ELIZA effect

A conversation with ELIZA

In computer science, the ELIZA effect is a tendency to project human traits — such as experience, semantic comprehension or empathy — onto rudimentary computer programs having a textual interface. ELIZA was a symbolic AI chatbot developed in 1966 by Joseph Weizenbaum that imitated a psychotherapist. Many early users were convinced of ELIZA's intelligence and understanding, despite its basic text-processing approach and the explanations of its limitations.

History

The effect is named for ELIZA, the 1966 chatbot developed by MIT computer scientist Joseph Weizenbaum.<ref name="Berry-2023">Template:Cite journal</ref> When executing Weizenbaum's DOCTOR script, ELIZA simulated a Rogerian psychotherapist, largely by rephrasing the "patientTemplate:"'s replies as questions:<ref name="Güzeldere1">Template:Cite web</ref>

Template:Dialogue

Though designed strictly as a mechanism to support "natural language conversation" with a computer,<ref name="Weizenbaum2">Template:Cite journal</ref> ELIZA's DOCTOR script was found to be surprisingly successful in eliciting emotional responses from users who, in the course of interacting with the program, began to ascribe understanding and motivation to the program's output.<ref name="Suchman1">Template:Cite book</ref> As Weizenbaum later wrote, "I had not realized ... that extremely short exposures to a relatively simple computer program could induce powerful delusional thinking in quite normal people."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Indeed, ELIZA's code had not been designed to evoke this reaction in the first place. Upon observation, researchers discovered users unconsciously assuming ELIZA's questions implied interest and emotional involvement in the topics discussed, even when they consciously knew that ELIZA did not simulate emotion.<ref name="Billings1">Template:Cite news</ref>

In the 18th century, the tendency to understand mechanical operations in psychological terms was already noted by Charles Babbage. In proposing what would later be called a carry-lookahead adder, Babbage remarked that he found such terms convenient for descriptive purposes, even though nothing more than mechanical action was meant.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Characteristics

In its specific form, the ELIZA effect refers only to "the susceptibility of people to read far more understanding than is warranted into strings of symbols—especially words—strung together by computers".<ref name="Hofstadter1996">Template:Cite book</ref> A trivial example of the specific form of the Eliza effect, given by Douglas Hofstadter, involves an automated teller machine which displays the words "THANK YOU" at the end of a transaction. A naive observer might think that the machine is actually expressing gratitude; however, the machine is only printing a preprogrammed string of symbols.<ref name=Hofstadter1996/>

More generally, the ELIZA effect describes any situation<ref name="Fenton-Kerr1999">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Ekbia2008">Template:Cite book</ref> where, based solely on a system's output, users perceive computer systems as having "intrinsic qualities and abilities which the software controlling the (output) cannot possibly achieve"<ref name="King1995">Template:Cite tech report</ref> or "assume that [outputs] reflect a greater causality than they actually do".<ref name="Rouse2005">Template:Cite book</ref> In both its specific and general forms, the ELIZA effect is notable for occurring even when users of the system are aware of the determinate nature of output produced by the system.

From a psychological standpoint, the ELIZA effect is the result of a subtle cognitive dissonance between the user's awareness of programming limitations and their behavior towards the output of the program.<ref name="Ekbia2008_quote">Template:Cite book</ref>

Significance

The discovery of the ELIZA effect was an important development in artificial intelligence, demonstrating the principle of using social engineering rather than explicit programming to pass a Turing test.<ref name="Trappl2002">Template:Cite book</ref>

ELIZA convinced some users into thinking that a machine was human. This shift in human-machine interaction marked progress in technologies emulating human behavior. Two groups of chatbots are distinguished by William Meisel as "general personal assistants" and "specialized digital assistants".<ref name="Dale-2016">Template:Cite journal</ref> General digital assistants have been integrated into personal devices, with skills like sending messages, taking notes, checking calendars, and setting appointments. Specialized digital assistants "operate in very specific domains or help with very specific tasks".<ref name="Dale-2016" /> Weizenbaum considered that not every part of the human thought could be reduced to logical formalisms and that "there are some acts of thought that ought to be attempted only by humans".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

See also

• Chatbot psychosis
• Chinese Room
• Duck test
• Intentional stance
• Loebner Prize
• Philosophical zombie
• Uncanny valley
• Cold reading

Further reading

• Hofstadter, Douglas. Preface 4: The Ineradicable Eliza Effect and Its Dangers. (from Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: Computer Models of the Fundamental Mechanisms of Thought, Basic Books: New York, 1995)
• Turkle, S., Eliza Effect: tendency to accept computer responses as more intelligent than they really are (from Life on the screen- Identity in the Age of the Internet, Phoenix Paperback: London, 1997)