1080/01944363.2021.1911673 |s2cid=237827933 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/14842783 |quote=Researchers, national and state leaders, and professional and community interest groups argue that regulatory barriers contribute to housing shortages, emphasize that the strictness of land use regulation is correlated with high housing prices, and recommend zoning reform to address the problem}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[Activity centre]]
* [[Agricultural protection zoning]]
* [[Context theory]]
* [[Ekistics]]
* [[Exclusionary zoning]]
* [[Fenceline community]]
* [[Form-based codes]]
* [[Greenspace (disambiguation)]]
** [[Open space reserve]]
** [[Urban open space]]
* [[Inclusionary zoning]]
* [[Land-use conflict]]
* [[Locally unwanted land use]]
* [[Mixed use development]]
* [[New urbanism]]
* [[NIMBY]]
* [[Non-conforming use]]
* [[Planning permission]]
* [[Police power (United States constitutional law)|Police power]]
* [[Principles of Intelligent Urbanism]]
* [[Reverse sensitivity]]
* [[Road]]
* [[Single-use zoning]]
* [[Spot zoning]]
* [[Statutory planning]]
* [[Subdivision (land)]]
* [[Traffic]]
* [[Variance (land use)]]
* [[YIMBY]]
* [[Zoning district]]
* [[Zoning in the United States]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{refbegin}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*Taylor, George ''Town Planning for Australia (Studies in International Planning History)'', Routledge, 2018, {{ISBN|978-1138372580}}.
*Gurran, N., Gallent, N. and Chiu, R.L.H. ''Politics, Planning and Housing Supply in Australia, England and Hong Kong (Routledge Research in Planning and Urban Design)'', Routledge, 2016.
*Bassett, E.M. ''The master plan, with a discussion of the theory of community land planning legislation.'' New York: Russell Sage foundation, 1938.
*Bassett, E. M. ''Zoning.'' New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1940
* Hirt, Sonia. ''Zoned in the USA: The Origins and Implications of American Land-Use Regulation'' (Cornell University Press, 2014) 245 pp. [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=43221 online review]
* Stephani, Carl J. and Marilyn C. ''ZONING 101, originally published in 1993 by the National League of Cities, now available in a Third Edition, 2012.''

==External links==
*[https://zoningpoint.com/ ZoningPoint] – A searchable database of zoning maps and zoning codes for every county and municipality in the United States.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081210023058/http://www.crenex.com/zoningmaps Crenex – Zoning Maps] – Links to zoning maps and planning commissions of 50 most populous cities in the US.
* [https://www1.nyc.gov/site/planning/zoning/background.page New York City Department of City Planning – Zoning History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416093152/https://www1.nyc.gov/site/planning/zoning/background.page |date=16 April 2021 }}
* [https://www.canr.msu.edu/planning/index Michigan State University Extension Planning & Zoning information]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070715063537/http://web1.msue.msu.edu/wexford/LU/index.html Schindler's Land Use Page (Michigan State University Extension Land Use Team)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140617223349/http://www.faulkandfoster.com/services/real-estate-zoning-compliance/ Zoning Compliance and Zoning Certification - Analysis and Reporting]
* By Bradley C. Karkkainen (1994). [https://web.archive.org/web/20091110024044/http://www.law.fsu.edu/journals/landuse/Vol101/karkkain.html Zoning: A Reply To The Critics], Journal of Land Use & Environmental Law

{{Real estate}}
{{Construction overview}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Zoning| ]]
[[Category:Urban planning]]