1938 Atlantic hurricane season

Template:Short description Template:Good article Template:Infobox tropical cyclone season The 1938 Atlantic hurricane season produced fifteen tropical cyclones, of which nine strengthened into tropical storms. Four storms intensified into hurricanes. Two of those four became major hurricanes, the equivalent of a Category 3 or greater storm on the modern day Saffir–Simpson scale. The hurricane season officially began on June 16 and ended on November 15.<ref>Template:Cite newsTemplate:Open access</ref> In 2012, as part of the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project, meteorologists identified a previously undocumented January hurricane and September tropical storm while fine-tuning the meteorological histories of several others. However, given scant observations from ships and weather stations, significant uncertainty of tropical cyclone tracks, intensity, and duration remains, particularly for those storms that stayed at sea.<ref name="landsea">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Seasonal activity began with the formation of a tropical or subtropical cyclone over the northeastern Atlantic on January 3, the earliest occurrence in a calendar year (earliest start to a season) on record. In mid-August, a hurricane struck near Cameron, Louisiana, producing strong winds and water level rises that caused $245,550 in damage throughout that state and Texas.<ref group="nb">All monetary figures are in their 1938 values unless otherwise noted.</ref> It was followed in quick succession by an even more potent hurricane that tracked through the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and into northern Mexico. There, 9 people were killed and over 400 families were left homeless. An additional 4 deaths occurred in Texas. The season's strongest and most destructive system, the "Great New England Hurricane", swept into New England, where 494–700 people were killed, over 1,700 individuals were injured, and about 23,900 structures were damaged or destroyed. The cost was estimated at $620 million. It was the strongest hurricane to hit New England in over 300 years, since 1635.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Later in the season, a minimal mid-October tropical storm affected Texas and Louisiana, and a stronger early-November tropical storm caused minor damage along the eastern coastline of Florida.

The season's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) rating of 78 units,<ref name="ACE">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> below the 1931–1943 average of 91.2.<ref name="landsea"/> ACE is a metric used to express the energy used by a tropical cyclone during its lifetime. Therefore, a storm with a longer duration will have high values of ACE. It is only calculated at six-hour increments in which specific tropical and subtropical systems are either at or above sustained wind speeds of Template:Convert, which is the threshold for tropical storm intensity. Thus, tropical depressions are not included here.<ref name="ACE"/>

Timeline

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Systems

Hurricane One

Template:Infobox Hurricane Small Template:See also In 2012, as part of their ongoing Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project, the National Hurricane Center identified a previously undocumented hurricane. On January 1, an extratropical cyclone formed over the northeastern Atlantic along the tail-end of a cold front. The cyclone initially moved east but soon turned south then west by January 3. Warm air coalesced in the vicinity of the storm, and the frontal boundary dissipated,<ref name="metadata">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> leading to the formation of a tropical storm by 18:00 UTC on January 3 about Template:Convert southwest of the Azores.Template:Atlantic hurricane best track It is possible, however, that the system existed as a subtropical cyclone before transitioning into a fully tropical entity.<ref name="metadata" /> The storm temporarily embarked on a more westerly course before banking south-southwest, through which time it intensified into a Category 1 hurricane, peaking with winds of Template:Convert. Gradual weakening ensued as the cyclone entered the deep tropical Atlantic east of the Leeward Islands, with its final point recognized at 18:00 UTC on January 6.<ref name="metadata" />Template:Atlantic hurricane best track

The cyclone is one of only two hurricanes to form in the Atlantic basin during the month of January, alongside Hurricane Alex in 2016. Hurricane Alice attained hurricane strength in January 1955 but developed the previous month. Additionally, it is one of only seven tropical or subtropical cyclones to persist during the month, including the aforementioned systems, a tropical storm in 1951, a subtropical storm in 1978, Tropical Storm Zeta in 2006, and a subtropical storm in 2023.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Tropical Storm Two

