Abdelaziz of Morocco
Template:Short description Template:Infobox royalty Moulay Abd al-Aziz bin Hassan (Template:Langx; 24 February 1878 – 10 June 1943) was a sultan of Morocco from 9 June 1894 to 21 August 1908, as a ruler of the 'Alawi dynasty. He was proclaimed sultan at the age of sixteen after the death of his father Hassan I. Moulay Abdelaziz tried to strengthen the central government by implementing a new tax on agriculture and livestock, a measure which was strongly opposed by sections of the society. This in turn led Abdelaziz to mortgage the customs revenues and to borrow heavily from the French, which was met with widespread revolt and a revolution that deposed him in 1908 in favor of his brother Abd al-Hafid.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Early life
Abdelaziz was born on 24 February 1878 or 18 February 1881<ref name=":1" /><ref>Template:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</ref> to Hassan I of Morocco and Lalla Ruqaya who was a Circassian concubine who became Hassan's favorite wife.<ref name=":4">Template:Harvnb. "When 'Abd al-'Aziz came into his majority in 1900 upon the death of the regent, he was only nineteen years old and had spent most of his young life within the confines of the royal harem. His mother was Lalla Raqīya, a beautiful and intelligent Circassian slave woman who had been the favorite wife of Mawlay al-Hasan during the last years of his life. She had originally joined forces with Ba Aḥmad to insure the proclamation of her son and continued to have considerable influence over his decisions until her own death in 1902."</ref>
Shortly before his death in 1894<ref name=":3">Template:Cite journal</ref> Hassan I designated Moulay Abdelaziz his heir, despite his young age. Previously, Hassan's other son Moulay Mahammad was the accepted successor of Hassan. However, he was dismissed because he was allegedly a poor commander and half-hearted Muslim. Abdelaziz was chosen over his brothers because he was Hassan's favourite son.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Abdelaziz's education was mostly focused on religious subjects rather than the practice of government affairs. His teachers included a pro-reform scholar from Marrakesh, al-Faqih al-Faqih Mufaddal al-Susi, who would later provide fatwas on the legality of Abdelaziz's proposed reforms. The aspect of his education that had the biggest effect on his rule was his isolation from the people preventing him from understanding what behaviours were appropriate for a sultan to display publicly.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>
Reign
In academic literature, Abdelaziz's reign is often referred to as the "prelude to Protectorate". Historians both before and after colonialism often write about this period as if the fall of the makhzen was inevitable due to the accumulation of forces preventing reform.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>
Early reign
Abdelaziz's accession to the sultanate was ensured with little fighting because of his mother, Lalla Ruqaya, and Ba Ahmed, the chamberlain and grand vizier of Hassan I.<ref name=":4" /> Ba Ahmed became regent and for six years showed himself a capable ruler.<ref name="EB1911">{{#if: |
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In 1895, tribes of southern Morocco rose up in rebellion. At the head of a mahalla with support from the large Mtougga tribe, Abdelaziz marched south and defeated the southern rebels, triumphantly entering Marrakesh in March 1896 with his regent Ahmed, capturing a large booty of horses and camels.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>
On his death in 1900 the regency ended, and Abdelaziz took the reins of government into his own hands.<ref name="EB" /> The new makhzen appointed by Abdelaziz favoured reform as the best way of preserving Moroccan independence. Originally, a cousin of Ba Ahmed became grand vizier but was replaced by an elderly Andalusian official Muhammad al-Mufaddal ibn Muhammad Gharnit. The minister of foreign affairs, Template:Ill, who supported refoms, and minister of finance, Abd al-Salam al-Tazi, remained in their positions.<ref name=":16">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name=":5">Template:Harvnb</ref> The most important figure in government was the royal favourite Template:Ill,<ref name=":16" /> an Arab from the south,<ref name="EB" /> and young mukhzani of rural origin who became his aide-de-camp<ref name=":6">Template:Harvnb</ref> and chief adviser.<ref name="EB">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Menebhi like Abdelaziz supported reform<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":5" /> and he was given the position of minister of war.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":6" /> Another important figure in this time was the Scottish drill sergeant "Qaid" Harry Aubrey de Vere Maclean who became part of Abdelaziz's inner circle providing him with entertainment and whatever he desired abroad. French diplomat Template:Ill described the makhzen as weak and one of "professional politicians, intriguing against one another, adopting different attitudes, and playing on the inexperience of the sovereign".<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>
