Levant

The Levant (Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell, Template:IPAc-en Template:Respell) is a subregion of West Asia along the Eastern Mediterranean, that forms part of the Middle East. The term is often used in conjunction with historical or cultural references.

In its narrowest sense, used in archaeology and other contexts, the Levant refers to Cyprus and land bordering the Mediterranean Sea in West Asia<ref name=MG>Gasiorowski, Mark (2016). The Government and Politics of the Middle East and North Africa. p. 5: "... today the term Levantine can describe shared cultural products, such as Levantine cuisine or Levantine archaeology". Template:Isbn.</ref><ref name=OHAL9>Steiner & Killebrew, p. 9 Template:Webarchive: "The general limits ..., as defined here, begin at the Plain of 'Amuq in the north and extend south until the Wâdī al-Arish, along the northern coast of Sinai. ... The western coastline and the eastern deserts set the boundaries for the Levant ... The Euphrates and the area around Jebel el-Bishrī mark the eastern boundary of the northern Levant, as does the Syrian Desert beyond the Anti-Lebanon range's eastern hinterland and Mount Hermon. This boundary continues south in the form of the highlands and eastern desert regions of Transjordan."</ref> that includes the Syria region, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, Israel, and south Cilicia (Turkey). In its widest historical sense, the Levant included all the Eastern Mediterranean;<ref name=ODO2015>Template:Harvnb.</ref> extending from Greece to Egypt and Cyrenaica (Eastern Libya).<ref name=OEAGR /><ref>Pierre-Louis Gatier, E. Gubel, Philippe Marquis. The Levant History and Archaeology in the Eastern Mediterranean, Könemann, Page 7</ref> The Levant represents the land bridge between Africa and Eurasia,<ref name=OHAL9/> has been described as the crossroads of West Asia, Eastern Mediterranean, and Northeast Africa,<ref name=UCL/> and geologically as the "northwest of the Arabian plate".<ref>Egyptian Journal of Geology, Volume 42, Issue 1, p. 263, 1998</ref>

In the 13th and 14th centuries, levante was used for Italian maritime commerce in the Eastern Mediterranean, including Greece, Anatolia, Syria-Palestine, and Egypt, that is the lands east of Venice.<ref name=OEAGR /> It derives from the Italian Template:Lang, meaning "rising", implying the rising of the Sun in the east, and is broadly equivalent to Mashriq (Template:Langx, Template:IPAc-ar),<ref>Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb</ref> meaning "eastern place, where the Sun rises".Template:Sfn Eventually the term was restricted to the Muslim countries of Syria-Palestine and Egypt. The term entered English in the 15th century from French.<ref name=ODO2015/> In 1581, England set up the Levant Company to trade with the Ottoman Empire.<ref name=OEAGR /> The name Levant States was used to refer to the French mandate over Syria and Lebanon after World War I, so Levant has come to refer to modern Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, and Cyprus.<ref name=OEAGR />

As a name for the contemporary region, several dictionaries consider Levant to be archaic.<ref>LEVANT archaic The eastern part of the Mediterranean with the islands and neighbouring countries. New Oxford Dictionary of English, 2nd ed., revised, 2005.</ref><ref>"LEVANT, THE". "A general term formerly given to the E shores of the Mediterranean Sea from W Greece to Egypt". The Penguin Encyclopedia, revised 2nd ed., 2004.</ref><ref>LEVANT, (vieilli) Le Levant: les pays, les régions qui sont au levant (par rapport à la France) et spécialt. les régions de la Méditerrranée orientale. Le Nouveau Petit Robert de la langue française, (1993 revised ed.).</ref> The noun Levant and adjective Levantine are sometimes used to describe the ancient and modern culture area formerly called Syro-Palestinian. Archaeologists now speak of the Levant and Levantine archaeology,<ref>Thomas Evan Levy, Historical Biblical Archaeology and the Future: The New Pragmatism, Routledge, 2016 Template:Isbn. Thomas E. Levy, "The New Pragmatism", p. 8: "after 1994, it is possible to see an increase in the use of the less geographically specific and more political [sic] neutral words 'Levant' or 'Levantine' in scholarly citations.... It is important to highlight the pedigree of the term 'Syro-Palestinian' and its gradual replacement by the term 'Levant' or 'Levantine' because the latter is a more culturally and politically neutral term that more accurately reflects the tapestry of countries and peoples of the region, without assuming directionality of cultural influence.". Aaron A. Burke, "The Archaeology of the Levant in North America: The Transformation of Biblical and Syro-Palestinian Archaeology" p. 82ff: "A number of factors account for the gradual emergence during the past two decades of what is now widely identified as Levantine archaeology in North America... a growing consensus regarding the appropriate terminology... archaeological field research in the Levant"</ref><ref>William G. Dever, The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect, 2012, Template:Isbn, p. 249: "Today, however, the discipline is often called Palestinian, Syro-Palestinian, or Levantine archaeology."</ref><ref>Steiner & Killebrew (2013). p. 1-2.</ref> food scholars of Levantine cuisine, and Latin Catholics of the Levant are sometimes called Levantines,<ref>Michel Elias Andraos, "Levantine Catholic Communities in the Diaspora at the Intersection of Many Identities and Worlds", in Michael L. Budde, Scattered and Gathered: Catholics in Diaspora, 2017 Template:Isbn p. 24: "The word 'Levantine' in the title is used on purpose instead of the 'Middle East' or the 'Near East'.... I use 'Levantine' more than the two other designations, because this is the term being used more often nowadays by Christian communities in the Middle East to describe their shared identity as al-maseeheyoun al-mashriqeyoun, Levantine Christians"</ref> though the term is normally used to describe the Levant population more widely.<ref>Orfalea, Gregory (2006). The Arab Americans: A History. Olive Branch Press. Northampton, MA. Page 249.</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Etymology