Template:Infobox Hurricane Small A strong tropical storm with peak winds of Template:Convert was first identified just west of Antigua and Barbuda at 06:00 UTC on August 8,Template:Atlantic hurricane best track though it may have developed days earlier in the absence of a reliable data network. The rapidly-moving system curved west, passing north of Puerto Rico before striking the northeastern coastline of the Dominican Republic as a Template:Convert cyclone at 09:00 UTC on August 9.<ref name="metadata" /> The storm continued across Hispaniola and dissipated after 18:00 UTC that day, though the remnant tropical wave continued on to impact Cuba on August 10.<ref name="metadata" />Template:Atlantic hurricane best track

Hurricane Three

Template:Infobox Hurricane Small Around 00:00 UTC on August 10,Template:Atlantic hurricane best track a rapidly-moving tropical storm was identified southeast of Barbados.<ref name="metadata" /> It tracked into the Caribbean Sea and intensified into the season's second hurricane, with the center of the storm narrowly missing Jamaica to the north late on August 11. Observations from Grand Cayman indicate that it strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane,<ref name="metadata" /> reaching peak winds of Template:Convert that day, before the system slowly weakened. It moved through the Yucatán Channel and into the Gulf of Mexico, making a later landfall just west of Cameron, Louisiana, at 01:00 UTC on August 15 with winds of Template:Convert. The cyclone curved north-northeast and was last observed as a weak tropical depression along the Arkansas–Louisiana border at 12:00 UTC on August 15.Template:Atlantic hurricane best track

Along the northern fringes of Jamaica, appreciable loss to cultivation occurred. Winds at nearby Grand Cayman topped at Template:Convert, destroying nine houses and injuring several people. In the United States, sustained winds southeast of Lake Charles, Louisiana, reached Template:Convert and gusts peaked around Template:Convert.<ref name="metadata" /> There, windows were blown from the city hall and upper floor of several downtown structures. Small vessels were overturned, and the downing of trees and signs obstructed highways.<ref name="billings">Template:Cite newsTemplate:Open access</ref> A grandstand and fence at the American Legion ballpark were smashed, as well as two planes at the Lake Charles Regional Airport.<ref>Template:Cite newsTemplate:Open access</ref> Hurricane-force winds were estimated in nearby Grand Chenier. Squalls caused damage to structures in Benton and overturned a boat on Cross Lake, causing a man to drown.<ref name="augla">Template:Cite journal</ref> Another man was found drowned on the western edge of the Calcasieu River. Five people were rescued from their motor boat on Lake Pontchartrain.<ref name="billings" /> A small tornado moved through Kinder, causing $2,000 in damage after it destroyed a house and toppled two barns, fencing, and some trees.<ref name="mwr">Template:Cite journal</ref> Throughout the state, the winds caused damage to buildings, wires, oil derricks, piers, and other structures totaling to $133,000. Water levels of Template:Convert above the mean low tide inundated the coasts of Cameron and Vermillion parishes, and lowlands were flooded to a depth of Template:Convert.<ref name="augla" /> Shrimp boats were beached near Creole, and the Intracoastal Ferry—carrying four cars amounting to 20 people—broke its cable, crashing onto a river bank.<ref name="lahurr">Template:Cite report</ref> Torrential rainfall, peaking at Template:Convert in Koll,<ref name="rainfall">Template:Cite report</ref> caused extensive damage to crops; the rice, cotton, and corn crops in particular were heavily affected, with total damage estimated at $110,000.<ref name="augla" /> Several cities saw 24-hour rainfall records.<ref name="lahurr" /> Considerable damage to highways was also noted, with detours or interruption to traffic for Template:Convert east of the center, particularly in Jefferson Davis Parish.<ref name="mwr" /> In Texas, damage was confined to the Sabine Pass area, where the cost to piers and highways reached $550.<ref name="augtx">Template:Cite journal</ref> Communications between Port Arthur and Galveston were severed.<ref>Template:Cite newsTemplate:Open access</ref>

