Skeletal fluorosis
Template:Infobox medical condition (new) Skeletal fluorosis is a bone disease caused by excessive accumulation of fluoride leading to weakened bones.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In advanced cases, skeletal fluorosis causes painful damage to bones and joints. Symptoms include the increased frequency of fractures<ref name=":0" /> and impaired joint mobility. Side effects include ruptures of the stomach lining and nausea.<ref name=":1" /> Fluoride can also damage the parathyroid glands, leading to hyperparathyroidism, and a higher blood calcium concentration. Common causes of fluorosis include the inhalation of fluoride dust or fumes by workers in industry and consumption of drinking water with unsafe fluoride levels.<ref name=":2" /> Fluorosis can also occur as a result of volcanic activity. As of now, there are no established treatments for skeletal fluorosis patients.<ref name=":3" /> However, it is reversible in some cases, depending on the progression of the disease. Fluorosis is most widespread in India and China.<ref name=":4" />
Symptoms
Symptoms are mainly promoted in the bone structure. Due to a high fluoride concentration in the body, the bone is hardened and thus less elastic, resulting in an increased frequency of fractures.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref> Other symptoms include thickening of the bone structure and accumulation of bone tissue, which both contribute to impaired joint mobility. Ligaments and cartilage can become ossified.<ref>Kalia LV, Lee L, Kalia SK, Pirouzmand F, Rapoport MJ, Aviv RI, Mozeg D, Symons SP. Thoracic myelopathy from coincident fluorosis and epidural lipomatosis. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences. 2010 March; 37(2):276–278.</ref> Most patients with skeletal fluorosis show side effects from the high fluoride dose such as ruptures of the stomach lining and nausea.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite web</ref> Fluoride can also damage the parathyroid glands, leading to hyperparathyroidism, the uncontrolled secretion of parathyroid hormones. These hormones regulate calcium concentration in the body. An elevated parathyroid hormone concentration results in a depletion of calcium in bone structures and thus a higher calcium concentration in the blood.
The clinical symptoms of fluoride toxicity in the bones are indistinguishable from arthritis. Even low level exposure to fluoride can cause or worsen the symptoms in consumers with vulnerable genotypes.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Causes
Common causes of fluorosis include inhalation of fluoride dusts or fumes by workers in industry and consumption of fluoride from drinking water (levels of fluoride in excess of levels that are considered safe.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite web</ref>)
In India, especially the Nalgonda region (Telangana), a common cause of fluorosis is fluoride-rich drinking water that is sourced from deep-bore wells. Over half of groundwater sources in India have fluoride above recommended levels.<ref name=Reddy>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Fluorosis can also occur as a result of volcanic activity. The 1783 eruption of the Laki volcano in Iceland is estimated to have killed about 22% of the Icelandic population, and 60% of livestock, as a result of fluorosis and sulfur dioxide gases.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The 1693 eruption of Hekla also led to fatalities of livestock under similar conditions.<ref>Eruption History</ref>
Skeletal fluorosis phases
| Osteosclerotic phase | Ash concentration (mgF/kg) | Symptoms and signs |
|---|---|---|
| Normal Bone | 500 to 1,000 | Normal |
| Preclinical Phase | 3,500 to 5,500 | Asymptomatic; slight radiographically-detectable increases in bone mass |
| Clinical Phase I | 6,000 to 7,000 | Sporadic pain; stiffness of joints; osteosclerosis of pelvis and vertebral column |
| Clinical Phase II | 7,500 to 9,000 | Chronic joint pain; arthritic symptoms; slight calcification of ligaments' increased osteosclerosis and cancellous bones; with/without osteoporosis of long bones |
| Clinical Phase III | 8,400 | Limitation of joint movement; calcification of ligaments of neck vertebral column; crippling deformities of the spine and major joints; muscle wasting; neurological defects/compression of spinal cord |
Treatment
As of now, there are no established treatments for skeletal fluorosis patients.<ref name=":3">Template:Cite journal</ref> However, it is reversible in some cases, depending on the progression of the disease. If fluorine intake is stopped, the amount in bone will decrease and be excreted via urine. However, it is a very slow process to eliminate the fluorine from the body completely. Minimal results are seen in patients. Treatment of side effects is also very difficult. For example, a patient with a bone fracture cannot be treated according to standard procedures, because the bone is very brittle. In this case, recovery will take a very long time and a pristine healing cannot be guaranteed.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> However, further fluorosis can be prevented by drinking defluoridated water. It is recently suggested that drinking of defluoridated water from the "calcium amended-hydroxyapatite" defluoridation method may help in the fluorosis reversal.<ref name="sankannavar">Template:Cite journal</ref> Defluoridated water from this suggested method provides calcium-enriched alkaline drinking water as generally fluoride contaminated water has a low amount of calcium mineral and drinking alkaline water helps in eliminating the toxic fluoride from the body.<ref name="sankannavar" />
Epidemiology
In some areas, skeletal fluorosis is endemic. While fluorosis is most severe and widespread in the world's two most populous countries – India and China – UNICEF estimates that "fluorosis is endemic in at least 25 countries across the globe. The total number of people affected is not known, but a conservative estimate would number in the tens of millions."<ref name=":4">Template:Cite web</ref>
In India, 20 states have been identified as endemic areas, with an estimated 60 million people at risk and 6 million people disabled; about 600,000 might develop a neurological disorder as a consequence.<ref name=Reddy/>
Effects on animals
The histological changes which are induced through fluorine on rats resemble those of humans.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
See also
References
Further reading
- Fluorosis from drinking very large amounts of tea: Template:Cite journal