French medal commemorating the Franco-Turkish War in Cilicia, Template:Circa

The term Levant appears in English in 1497, and originally meant 'the East' or 'Mediterranean lands east of Italy'.<ref name=dictionary>Template:Cite web</ref> It is borrowed from the French Template:Lang 'rising', referring to the rising of the sun in the east,<ref name=dictionary /> or the point where the sun rises.<ref>Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition</ref> The phrase is ultimately from the Latin word Template:Lang, meaning 'lift, raise'. Similar etymologies are found in Greek Template:Lang Anatolē (cf. Anatolia 'the direction of sunrise'), in Germanic Morgenland (Template:Lit), in Italian (as in Riviera di Levante, the portion of the Liguria coast east of Genoa), in Hungarian Kelet ('east'), in Spanish and Catalan Levante and Llevant ('the place of rising'), and in Hebrew Template:Lang mizraḥ ('east'). Most notably, "Orient" and its Latin source oriens meaning 'east', is literally "rising", deriving from Latin orior 'rise'.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The notion of the Levant has undergone a dynamic process of historical evolution in usage, meaning, and understanding. While the term "Levantine" originally referred to the European residents of the eastern Mediterranean region, it later came to refer to regional "native" and "minority" groups.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The term became current in English in the 16th century, along with the first English merchant adventurers in the region; English ships appeared in the Mediterranean in the 1570s, and the English merchant company signed its agreement ("capitulations") with the Ottoman Sultan in 1579.<ref>Template:Harvnb.</ref> The English Levant Company was founded in 1581 to trade with the Ottoman Empire, and in 1670 the French Template:Ill was founded for the same purpose. At this time, the Far East was known as the "Upper Levant".<ref name=OEAGR/>

1909 postcard depicting Ottoman Constantinople and bearing a French stamp inscribed "Levant"

In early 19th-century travel writing, the term sometimes incorporated certain Mediterranean provinces of the Ottoman Empire, as well as independent Greece (and especially the Greek islands). In 19th-century archaeology, it referred to overlapping cultures in this region during and after prehistoric times, intending to reference the place instead of any one culture. The French mandate of Syria and Lebanon (1920–1946) was called the Levant states.<ref name=OEAGR/><ref name=Encarta/>

Geography and modern-day use of the term

File:Levant - Satellite.png

Satellite view of the Levant including Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan and the Northern Sinai (Egypt)