Hurricane Four

Template:Infobox Hurricane Small A tropical storm first developed to the south of Haiti by 06:00 UTC on August 23 and moved west-northwest, a trajectory it maintained throughout its duration. The system intensified into a hurricane shortly after passing south of Jamaica and Grand Cayman on August 24.<ref name="metadata" /> As it passed south of Cozumel, the island recorded winds of Template:Convert.<ref name="metadata" /> The storm reached its peak as a Category 3 hurricane with winds of Template:Convert around 02:00 UTC on August 26, while making landfall along the Yucatán Peninsula. It weakened to Category 1 intensity as it crossed land and emerged into the southern Gulf of Mexico, later moving ashore the coast of Tamaulipas with winds of Template:Convert at 08:00 UTC on August 28. It is possible the storm could have been stronger given the size of the storm surge farther north in southern Texas.<ref name="metadata" /> The cyclone curved west after tracking inland and became a remnant low after 00:00 UTC on August 29.<ref name="metadata" />Template:Atlantic hurricane best track

Thousands of banana trees were destroyed by Template:Cvt winds across six districts in Jamaica;<ref name="HurricanePassesSouth" /> this accounted for roughly 5% of the island's crop,<ref name="QualityBanana">Template:Cite news</ref> though some areas locally saw losses as high as 20%.<ref name="HighWindsAndRainBananas">Template:Cite news</ref> In Portland, Jamaica, hundreds of banana and breadfruit trees were blown down in a 15-minute period.<ref name="HurricanePassesSouth">Template:Cite news</ref> Considerable property damage was also wrought on the island,<ref name="ReportStormDamage">Template:Cite news</ref> marked by the loss of some homes and the unroofing of others.<ref name="GalesInJamaica" /> Roads were blocked by landslides triggered by heavy rains.<ref name="GalesInJamaica">Template:Cite news</ref> Shipping and airmail services were disrupted as ships and planes were held during the storm's passage. Telegraph communications were also subject to disruptions as the storm passed.<ref name="HurricanePassesSouth" /> Winds reached Template:Cvt on Grand Cayman on the night of August 24.<ref name="WhipsCaribbean">Template:Cite news</ref> Communications with Cozumel were lost late on August 25, before the onset of the worst conditions.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> High winds toppled numerous trees and destroyed at least 200 homes.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> However, the overall damage toll on the Yucatán Peninsula was lessened by the relatively low population density of the peninsula's northeastern coast.<ref name="mwr" />

After the hurricane struck the coastline of northern Mexico, local observers reported a Template:Convert swath of damage along the beach in La Pesca. Palm-thatched huts were badly damaged or collapsed.<ref name="metadata" /> Further inland, up to Template:Convert of rain in a few hours caused creeks and rivers, particularly the Rio Grande, to rapidly rise.<ref name="9dead">Template:Cite news</ref> Waters rose over Template:Convert to their highest level in six years, over-spilling into farmlands near Matamoros, Tamaulipas after a levee was breached and inundating multiple areas on the Mexican side of the United States–Mexico border near McAllen, Texas.<ref name="fwstar">Template:Cite news</ref> Nine people were killed, including eight who were swept away by floodwaters and one whose body was recovered from a home ravaged by wind and floodwater. The vehicles of several American tourists were engulfed by the Santa Catarina River on the road between Mexico City and Ciudad Victoria. The latter city was isolated from the remainder of Mexico. More than 400 families were left homeless. The military and local officials transformed public buildings into temporary shelters.<ref name="9dead" /> In Texas, squalls produced winds estimated up to Template:Convert.<ref name="mwr" /> A sizable storm surge swept across Padre Island and Brazos Island and washed away a few inexpensive structures in Del Mar Heights.<ref name="metadata" /> Rainfall across the extreme southern sections of the state was received as beneficial to dry crops.<ref name="augtx" /> However, this rain exacerbated floodwaters within the river to breach a levee in Cameron County, where two people were drowned and swept away in Los Indios. Three more people died near El Paso in an attempted river crossing. Farther west in Albuquerque, New Mexico, rainfall totaling Template:Convert eroded unpaved side roads and inundated the basements of homes and stores.<ref name="fwstar" />

