1991 Atlantic hurricane season

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Template:Short description Template:Infobox tropical cyclone season The 1991 Atlantic hurricane season was a below-average Atlantic hurricane season due to higher than usual wind shear across the Atlantic Ocean, which effectively stifled tropical cyclogenesis in the Main Development Region. There were 12 tropical cyclones this season, 8 of which became named storms. Among them, 4 become hurricanes, of which 2 became major hurricanes (Category 3 to 5 strength on the Saffir–Simpson scale). The season officially began on June 1,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and ended on November 30.<ref name="end">Template:Cite news</ref>

Ana, developed on July 2 off the southeast United States and dissipated without causing significant effects. Two other tropical storms in the season – Danny and Erika – did not significantly affect land. Danny dissipated east of the Lesser Antilles, and Erika passed through the Azores before becoming extratropical. In addition, there were four non-developing tropical depressions. The second depression of the season struck Mexico with significant accompanying rains.

The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Bob, which at the time was among the ten costliest United States hurricanes. After brushing the Outer Banks of North Carolina and Long Island in New York, the hurricane made landfall on Rhode Island. It caused $1.5 billion in damage (1991 USD), mostly in Massachusetts, and 17 fatalities. The strongest hurricane of the season was Claudette, which reached peak winds of Template:Convert near Bermuda. It passed near the island but did not cause any damage. Fabian was the only tropical storm to move over or near Cuba or Florida, producing heavy rainfall but no damage. Hurricane Grace, the final named storm of the season, provided the energy that led to the development of a powerful nor'easter known as the Perfect Storm. Originating from an extratropical storm, the Perfect Storm intensified while moving westward toward New England, leaving $200 million in damage and causing coastal damage from Puerto Rico to Florida and northward through Canada. It later transitioned into a hurricane over the Gulf Stream, finally dissipating over Nova Scotia on November 2.

Seasonal forecasts

Predictions of tropical activity in the 1991 season
Source Date Template:Small Template:Small Template:Small
CSU April <10 <6 Unknown <ref name="csupre"/>
WRC April 9–10 6 5 citation CitationClass=web

}}</ref>

CSU June 8 4 1 <ref name="csu2"/>
CSU August 7 3 Unknown <ref name="csu3"/>
Record high activity<ref name="CSU Atl">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation CitationClass=web

}}</ref> || 30 || 15 || 7 (Tie)

Record low activity<ref name="CSU Atl"/> 1 0 (tie) 0
Actual activity 8 4 2

Before the start of the season, hurricane expert William M. Gray released his forecast for the year's activity, a yearly practice that he began in 1984. In early April, Gray anticipated a "mild" season with fewer than ten tropical storms, of which less than six would become hurricanes.<ref name="csupre">Template:Cite news</ref> Later that month, the Weather Research Center forecast ten named storms and six hurricanes, of which five would become major hurricanes.Template:Refn while three would hit the United States.<ref name="wrc">Template:Cite news</ref> In early June, Gray released an updated report that predicted the formation of eight tropical storms, four hurricanes, and one major hurricane.<ref name="csu2">Template:Cite news</ref> The revised June total was very close to the actual season activity, with the exception of forecasting one fewer major hurricane.<ref name="ams"/> However, a later revision in August incorrectly anticipated less activity, when Gray predicted seven storms and three hurricanes.<ref name="csu3">Template:Cite news</ref>

Seasonal summary

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season

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Overall activity in 1991 was below normal. This was partially due to decreased tropical cyclogenesis from African tropical waves, which are troughs that move across the ocean with associated convection. In most seasons, the majority of storms develop from tropical waves. Of the season's twelve tropical cyclones, only five originated from tropical waves; in addition, only three of the eight tropical storms were from tropical waves, and none had the characteristics of a Cape Verde-type hurricane. From late April to late November, there were 73 tropical waves that exited the west coast of Africa. The total was higher than average, although many of them were poorly defined and had little thunderstorm activity. The waves traversed the Atlantic Ocean further south than normal, typically not becoming convectively active until moving across northern South America. Cyclogenesis was also suppressed by higher than normal wind shear, as well as low rainfall amounts across the Sahel.<ref name="ams"/> There were also no tropical storms in the Gulf of Mexico for only the third time in the 20th century, after 1927 and 1962.<ref name="ams"/> The season produced twelve tropical depressions, which was the lowest in five years. The eight tropical storms was the lowest amount in four years. Four of the storms developed into hurricanes, although for the first time in over 24 years, none of the hurricanes originated from tropical waves.<ref name="ams"/>

The season's activity was reflected with a low cumulative accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) rating of 36.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> ACE is, broadly speaking, a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed, so storms that last a long time, as well as particularly strong hurricanes, have high ACEs. ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding Template:Convert or tropical storm strength. Although officially, subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total,<ref name="Stewardship">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the figure above includes periods when storms were in a subtropical phase.

