Ahmed Sékou Touré

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Template:Short description Template:Redirect Template:Redirect Template:More citations needed Template:Infobox officeholder Ahmed Sékou Touré (var. Sheku Turay or Ture; N'Ko: Template:Lang; 9 January 1922 – 26 March 1984) was a Guinean political leader and African statesman who was the first president of Guinea from 1958 until his death in 1984. Touré was among the primary Guinean nationalists involved in gaining independence of the country from France. He would later die in the United States in 1984.

A devout Muslim from the Mandinka ethnic group, Sékou Touré was the great-grandson of the powerful Mandinka Muslim cleric Samori Ture who established an independent Islamic polity in part of West Africa. In 1960, he declared his Democratic Party of Guinea (Parti démocratique de Guinée, PDG) the only legal party in the state, and ruled from then on as a virtual dictator. He was re-elected unopposed to four seven-year terms in the absence of any legal opposition. Under his rule many people were killed, most notably at Camp Boiro.

Childhood and family background

Samori Ture, Touré's great-grandfather was the founder of the Wassoulou Empire, an Islamic state in present-day Guinea that resisted French colonial rule in West Africa from 1882 until his capture in 1898.

Sékou Touré was born on 9 January 1922, into a Muslim family in Faranah, French Guinea, a colony of France. Faranah is a town deep inside Guinea situated on the banks of the Niger River. He was one of seven children born to Alpha Touré and Aminata Touré, who were subsistence farmers.<ref name="The 20th Century Go-N: Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 8">Template:Cite book</ref> He was an aristocratic member of the Mandinka ethnic group.<ref name="Augui1">Template:Cite web</ref> His great-grandfather was Samori Ture (Samory Touré), a noted Muslim Mandinka king who founded the Wassoulou Empire (1861–1890) in the territory of Guinea and Mali, defeating numerous small African states with his large, professionally organized and equipped army. He resisted French colonial rule until his capture in 1898, and died while held in exile in Gabon.<ref>Webster, James & Boahen, Adu (1980), The Revolutionary Years; West Africa Since 1800, p. 324.</ref>

His father Alpha Touré was originally from the French Sudan (now Mali), and had migrated to the traditional gold mining town of Siguiri with his brothers. He eventually continued to Kankan, Kouroussa, Kissidougou, and then settled in Faranah. Aminata was not his first wife. She bore three babies, including Sékou and a brother who died in childhood, then she died giving birth to a third child, a girl named Nounkoumba. Sékou's birth supposedly coincided with an omen - a baby elephant was brought to Faranah and presented to the French colonial authorities.<ref name = betterneeded>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Better source needed

Sékou Touré attended the École Coranique (Qur'anic school) in his hometown and later a French lower-primary school in Kankan. He allegedly failed the exams to enter the École normale supérieure William Ponty for refusing to write an essay critical of his ancestor Samori Toure.<ref name = betterneeded/>Template:Better source needed He was enrolled in the Georges Poiret Technical College in Conakry in 1936 but was expelled less than a year later at the age of 15 for leading a student protest against the quality of food and quickly became involved in labor union activity.<ref name="The 20th Century Go-N: Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 8" /> During his youth, Touré studied the works of Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin, among others.

Politics and trade unions

In 1940, Touré obtained a clerk's position with the Compagnie du Niger Français while also working to complete an examination course, which would allow him to join the Post, Telegraph and Telecommunications services (French: Postes, télégraphes et téléphones (PTT)). After completing the examination course, he went on to work for the PTT as a postal clerk in Conakry in 1941. During this time, he formed connections with the French General Confederation of Labour, a communist-dominated French labor organization.<ref name="The 20th Century Go-N: Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 8" />

Touré first became politically active while working for the PTT. In 1945, he founded the Post and Telecommunications Workers' Union (SPTT; the first trade union in French Guinea), and he became the general secretary of the union in 1946.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Also the same year, he was a founding member of the African Democratic Rally (French: Rassemblement Démocratique Africain, RDA), an alliance of political parties and affiliates in French West and Equatorial Africa.<ref name="Dictionary of African Biography2012" />