Tropical Storm Five

Template:Infobox Hurricane Small A tropical wave moved off the western coast of Africa around September 4 and moved westward,<ref name="metadata" /> spawning a tropical depression about Template:Convert east of Barbados by 12:00 UTC on September 9. The newly formed cyclone tracked west-northwest and maintained tropical depression intensity for several days. By 00:00 UTC on September 13,Template:Atlantic hurricane best track data from nearby ships was sufficient to upgrade it to a tropical storm with peak winds of Template:Convert. The system curved poleward and weakened while interacting with a broad trough or area of low pressure. Its final point has been analyzed a few hundred miles north of Puerto Rico after 00:00 UTC on September 14.<ref name="metadata" />Template:Atlantic hurricane best track This system was discovered the during the Atlantic reanalysis project in 2012.<ref name="metadata" />

Hurricane Six

Template:Infobox Hurricane Small {{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} A tropical depression developed off the coastline of western Africa around 12:00 UTC on September 9 and embarked on a west-northwest course,<ref name="metadata" /> steered by a large upper-level ridge to its north.<ref name="okx">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> As it traversed the Atlantic Ocean for nearly two weeks, data from numerous ships was used to identify the system as a tropical storm on September 10, and as a hurricane on September 15.<ref name="metadata" /> Later, on September 19, various ships to the east of the Bahamas reported Category 5 wind speeds of Template:Cvt. A large high pressure system over the Canadian Maritimes blocked the hurricane from moving out to sea, while a trough of low pressure over the East Coast of the United States caused it to curve northward and reach a rapid forward speed of over Template:Cvt.<ref name="AE PBS">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The powerful storm made two landfalls on September 21, first on Long Island at 19:45 UTC with winds of Template:Cvt and second near New Haven, Connecticut, at 20:40 UTC with winds of Template:Cvt. Although it is still analyzed as a hurricane at these landfalls, the system is believed to have been losing tropical characteristics. It completed extratropical transition over southern Vermont by 00:00 UTC on September 22.<ref name="metadata" />Template:Atlantic hurricane best track Its remnants then moved through Quebec and later dissipated over arctic Canada.<ref name="AE PBS" />

Residents of New England received little advanced notice of the hurricane's approach. The U.S. Weather Bureau had issued warnings for Florida on September 20, but none were issued further north up the coast, as forecasters assumed that the usual path for systems at that time of the year and turn out to sea.<ref name="AE PBS" /> A storm surge of Template:Cvt was recorded along the Connecticut coast,<ref name="okx" /> while storm tides of Template:Cvt lashed the Rhode Island coastline.<ref name="box">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory in Massachusetts recorded peak sustained winds of Template:Cvt, gusting to Template:Cvt; the highest sustained wind measurement not influenced by terrain was Template:Cvt at Fishers Island, New York. About Template:Cvt of power and telephone lines were toppled on Long Island alone.<ref name="okx" /> In New York City, sustained winds of Template:Cvt buffeted the top of the Empire State Building; sustained winds at ground level in Central Park were Template:Cvt.<ref name="AE PBS" /> Wave heights reached Template:Cvt in Gloucester, Massachusetts.<ref name="okx" /> Several inches of rain occurred throughout New England, peaking at Template:Cvt in Gardner, Massachusetts.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Across the region, approximately 8,900 homes and buildings were destroyed and an additional 15,000 were damaged,<ref name="box" /> leaving about 63,000 people homeless. Around 2 billion trees were destroyed.<ref name="okx" /> A total of 2,605 vessels were destroyed and 3,369 more were damaged.<ref name="box" /> The estimate of people killed during the hurricane ranges from 494 to 700,<ref name="deadliest">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> with more than 1,700 individuals injured.<ref name="box" /> Total damage was estimated at $620 million.<ref name="okx" />