Systems

Tropical Storm Ana

Template:Infobox Hurricane Small The first storm of the season was Ana, which originated from a cold-core low that persisted east of Jacksonville, Florida, by June 25. The system moved in a clockwise motion around an anticyclone located over Florida. The cold-core low gradually developed to the surface, and on June 29, a low pressure area formed within a surface trough over the Bahamas. It moved westward across southern Florida,<ref name="atcr">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> dropping heavy rainfall along its path. Punta Gorda recorded a statewide peak of Template:Convert of precipitation.<ref name="arain">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The low moved northwestward and later curved northeastward, exiting into the Atlantic Ocean near Saint Augustine by early on July 2. Although it was initially disorganized as it moved offshore, the convection quickly developed in organization, and by 1800 UTC that day it had developed into Tropical Depression One about Template:Convert south of Charleston, South Carolina.<ref name="atcr"/>

As the depression moved northeastward parallel to the southeast United States coastline, it dropped light rainfall, although portions of Virginia recorded more than Template:Convert.<ref name="arain"/> Late on July 3, a buoy reported sustained winds of Template:Convert over a period of eight and a half minutes. As a result, the National Hurricane Center upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Ana. The storm accelerated east-northeastward toward a stalled frontal zone,<ref name="atcr"/> entering an area of increased wind shear. Despite these hostile conditions, Ana strengthened slightly,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> reaching peak winds of Template:Convert.<ref name="atcr"/> Moving over cooler waters and interacting with the frontal zone, the circulation became broad as the thunderstorms diminished. On July 5, Ana became extratropical in the northern Atlantic Ocean about Template:Convert to the south of Cape Race.<ref name="atcr"/>

Tropical Depression Two

Template:Infobox Hurricane Small A tropical wave emerged off the coast of Africa on June 20, and no significant development occurred until it became Tropical Depression Two in the western Gulf of Mexico on July 5.<ref name="2rain">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> On its first advisory, a tropical storm watch was issued for from Baffin Bay, Texas, southward to Tampico, Tamaulipas.<ref name="td2advis1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Nearing the coast of Mexico, the depression attained its peak intensity with winds of Template:Convert and a minimum pressure of Template:Convert. Failing to intensify further, Tropical Depression Two made landfall near La Pesca, Tamaulipas, on July 6.<ref name="td2advis5">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The National Hurricane Center issued the final advisory on July 7,<ref name="td2advis6">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> although the circulation persisted until July 9 southwest of Texas.<ref name="2rain"/> The depression had only minor impacts in Mexico and Texas, other than rainfall. Precipitation was heaviest in the state of San Luis Potosí, where the rainfall peaked at Template:Convert in Tamazunchale.<ref name="2rain"/>

Hurricane Bob

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Template:Infobox Hurricane Small Hurricane Bob originated from a decaying cold front, developing into a tropical depression early on August 16 near the Bahamas.<ref name="TCR1 Mayfield">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It produced an area of organized convection, and the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Bob roughly 18 hours after forming.<ref name="TCR1 Mayfield"/> It gradually organized over the Gulf Stream,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and based on reports from the Hurricane Hunters,Template:Refn Bob attained hurricane status on August 17.<ref name="TCR1 Mayfield"/> Shortly thereafter, the hurricane began to turn towards the north-northeast in response to a subtropical ridge over the Atlantic and the trough over the southeastern United States.<ref name="TCR2 Mayfield">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> After further intensification off the Carolinas, Bob reached peak winds of Template:Convert to the east of Virginia on August 19, making it a major hurricane. Significantly cooler sea surface temperatures resulted in weakening. After brushing Long Island, the center of Bob moved over Block Island, Rhode Island. About 40 minutes later it struck Newport, Rhode Island, with winds of Template:Convert, making it a Category 2 hurricane. It rapidly weakened to tropical storm intensity while moving through the remainder of New England, hitting Rockport, Maine, early on August 20. After crossing New Brunswick, Bob became extratropical in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and lasted another nine days before dissipating west of Portugal.<ref name="TCR2 Mayfield"/>