On the same year, the French administration of Algeria called for the annexation of the Tuat region, which was part of Morocco back then,<ref>Frank E. Trout, Morocco's Boundary in the Guir-Zousfana River Basin, in: African Historical Studies, Vol. 3, No. 1 (1970), pp. 37–56, Publ. Boston University African Studies Center: « The Algerian-Moroccan conflict can be said to have begun in 1890s when the administration and military in Algeria called for annexation of the Touat-Gourara-Tidikelt, a sizable expanse of Saharan oases that was nominally a part of the Moroccan Empire (...) The Touat-Gourara-Tidikelt oases had been an appendage of the Moroccan Empire, jutting southeast for about 750 kilometers into the Saharan desert »</ref> and owned religious and tributary allegiance to the sultans of Morocco.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The territory was annexed by France in 1901.<ref>Claude Lefébure, Ayt Khebbach, impasse sud-est. L'involution d'une tribu marocaine exclue du Sahara, in: Revue de l'Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée, N°41–42, 1986. Désert et montagne au Maghreb. pp. 136–157: « les Divisions d'Oran et d'Alger du 19e Corps d'armée n'ont pu conquérir le Touat et le Gourara qu'au prix de durs combats menés contre les semi-nomades d'obédience marocaine qui, depuis plus d'un siècle, imposaient leur protection aux oasiens »</ref> Subsequently, in 1903, France began to expand westwards towards Bechar and Tindouf, defeating the Moroccan forces in the Battle of Taghit and Battle of El-Moungar.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
As urged by his mother,<ref>FIGHT EXPECTED AT FEZ.; Rebels Only Four Hours from Capital at Last Report. LONDON TIMES -- NEW YORK TIMES Special Cablegram. January 2, 1903</ref><ref>American Annual Cyclopaedia and Register of Important Events, Volume 19; Volume 34, D. Appleton, 1895, p.501</ref> the sultan sought advice and counsel from Europe and endeavored to act on it, but advice not motivated by a conflict of interest was difficult to obtain, and in spite of the unquestionable desire of the young ruler to do what was best for the country, wild extravagance both in action and expenditure resulted, leaving the sultan with a depleted exchequer and the confidence of his people impaired. His intimacy with foreigners and his imitation of their ways were sufficient to rouse strong popular opposition.<ref name="EB1911" />
While privately owned printing presses had been allowed since 1872, Abdelaziz passed a dhahīr in 1897 that regulated what could be printed, allowing the qadi of Fes to establish a board to censor publications, and requiring that the judges be notified of any publication, so as to "avoid printing something that is not permitted."<ref name=":2">Template:Cite web</ref> According to Moroccan historian Abdallah Laroui, these restrictions limited the volume and variety of Moroccan publications at the turn of the century, and institutions such as al-Qarawiyyin University and Sufi zawiyas became dependent on imported texts from Egypt.<ref name=":2" />
His attempt to reorganize the country's finances by the systematic levy of taxes was hailed with delight, but the government was not strong enough to carry the measures through, and the money which should have been used to pay the taxes was employed to purchase firearms instead. And so the benign intentions of Moulay Abdelaziz were interpreted as weakness, and Europeans were accused of having spoiled the sultan and of being desirous of spoiling the country.<ref name="EB1911" />
When British engineers were employed to survey the route for a railway between Meknes and Fes, this was reported as indicating the sale of the country outright. The strong opposition of the people was aroused, and a revolt broke out near the Algerian frontier. Such was the state of things when the news of the Anglo-French Agreement of 1904 came as a blow to Abdelaziz, who had relied on England for support and protection against the inroads of France.<ref name="EB1911" />
Algeciras Conference
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On the advice of Germany, Abdelaziz proposed an international conference at Algeciras in 1906 as a result of the First Moroccan Crisis in 1905, to consult upon methods of reform, the sultan's desire being to ensure a state of affairs which would leave foreigners with no excuse to interfere in the control of the country and thereby promote its welfare, which he had earnestly desired from his accession to power. This was not, however, the result achieved, and while on June 18 the sultan nonetheless ratified the resulting Act of the conference, which the country's delegates had found themselves unable to sign, the anarchic state into which Morocco fell during the latter half of 1906 and the beginning of 1907 revealed the young ruler as lacking sufficient strength to command the respect of his turbulent subjects.<ref name="EB1911" />