Tropical Storm Seven

Template:Infobox Hurricane Small A tropical depression formed over the Gulf of Honduras around 18:00 UTC on October 10 and quickly intensified into a tropical storm six hours later.Template:Atlantic hurricane best track The system moved northwest and struck San Pedro Town, Belize, with winds of Template:Convert at 08:00 UTC on October 11.<ref name="metadata" /> It weakened to a tropical depression while moving across the Yucatán Peninsula but regained tropical storm intensity and reached peak winds of Template:Convert after emerging into the Gulf of Mexico. The cyclone turned east toward the Florida Keys but began backtracking on October 15, embarking on a west-northwest trajectory that brought it ashore Galveston Island, Texas, around 13:00 UTC on October 17. It maintained winds of Template:Convert at the time. Once inland, the storm continued west-northwest and was last analyzed northwest of Houston at 18:00 UTC.<ref name="metadata" />Template:Atlantic hurricane best track

The tropical storm produced brisk winds across coastal sections of Florida, downing trees, signs, and power lines in the St. Petersburg area. Heavy rains flooded streets and stalled out several vehicles.<ref name="tbtimes">Template:Cite newsTemplate:Open access</ref> In Texas, the storm produced peak winds of Template:Convert at Fort Crockett.<ref name="metadata" /> Squalls and elevated tides affected the coastline. Rainfall throughout the region proved to be beneficial against a prolonged dry spell.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Tropical Storm Eight

Template:Infobox Hurricane Small A trough in the vicinity of Bermuda organized into a tropical depression around 12:00 UTC on October 16.<ref name="metadata" /> The cyclone failed to intensify for a few days as it meandered and then moved southwest. Finally, by 00:00 UTC on October 19,Template:Atlantic hurricane best track the depression intensified into a tropical or subtropical storm and attained peak winds of Template:Convert to the north of the Turks and Caicos Islands. It moved across Little Abaco Island and Grand Bahama before turning north-northeast. An approaching cold front imparted wind shear on the storm, and the system dissipated after 00:00 UTC on October 21 as it was overtaken by a non-tropical low east of the northern Florida coastline.<ref name="metadata" />Template:Atlantic hurricane best track

The extratropical remnants continued toward Nova Scotia, where impacts were considered the worst since February 1932. Ferry services were cancelled, barns were collapsed in Antigonish, and a house was shifted off its foundation in New Waterford. Two schooners were badly damaged. In nearby Newfoundland, four people drowned after being washed overboard. Damage to a breakwater at Sandy Point was estimated between $5,000–7,000, where two vessels also went aground. Across the island, telegraph lines were downed and roads were damaged.<ref name="1938seven">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Tropical Storm Nine

Template:Infobox Hurricane Small The final cyclone of the 1938 season developed by 06:00 UTC on November 7 off the northern coast of Haiti.Template:Atlantic hurricane best track In its early stages, the system exhibited a broad radius of maximum winds and was in close proximity to a stationary front, suggesting it was a subtropical storm for most of its duration. High pressure to the north directed the cyclone northwest, and it made landfall on Inagua in the Bahamas with winds of Template:Convert at 11:00 UTC on November 7; these winds were located well north of the center. It made a second landfall eight hours later on Crooked Island at an unchanged strength. The storm began to weaken early on November 8 and curved southwestward later that day, bringing it ashore the central coastline of Cuba with winds of Template:Convert around 06:00 UTC on November 9.<ref name="metadata" /> The system continued into the northwestern Caribbean Sea, where it merged with a former frontal boundary and dissipated after 18:00 UTC on November 10.<ref name=metadata />Template:Atlantic hurricane best track

San Salvador Island and Antilla, Cuba, both recorded maximum winds of Template:Convert on November 7 and November 9, respectively. Strong winds in heavy squalls south of the storm's center caused damage to telephone lines in the vicinity of Baracoa, Cuba. Winds just shy of tropical storm force impacted the Florida Keys and the state's mainland,<ref name="metadata" /> and those winds were compounded by wave erosion that caused an estimated $75,000–100,000 in damage on Anastasia Island.<ref name="novfl">Template:Cite journal</ref> The effects of the storm and a subsequent nor'easter necessitated the repair and extension of jetties at the mouth of the St. Johns River.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Other systems