The hurricane first affected the Carolinas, spawning four confirmed and nine unconfirmed tornadoes in North Carolina.<ref name="TCR3 Mayfield">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> One person each died in North and South Carolina,<ref name="TCR4 Mayfield">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and about 10% of houses in the Outer Banks sustained minor roof damage.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> As the storm moved up the coast, heavy rain fell on the western side of the center.<ref name="brain">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> High winds left 300,000 people without power on Long Island.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In neighboring Connecticut, strong winds downed trees across the region, with damage heaviest in the southeastern portion near the coast.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Damage was heaviest as Bob made its final landfall,<ref name="TCR3 Mayfield"/> with wind gusts of Template:Convert reported on Block Island, Rhode Island.<ref name="TCR3 Mayfield"/> The hurricane produced extensive beach erosion which destroyed coastal roads in the state.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Monetary damage was greatest in Massachusetts,<ref name="TCR4 Mayfield"/> and along Bob's path through southeastern New England more than 60% of people were left without power. High tides and strong winds destroyed boats and houses along the Massachusetts coastline.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The heaviest rainfall from the hurricane fell at the Portland International Jetport in Maine, where Template:Convert fell during its passage.<ref name="brain"/> Across the United States, damage totaled $1.5 billion (1991 USD),<ref name="TCR4 Mayfield"/> including over $1 billion in Massachusetts.<ref name="end"/> The high damage total made Bob among the ten costliest U.S. hurricanes at the time. In addition, there were 15 fatalities in the country.<ref name="TCR4 Mayfield"/> In Canada, high waves killed two people.<ref name="TS2">Template:Cite news</ref> In Fredericton, New Brunswick, tropical storm-force winds downed trees and power lines.<ref name="TS1">Template:Cite news</ref>

Tropical Depression Four

Template:Infobox Hurricane Small One of the few vigorous tropical waves of the season emerged from the western coast of Africa with a large area of convection in late August. On August 24 it developed into a tropical depression near Cape Verde.<ref name="ams">Template:Cite journal</ref> Upon first forming, the depression had a circular area of convection near the center.<ref name="4d">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It was initially well-organized,<ref name="ams"/> but the depression was not expected to intensify due to marginal water temperatures; tropical cyclones generally require warm waters to develop.<ref name="4d"/> By August 25, the system lost much of its deep convection,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and on August 26 the depression dissipated to the west-southwest of the Cape Verde islands.<ref name="ams"/>

Tropical Depression Five

Template:Infobox Hurricane Small Around the same time as the previous system dissipated, another tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 26.<ref name="ams"/> On August 28 it formed into a tropical depression about Template:Convert southwest of Cape Verde. Upon developing, the depression had a small area of convection with a spiral rainband, and the NHC anticipated slow strengthening to tropical storm status. With a ridge to the north, the depression maintained a general westward track.<ref name="td5advis1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Ultimately, the depression failed to organize significantly. By August 29, it had a broad and poorly organized circulation with only scattered convection.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Due to cool water temperatures, the system was unable to maintain deep convection,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and on August 31 the depression degenerated into a tropical wave about Template:Convert east of the Lesser Antilles.<ref name="td5advis13">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web

}}</ref>

Hurricane Claudette

Template:Infobox Hurricane Small The origins of Claudette were non-tropical, developing on September 4 about Template:Convert southeast of Bermuda from an upper-level disturbance.<ref name="Prem1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Following its formation, it developed slowly while moving southwestward,<ref name="Prem1" /> and on September 5 it intensified into Tropical Storm Claudette.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Conditions were favorable for development, with low wind shear and a large anticyclone providing outflow, or the outward wind flow from a storm.<ref name="Prem1" /> On September 6 at 0600 UTC, Claudette attained hurricane status.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It underwent rapid intensification, and early on September 7 a reconnaissance flight reported that Claudette attained major hurricane status with winds of Template:Convert.<ref name="Prem1"/><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Based on satellite estimates, Hurricane Claudette attained its peak intensity with winds of Template:Convert and a minimum pressure Template:Convert.<ref name="Prem2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