Today, "Levant" is the term typically used by archaeologists and historians with reference to the history of the region. Scholars have adopted the term Levant to identify the region due to its being a "wider, yet relevant, cultural corpus" that does not have the "political overtones" of Syria-Palestine.Template:EfnTemplate:Efn The term is also used for modern events, peoples, states or parts of states in the same region, namely Cyprus, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, and Turkey are sometimes considered Levant countries (compare with Near East, Middle East, Eastern Mediterranean and West Asia).Template:Citation needed Several researchers include the island of Cyprus in Levantine studies, including the Council for British Research in the Levant,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> the UCLA Near Eastern Languages and Cultures department,<ref>Biblical and Levantine studies Template:Webarchive, UCLA</ref> Journal of Levantine Studies<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and the UCL Institute of Archaeology,<ref name=UCL>The Ancient Levant, UCL Institute of Archaeology, May 2008</ref> the last of which has dated the connection between Cyprus and mainland Levant to the early Iron Age. Archaeologists seeking a neutral orientation that is neither biblical nor national have used terms such as Levantine archaeology and archaeology of the Southern Levant.<ref name=DeverEncyclopedia>Dever, William G. "Syro-Palestinian and Biblical Archaeology", pp. 1244–1253.</ref><ref name= Sharon>Sharon, Ilan "Biblical archaeology" in Encyclopedia of Archaeology Elsevier.</ref>

While the usage of the term "Levant" in academia has been restricted to the fields of archeology and literature, there is a recent attempt to reclaim the notion of the Levant as a category of analysis in political and social sciences. Two academic journals were launched in the early 2010s using the word: the Journal of Levantine Studies, published by the Van Leer Jerusalem Institute<ref>Anat Lapidot-Firilla, "Editor's Note", Journal of Levantine Studies 1:1:5-12 (Summer 2011) full text Template:Webarchive</ref> and The Levantine Review, published by Boston College.<ref>Franck Salameh, "From the Editors", The Levantine Review 1:1:1-6 (Spring 2012), Template:Doi, full text Template:Webarchive</ref>

The word Levant has been used in some translations of the term ash-Shām as used by the organization known as ISIL, ISIS, and other names, though there is disagreement as to whether this translation is accurate.<ref name=BBC2015>Template:Cite news</ref>

In archaeology: a definition

In The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000–332 BCE (OHAL; 2013), the definition of the Levant for the specific purposes of the book is synonymous to that of the Arabic "bilad al-sham, 'the land of sham [Syria]'", translating in Western parlance to greater Syria.<ref name=OHAL2>Steiner & Killebrew, p. 2 Template:Webarchive.</ref> OHAL defines the boundaries of the Levant as follows.<ref name=OHAL2/><ref name=OHAL9/>

• To the north: the Taurus Mountains<ref name=OHAL2/> or the Plain of 'Amuq<ref name=OHAL9/>
• To the east: the eastern deserts, i.e. (from north to south) the Euphrates and the Jebel el-Bishrī area for the northern Levant, followed by the Syrian Desert east of the eastern hinterland of the Anti-Lebanon range (whose southernmost part is Mount Hermon), and Transjordan's highlands and eastern desert (also discussed at Syrian Desert, also known as the Badia region).<ref name=OHAL9/> In other words, Mesopotamia and the North Arabian Desert.<ref name=OHAL2/>
• To the south: Wadi al-Arish in Sinai<ref name=OHAL9/>
• To the west: the Mediterranean Sea<ref name=OHAL2/>

Subregions

A distinction is made between the main subregions of the Levant, the northern and the southern:<ref name=OHAL9/>

• The Litani River marks the division between the Northern Levant and the Southern Levant.<ref name=OHAL9/>

The island of Cyprus is also included as a third subregion in the archaeological region of the Levant:<ref name=OHAL9/>

• Cyprus, geographically distinct from the Levant, is included due to its proximity and natural resources (copper in particular), which induced close cultural ties.<ref name=OHAL9/>

Demographics

Template:See alsoThe region is inhabited by Levantine Arabs, Bedouins, Jews, Kurds, Maronites, Assyrians, Armenians, Chechens and Circassians. The population of the modern Levant border is approximately 57.6 million consisting of the populations of Syria, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon and Palestine.

State	Population (2023)	Density/km2 (2018)	Life expectancy (2018)
Template:Flagu	10,094,000	458	82.5 years
Template:Flagu	11,484,805	114	74.8 years
Template:Flagu	5,364,482	513	78.7 years
Template:Flagu	5,483,450	731	73.4 years
Template:Flagu	25,255,139	118.3	74.8 years
Total	57,681,876	184.2	76.4

Religious and ethnic groups

Template:Historical populations The majority of Levantines are Muslims. Islam was first introduced into the region following the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 7th century;<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> however, a Muslim majority was only reached by the 13th century.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The majority of Levantine Muslims are Sunnis adhering to the four madhhabs (Hanafi, Shafi'i, Hanbali and Maliki). Islamic minorities include the Alawites and Nizari Ismailis in Syria, and Twelver Shiites in Lebanon.