In addition to the systems which at least attained tropical storm intensity in 1938, the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project also identified six tropical depressions. Due to their weak intensities, however, they were not added to the official database. The first was identified around 00:00 UTC on June 2 to the south of Bermuda. It moved north-northeast very near the island before degenerating to a trough. The second tropical depression may have formed south of Jamaica as soon as August 8. It moved west-northwest for a few days and was absorbed by Hurricane Three around 00:00 UTC on August 12. There is no conclusive evidence that a closed circulation existed after August 10, however. Eight days later, a possible tropical storm was identified over the central Atlantic as nearby ships recorded gale-force winds. Despite this, only three observations showed westerly winds south of the center, and this evidence was insufficient to support more than a tropical depression. The system dissipated on August 21.<ref name="metadata" />

On August 28, an area of low pressure formed along a front off the coastline of North Carolina. It transitioned into a tropical depression on August 29–30 as the frontal feature dissipated but once again acquired extratropical characteristics as another front approached the center. The low moved east and dissipated or was absorbed on September 4. In early September, a tropical wave crossed Florida into the Gulf of Mexico, organizing into a tropical depression on September 10 and striking the Texas coastline around 00:00 UTC the next day. It dissipated on September 12. Around that same time, an area of low pressure was identified in the Bay of Campeche. Enhanced winds in Veracruz city suggest a small tropical depression may have existed in the region around September 9–10. It dissipated the next day. On September 11, a stationary front was identified south of Bermuda. This boundary dissipated and gave way to a tropical depression on September 12–14. The next day, it was absorbed into another front. On October 10, an area of disturbed weather existed in the vicinity of the United States Virgin Islands. Cyclonic flow existed on the northern side of this feature, but only one ship recorded westerly winds south of the center, and the data from that ship is questioned. A tropical depression may have existed from October 11–12 before it dissipated the next day.<ref name="metadata" />

The Atlantic hurricane database originally recognized a brief tropical cyclone in the Gulf of Mexico on October 23–24. However, surface observations indicate that the low was attached to a warm front, with cold temperatures along the U.S. Gulf Coast. The extratropical low struck the Big Bend of Florida on October 24 and progressed northeast. It merged with another extratropical low north of Nova Scotia on October 25.<ref name="metadata" />

Season effects

The table below includes the duration, names, landfall(s), denoted in parentheses, damage, and death totals of all tropical cyclones in the 1938 Atlantic hurricane season. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but were still related to that storm. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical, a wave, or a low. Template:Saffir-Simpson small

Template:TC stats table start3

Template:TC stats cyclone3Template:Atlantic hurricane best track Template:TC stats cyclone3Template:Atlantic hurricane best track Template:TC stats cyclone3Template:Atlantic hurricane best track<ref name="mwr" /><ref name="lahurr" /><ref name="augla" /><ref name="augtx" /> Template:TC stats cyclone3Template:Atlantic hurricane best track<ref name="9dead" /><ref name="fwstar" /> Template:TC stats cyclone3Template:Atlantic hurricane best track Template:TC stats cyclone3Template:Atlantic hurricane best track<ref name="okx" /><ref name="deadliest" /> Template:TC stats cyclone3Template:Atlantic hurricane best track<ref name="tbtimes" /> Template:TC stats cyclone3Template:Atlantic hurricane best track<ref name="1938seven" /> Template:TC stats cyclone3Template:Atlantic hurricane best track<ref name="novfl" />

Template:TC stats table end3

See also

• 1938 Pacific hurricane season
• 1938 Pacific typhoon season
• 1900–1950 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons
• 1930s Australian region cyclone seasons

External links

• Monthly Weather Review