After peaking, Claudette began steady weakening.<ref name="Prem5">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Around that time, a hurricane watch was issued for the island of Bermuda, which was later upgraded to a warning.<ref name="Prem3">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The hurricane turned to the northwest, passing Template:Convert east of Bermuda as a Category 1 hurricane on September 8.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Winds on the island peaked at Template:Convert, with gusts to Template:Convert, and waves reached up to Template:Convert in height.<ref name="Prem3"/> By September 10, Claudette weakened to tropical storm status as it accelerated eastward. The next day it deteriorated further to tropical depression status, and the next day Claudette became extratropical to the southwest of the Azores. It persisted two more days until dissipating over the Azores.<ref name="Prem2"/>

Tropical Storm Danny

Template:Infobox Hurricane Small One of the most vigorous tropical waves of the season (which also led to the formation of Hurricane Jimena in the eastern Pacific) was first observed in western Africa on September 2. Three days later it emerged from the coast at Dakar,<ref name="ams"/> moving into the tropical Atlantic Ocean with rainbands around its convection. By early on September 7, the system organized into Tropical Depression Seven about Template:Convert south-southwest of Cape Verde.<ref name="dtcr">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Upon developing, the depression had a broad circulation, located in an environment generally favorable for intensification.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> With a strong ridge to the north, the depression tracked steadily westward.<ref name="dtcr"/> After remaining a tropical depression for about 36 hours, the system became better organized and developed well-defined banding features. Based on satellite intensity estimates, the NHC upgraded it to Tropical Storm Danny on September 8.<ref name="d7"/>

Upon becoming a tropical storm, only slow strengthening was forecast, due to the presence of an upper-level trough to its west.<ref name="d7">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The storm ultimately reached peak winds of Template:Convert, which it maintained for about 36 hours. On September 10 it attained its organizational maximum after developing a central dense overcast. Later that day, an upper-level low increased wind shear over the storm,<ref name="dtcr"/> which exposed the circulation from the deep convection.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> As Danny approached the Lesser Antilles, it weakened to tropical depression status on September 11. Later that day, a Hurricane Hunters flight was unable to locate a closed circulation, which indicated that Danny degenerated into a tropical wave about Template:Convert east of the Lesser Antilles. The remnants tracked to the northwest and later to the north before being absorbed by a frontal system.<ref name="dtcr"/>

Tropical Storm Erika

Template:Infobox Hurricane Small The origins of Tropical Storm Erika were from a tropical wave that exited the coast of Africa on September 2. It moved northwestward, passing through Cape Verde the following day. The system had most of the thunderstorms along the southern portion of the wave as it maintained a very large low-level circulation. Thunderstorms began developing on September 7, and the system organized into Tropical Depression Eight the following day about Template:Convert northeast of the Lesser Antilles; at the same time, it was located about midway between Hurricane Claudette and Tropical Storm Danny.<ref name="etcr">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Initially the center was difficult to locate on satellite imagery, but despite the proximity with Claudette, conditions were generally favorable for intensification.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> By late on September 9, the depression had become much better organized,<ref name="e5">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and based on satellite estimates the NHC upgraded it to Tropical Storm Erika.<ref name="etcr"/>

Upon becoming a tropical storm, Erika began a motion to the northeast. There was initial uncertainty whether Erika or nearby Claudette would become the dominant system through their interaction.<ref name="e5"/> On September 10, the storm developed a central dense overcast as it attained its peak winds of Template:Convert.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It accelerated east-northeastward toward the Azores along the northern periphery of a ridge, briefly interacting with Claudette.<ref name="etcr"/> By September 11, the convection had diminished, leaving the center exposed as Erika underwent extratropical transition.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Shortly thereafter it passed through the Azores, striking São Miguel Island. Nearby Santa Maria Island reported tropical storm force winds with gusts to Template:Convert, prompting the closure of the airfield for several hours.<ref name="etcr"/> On September 12, Erika weakened to a tropical depression before completing the transition into an extratropical cyclone. It dissipated later that day.Template:Atlantic hurricane best track