The final Act of the Conference, signed on 7 April 1906, covered the organisation of Moroccan police and customs, regulations concerning the repression of the smuggling of armaments and concessions to the European bankers from a new State Bank of Morocco, issuing banknotes backed by gold, with a 40-year term. The new state bank was to act as Morocco's Central Bank, with a strict cap on the spending of the Sherifian Empire, and administrators appointed by the national banks, which guaranteed the loans: the German Empire, United Kingdom, France and Spain. Spanish coinage continued to circulate.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The right of Europeans to own land was established, whilst taxes were to be levied towards public works.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Opposition
Rebellion of Bu Hmara
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Jilali bin Idris al-Yusufi al-Zarhuni also known Bu Hmara appeared in north-east Morocco in 1902 claiming to be Abdelaziz's older brother and the rightful heir to the throne. He had spent time in Fes and learned the politics of the Makhzen. The pretender to the throne established a rival makhzen in a remote region between Melilla and Oujda, traded with Europe and collected customs duties, imported arms, granted Europeans mining rights to iron and lead in the Rif, and claimed to be the mahdi. He easily defeated poorly-organised armies sent by Abdelaziz to defeat him, and even threatened the capital, Fes, which proved the Minister of War al-Manabhi an incompetent general. The rebellion lasted until Abdelaziz's successor Abd al-Hafid defeated and executed Bu Hmara in 1909.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>
Rebellion of Ahmed al-Raysuni
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Ahmed al-Raysuni, a warlord and leader of the Jibala tribal confederacy, started a rebellion against the sultan of Morocco, which gave other rebels the signal to defy the Makhzen. al-Raysuni built an independent power-center and invaded Tangier in 1903. Raysuni would kidnap Christians, including Greek American Ion Perdicaris, British journalist Walter Burton Harris, and Scottish military instructor Harry Maclean, and ransom them—in open defiance of the Makhzen of Abdelaziz. The Perdicaris Incident in 1904 was one of the most important of these incidents, leading to the involvement of the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and Spain. Raysuni demanded a ransom of $70,000 and six districts from the sultan, in which the sultan eventually complied with. Raysuni supported Abd al-Hafid in taking over the Moroccan throne in the Hafidiya coup in 1908, and continued the rebellion against the later Spanish colonisers, until he was captured and imprisoned in Tamassint by Abd al-Karim in 1925, where died a few months later on the same year.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>
Occupation of Oujda
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} On 19 March 1907, Émile Mauchamp, a French doctor, was assassinated by a mob in Marrakesh who stabbed him. The French press represented the murder as an "unprovoked and random act of barbarous cruelty. Shortly after Mauchamp's death, France took his death as a pretext to occupy Oujda from French Algeria, a Moroccan city on the border with French Algeria, on March 29 supposedly in retribution for the murder.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=":7">Template:Harvnb</ref>
Bombardment of Casablanca
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} In July 1907, tensions rose even higher, when eight Europeans were murdered by tribesmen of the Chaouia—demanding removal of the French officers from the customs house, an immediate halt on the construction of the port, and the destruction of the railroad crossing over the Sidi Belyout cemetery—and incited a riot in Casablanca, calling for jihad. European railroad workers were killed, leading to Casablanca's bombardment by France, in which parts of the city were destroyed, and 1,500 to 7,000 civilians were killed.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref> The French then sent an expeditionary force of 2,000 soldiers to the city, occupying it, and then moved into the plains surrounding the city while fighting the Chaouia in a pacification campaign.<ref name=":7" />
Hafidiya