As the birthplace of Christianity, the Levant has many Christians belonging to various churches, mainly the Greek Orthodox (Antiochian), Syriac Orthodox, and various Eastern Catholic (Syriac Catholic, Melkite and Maronite) churches. Armenians mostly belong to the Armenian Apostolic Church. There are also Assyrians belonging to the Assyrian Church of the East and the Chaldean Catholic Church.<ref name=gulf2014>Template:Cite web</ref>

Other religious groups in the Levant include Jews, Samaritans, Yazidis in Iraq, and Druze in Syria and Lebanon.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Languages

Map representing the distribution of the Arabic dialects in the area of the Levant

Most populations in the Levant speak Levantine Arabic (Template:Lang, Template:Transliteration), a variety of Arabic descended from the pre-Islamic Arabic dialects of Syria and Hejazi Arabic, but retaining significant influence from Western Middle Aramaic.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Levantine Arabic is usually classified as North Levantine Arabic in Lebanon, Syria, and parts of Turkey, and South Levantine Arabic in Palestine and Jordan. Each of these encompasses a spectrum of regional or urban/rural variations. In addition to the varieties normally grouped together as "Levantine", a number of other varieties and dialects of Arabic are spoken in the Levant area, such as Levantine Bedawi Arabic (by Bedouins) and Mesopotamian Arabic (in eastern Syria).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Of the languages of Cyprus, the two official languages are Turkish and Greek. The most used languages by population are Greek in the south followed by Turkish in the north. Two minority languages are recognized: Armenian, and Cypriot Maronite Arabic, a hybrid of mostly medieval Arabic vernaculars with strong influence from contact with Turkish and Greek, spoken by approximately 1,000 people.<ref name=Versteegh>Template:Cite book</ref>

In Israel, the official language is Hebrew, which is spoken by the majority of its population. Its Arab minority speaks the Arabic language.

Western Neo-Aramaic is additionally spoken in three villages in Syria: Maaloula, Jubb'adin and Bakhah.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Among diaspora communities based in the Levant, Greek, Armenian and Circassian are also spoken.

Genetics

Template:Further Ancient DNA analysis has confirmed the genetic relationship between Natufians and other ancient and modern Middle Easterners. The presence of Neolithic Anatolian and Neolithic Iranian ancestry among modern Levantines can be attributed to migrations during the Neolithic and Bronze Ages.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

According to recent ancient DNA studies, Levantines derive most of their ancestry from ancient Semitic-speaking peoples of the Bronze and Iron age Levant.<ref name="Haber">Template:Cite journal</ref> Other Arabs include the Bedouins of Syrian Desert, Naqab and eastern Syria, who speak Bedouin Arabic. Non-Arab minorities include Circassians, Chechens, Turks, Jews, Turkmens, Assyrians, Kurds, Nawars and Armenians.

See also

Overlapping regional designations

• Bilad al-Sham
• Fertile Crescent
• Levantine corridor
• Mashriq
• Mesopotamia
• Middle East
• Near East
• West Asia

Subregional designations

• Southern Levant

Others

• French post offices in the Ottoman Empire ("Levant" stamps)
• History of the Levant
• Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (Referred to in current events as ISIL or ISIS)
• Levantine Sea
• Levantines (Latin Christians), Catholic Europeans in the Levant
• Wildlife of the Levant

Other places in the east of a larger region

• Levante, Spain
• Riviera di Levante, Italy

General and cited references

• Template:CitationTemplate:Full citation needed
• Template:Citation
• Template:Citation
• Template:Citation
• Template:Citation
• Template:Citation
• Template:Citation
• Template:Cite book

Further reading

• Julia Chatzipanagioti: Griechenland, Zypern, Balkan und Levante. Eine kommentierte Bibliographie der Reiseliteratur des 18. Jahrhunderts. 2 Vol. Eutin 2006. Template:ISBN.
• Levantine Heritage site. Includes many oral and scholarly histories, and genealogies for some Levantine Turkish families.
• Philip Mansel, Levant: Splendour and Catastrophe on the Mediterranean, London, John Murray, 11 November 2010, hardback, 480 pages, Template:ISBN, New Haven, Yale University Press, 24 May 2011, hardback, 470 pages, Template:ISBN.

External links

• France and the Levant (Handbook), HMSO, London, 1920