Tropical Storm Fabian

Template:Infobox Hurricane Small The origins of Fabian were from a tropical wave and a cold front that entered the northwestern Caribbean Sea on October 12, which produced an area of thunderstorms in the Gulf of Honduras.<ref name="ftcr">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> At 1300 UTC on October 15, a Hurricane Hunters flight observed sustained winds of Template:Convert to the southwest of the Isle of Youth. Based on the report, the NHC designated the system as Tropical Storm Fabian.<ref name="ftcr"/><ref name="disc1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> although the NHC later assessed that the system developed as a tropical depression earlier that day.<ref name="ftcr2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> With a high pressure area to the north, there was already a large pressure gradient that had produced tropical storm force winds over the area.<ref name="tcr2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Initially the storm was disorganized,<ref name="ftcr"/> with its strongest winds located primarily east of the center.<ref name="disc2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> An eastward-moving upper-level trough imparted a northeast motion as well as unfavorable wind shear.<ref name="disc1"/> After reaching peak winds of Template:Convert, Fabian crossed the Isle of Youth before crossing western Cuba.<ref name="ftcr"/> By early on October 16, the center was becoming difficult to locate as Fabian moved through the Florida Straits.<ref name="disc3">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The storm later moved through the Bahamas and became extratropical as it interacted with an approaching front.<ref name="ftcr"/>

When Fabian first formed, the government of Cuba issued a tropical storm warning from Havana to Ciego de Ávila Province, as well as the Isle of Youth. There was also a tropical storm watch for the Florida Keys, as well as a tropical storm warning for the Bahamas.<ref name="pa1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="prelim04">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Before the storm hit the Cuban mainland, it produced wind gusts to Template:Convert in Cayo Largo del Sur. Its primary form of impact was from heavy rainfall in a 24‑hour period, peaking at Template:Convert in Caonao on the south coast of Cuba. In a six-hour period, Punta del Este recorded Template:Convert.<ref name="ftcr"/> Prior to the storm's passage, two state parks were closed in the Florida Keys, and a few storm shelters were opened in Dade County.<ref name="Key West report">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="record02">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> As it passed east of the state, it dropped rainfall near the coast that peaked at Template:Convert in Conch Key.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In the Florida Keys, the National Weather Service Office in Key West recorded sustained winds of Template:Convert with gusts to Template:Convert. Only isolated flooding happened from the precursor system to Fabian.<ref name="Key West report"/> In South Florida, Homestead Air Force Base reported rainfall of Template:Convert, but this too was attributed to the precursor frontal system, rather than Fabian itself.<ref name="record02"/>

Tropical Depression Ten

Template:Infobox Hurricane Small A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on October 19. Moving westward, it developed a weak circulation on October 23.<ref name="10tcr">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Despite the presence of strong shear, the system was upgraded to a tropical depression at 2200 UTC on October 24 about Template:Convert east of the Lesser Antilles.<ref name="10d1"/> This was based on a rating of 1.5 on the Dvorak technique, which is a method of estimating the intensity of tropical cyclones via satellite.<ref name="10tcr"/> At the time of development, the depression had a small area of convection near and east of the center, and due to the wind shear it was never expected to intensify.<ref name="10d1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> By October 25, the circulation had become dissociated from the convection.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The depression dissipated soon after without affecting land.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web

}}</ref>

Hurricane Grace

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Template:Infobox Hurricane Small On October 23 a mid-level low formed south of Bermuda. By two days later it had become a surface low, and on October 26 it developed into a subtropical storm. The system was labeled as such due to the initial lack of deep convection over the center, although following an increase in thunderstorms the NHC reclassified it as Tropical Storm Grace late on October 27. By that time, the storm had executed a path generally to the northwest.<ref name="TCR1 Rappaport">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Grace continued to intensify and organize, and based on Hurricane Hunter reports the storm was upgraded to a hurricane early on October 28.<ref name="TCR2 Rappaport">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Shortly thereafter, Grace turned sharply to the east due to the influence of a rapidly intensifying extratropical cyclone off the New England coast.<ref name="history">Template:Cite news</ref> An eye developed in the center of Grace, despite shallow convection.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

As the hurricane accelerated eastward, it attained a peak intensity of Template:Convert on October 29. The rapid motion caused an asymmetry in the wind field, and the center passed approximately Template:Convert south of Bermuda without significantly affecting the island.<ref name="TCR2 Rappaport"/> A rapidly approaching cold front absorbed Grace on October 29,<ref name="TCR3 Rappaport">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> contributing moisture to the developing extratropical storm that was eventually known as the Perfect Storm.<ref name="history"/><ref name="history2"/> As a tropical cyclone, Grace produced squally conditions across Bermuda,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> but no damage was reported. The hurricane generated large swells along the East Coast of the United States,<ref name="TCR3 Rappaport"/> causing minor beach erosion.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Unnamed hurricane