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A few months earlier in May 1907, the southern aristocrats, led by the head of the Glawa tribe Si al-Madani al-Glawi, invited Abd al-Hafid, an elder brother of Abdelaziz, and viceroy of Marrakesh, to become sultan, and the following August Abd al-Hafid was proclaimed sovereign there with all the usual formalities.<ref name="EB1911" /> In September 1907, Abd al-Hafid gained the Bay'ah from Marrakesh, and in January 1908, the Ulama of Fes issued a "conditional" Bay'ah in support of Abd al-Hafid. The Bay'ah demanded that Abd al-Hafid abolishes gate taxes, liberates the French-occupied cities of Oujda and Casablanca, and confines Europeans to port cities.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref> Soon after, Abdelaziz arrived at Rabat from Fes and endeavored to secure the support of the European powers against his brother.<ref name="EB1911" /> After months of inactivity Abdelaziz made an effort to restore his authority, and quitting Rabat in July he marched on Marrakesh. His force, largely owing to treachery, was completely overthrown on August 19 when nearing that city, and was defeated in the Battle of Marrakesh.<ref name="EB" /> Abdelaziz fled to Settat, within the French lines around Casablanca, where he announced his abdication two days later.<ref>Template:Harvnb</ref>
End of rule
In November he came to terms with his brother, and thereafter took up his residence in Tangier as a pensioner of the new sultan. However the exercise of Moroccan law and order continued to deteriorate under Abd al-Hafid, leading to the Treaty of Fes in 1912, in which European nations assumed many responsibilities for the sultanate, which was divided into three zones of influence, under the French protectorate and the Spanish protectorate, while Abd al-Hafid was succeeded by his brother Yusef.<ref name="EB1911" />
Mariages and children
Moulay Abdelaziz married two women.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The first was Khaduj who was the daughter of Caid Omar al-Youssi, the caid of the Ait Youssi tribe and pasha of Sefrou.<ref name=":02">Template:Cite book</ref> His second wife was his cousin, Lalla Yasmin al-Alaoui.<ref name=":22">Template:Cite web</ref> He had two known children:
- Moulay Hassan (b. July 1899 - d. 1919) was born in Marrakesh and died in Tangier aged 19 or 20 years old. His mother was Lalla Khadija. He was half-brother of Lalla Fatima Zahra.<ref name=":12">Template:Cite web</ref>
- Lalla Fatima Zahra (b. 13 June 1927<ref name=":32">Template:Cite web</ref> - d. 15 September 2003)<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> was born in Tangier and died in Rabat aged 76 years old.<ref name=":32" /> Her mother was Lalla Yasmin.<ref name=":22" />
Later life and death
In the course of 1919, Hubert Lyautey came to the conclusion that the return of Abdelaziz from his exile in France to Morocco would be desirable as it would remove his appeal as a potential rallying point for rebellion, and subsequently let him come to live in Tangier, by then a city under unsettled status that was part of neither the Spanish or French protectorates.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> Abdelaziz led an active social but mostly nonpolitical life in the city, from 1925 the Tangier International Zone, where he spent much of his time playing golf and lived in various residences including the Villa Al Amana<ref name=Malaga>Template:Citation</ref>Template:Rp and the Zaharat El-Jebel Palace.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> During the Spanish annexation of Tangier in 1940, he acquiesced insofar as the Moroccan palace authorities called the "makhzen" played a significant role therein.Template:Clarify
Abdelaziz died in Tangier in 1943 and his body was transported to Fes, where he was buried in the royal necropolis of the Moulay Abdallah Mosque.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Legacy
Historian Douglas Porch characterized Abdelaziz as curious and kind in his personal relations, but a spoiled and "weak man" who failed to successfully manage foreign influences at the court. During his reign he enabled reformers who sought to modernize the kingdom, and personally displayed a high interest in European inventions, but also failed to perform the traditional religious and ceremonial functions as expected of a ruler and thus lost the faith of his own people.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
He was portrayed by Marc Zuber in the film The Wind and the Lion (1975), a fictional version of the Perdicaris affair.Template:Citation needed
Honours
- Template:Flag: Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (civil division), 2 July 1901<ref>Template:London Gazette</ref>
- Template:Flag: Grand Cross of the Order of the Red Eagle, 22 January 1902<ref>Template:Citation</ref>
See also
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
- Template:Commons category-inline
- Morocco Alaoui dynasty
- History of Morocco
- El Protectorado español en Marruecos: la historia trascendida
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- Alawi dynasty
- Sultans of Morocco
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- People from Marrakesh
- Royalty from Fez, Morocco
- 19th-century Moroccan people
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