Template:Further Template:See also Template:Infobox Hurricane Small The precursor of the season's final storm was a strong extratropical cyclone commonly known as the Perfect Storm.<ref name="erh">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It evolved from an area of low pressure that developed off Atlantic Canada on October 28. The system moved southward and westward due to a ridge to its north, and reached its peak intensity. The storm lashed the East Coast of the United States with high waves and coastal flooding, before turning to the southwest and weakening.<ref name="history2">Template:Cite report</ref> Moving over warmer waters, the system transitioned into a subtropical cyclone before becoming a tropical storm.<ref name="8 TCR1 page 1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It executed a loop off the Mid-Atlantic states and turned toward the northeast. On November 1 the system evolved into a full-fledged hurricane with peak winds of Template:Convert.<ref name="history4">Template:Cite FTP</ref> The tropical system weakened, striking Nova Scotia as a tropical storm before dissipating.<ref name="history4"/><ref name="Canada">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Damage totaled over $200 million (1991 USD)<ref name="ncdc">Template:Cite report</ref> and the death toll was thirteen.<ref name="Canada"/><ref name="erh"/> Most of the damage occurred while the storm was extratropical, after waves up to Template:Convert struck the coastline from Canada to Florida and southeastward to Puerto Rico. In Massachusetts, where damage was heaviest, over 100 homes were destroyed or severely damaged.<ref name="ncdc"/> To the north, more than 100 homes were affected in Maine,<ref name="maine">Template:Cite news</ref> including the vacation home of George H. W. Bush, the president at the time.<ref name="history2"/> More than 38,000 people were left without power,<ref name="ct">Template:Cite news</ref> and along the coast high waves inundated roads and buildings.<ref name="erh"/> In portions of New England, damage was worse than had occurred from Hurricane Bob two months prior.<ref name="maine"/> However, aside from tidal flooding along rivers, the storm's effects were primarily along the coastline.<ref name="ncdc"/> A buoy off the coast of Nova Scotia reported a wave height of Template:Convert, the highest ever recorded in the province's offshore waters.<ref name="Canada"/> In the middle of the storm, the Andrea Gail sunk, claiming the lives of its crew of six, which later inspired the book as well as the movie The Perfect Storm.<ref name="history2"/><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Off the coast of New York, a Coast Guard helicopter ran out of fuel and crashed, and although four members of its crew were rescued, one was killed.<ref name="ct" /><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="pp">Template:Cite news</ref> Two people died after their boat sank off Staten Island. High waves swept a person to their death in both Rhode Island and Puerto Rico, and another person was blown off a bridge in New York.<ref name="ncdc"/> The tropical cyclone that formed late in the storm's duration caused little impact, limited to power outages and slick roads; one person was killed in Newfoundland from a traffic accident related to the storm.<ref name="Canada"/>

Storm names

Template:Tropical cyclone naming The following list of names was used for named storms that formed in the North Atlantic in 1991.<ref name="NHOP 91">Template:Cite report</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> This is the same list used for the 1985 season,<ref name="NHOP 85">Template:Cite report</ref> with the exception of the names Erika and Grace, which replaced the names Elena and Gloria after that season.<ref name="TC naming">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Both Erika and Grace were used for the first time in 1991.

  • Ana
  • Bob
  • Claudette
  • Danny
  • Erika
  • Fabian
  • Grace
  • Additionally, the October 1991 Perfect Storm later evolved into a hurricane; the National Hurricane Center left it unnamed due to the heavy damage and media interest in the predecessor extratropical storm.<ref name="8 TCR4">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
 CitationClass=web

}}</ref>

Retirement

Template:See also The World Meteorological Organization retired the name Bob from the Atlantic hurricane name lists following the 1991 season due to its high impact. The name was replaced with Bill for the 1997 season.<ref name="NHOP 97">Template:Cite report</ref><ref name="world wide">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Season effects

This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season. It includes their name, duration, peak classification and intensities, areas affected, damage, and death totals. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but were still related to that storm. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical, a wave, or a low, and all of the damage figures are in 1991 USD. Template:Saffir-Simpson small Template:TC stats table start3 Template:TC stats cyclone3 Template:TC stats cyclone3 Template:TC stats cyclone3 Template:TC stats cyclone3 Template:TC stats cyclone3 Template:TC stats cyclone3 Template:TC stats cyclone3 Template:TC stats cyclone3 Template:TC stats cyclone3 Template:TC stats cyclone3 Template:TC stats cyclone3 Template:TC stats cyclone3 Template:TC stats table end3

See also

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Notes

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References

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