By 1948, he was elected general secretary of the Territorial Union of the Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT), and two years later, he was named general secretary of the coordinating committee of the (CGT) for French West Africa and French Togoland.Template:Citation needed In the 1951 elections, he campaigned with a coalition of the RDA, the UDSR and the recently founded Democratic Party of Guinea (Parti démocratique de Guinée or PDG, the RDA's Guinean section); however, the coalition performed poorly.<ref name="répressions">Template:Cite book</ref>

In 1952, he became the leader of the PDG. The RDA agitated for the decolonization of Africa, and included representatives from all the French West African colonies. The party forged alliance with labor unions and Touré was elected as secretary-general.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

His greatest success as a trade union leader was when workers across French Guinea went on a 71-day general strike (longer than any other territories in the French West Africa) in 1953 to force the implementation of a new overseas labor code. He was later elected to Guinea's Territorial Assembly the same year. As a result, he was elected as one of the three secretaries-general of the French Communist Party's Confédération Générale du Travail (General Confederation of Labour; CGT) in 1954.<ref name="Dictionary of African Biography2012">Template:Cite book</ref>

The PDG-RDA under Sékou Touré's leadership participated in the 1954 by-election, held after the death of Yacine Diallo. He lost to Diawadou Barry. The election was, however, marred with irregularities.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The French minister Robert Buron admitted in 1968 that it had been rigged by France to prevent Sékou Touré from winning.<ref name="répressions"/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Sékou Touré in 1958

In 1957, he organized the Union Générale des Travailleurs d'Afrique Noire, a common trade union centre for French West Africa. He was a leader of the RDA, working closely with Félix Houphouët-Boigny, who later was elected as president of the Ivory Coast. In 1956, Touré was elected Guinea's deputy to the French National Assembly and mayor of Conakry, positions he used to criticize the French colonial regime.<ref name="Dictionary of African Biography2012" />

Touré served for some time as a representative of African groups in France, where he worked to negotiate for the independence of France's African colonies.

In September 1958, Guinea participated in the referendum on the new Constitution of France. On acceptance of the new constitution, French overseas territories had the option of choosing to continue their existing status, to move toward full integration into metropolitan France, or to acquire the status of an autonomous republic in the new quasi-federal French Community. If, however, they rejected the new constitution, they would become independent forthwith. French President Charles de Gaulle made it clear that a country pursuing the independent course would no longer receive French economic and financial aid or retain French technical and administrative officers.

In 1958, Touré's PDG, pushed for a "No" in the French Union referendum sponsored by the French government. Upon hearing of Touré's choice on the matter, General de Gaulle responded, "Then all you have to do is vote 'no'. I pledge myself that nobody will stand in the way of your independence."<ref name=":0">Template:Cite news</ref> The French also threatened to cut off all their aid to Guinea in the event that the colony voted to become independent of France.<ref name="FrankGerits" /> The electorate of Guinea rejected the new constitution overwhelmingly, and Guinea accordingly became an independent state on 2 October 1958, with Touré, leader of Guinea's strongest labor union, as president. Guinea was thus the only African colony to vote for immediate independence rather than continued association with France, and hence was the only French colony to decline participation in the new French Community when it became independent in 1958.<ref name="Dictionary of African Biography2012" /> In any event, the rest of Francophone Africa gained effective independence two years later in 1960.

In response to the vote for immediate and total independence, the vindictive French settlers and colonialists in Guinea were quite dramatic in severing ties with Guinea, with many French civil servants destroying Guinean infrastructure as they departed Guinea as an act of vengeance for Guineans voting to become independent.<ref name="FrankGerits">Template:Cite journal</ref> The Washington Post observed how brutal the French were in tearing down all what they thought was their contributions to Guinea: "In reaction, and as a warning to other French-speaking territories, the French pulled out of Guinea over a two-month period, taking everything they could with them. They unscrewed light bulbs, removed plans for sewage pipelines in Conakry, the capital, and even burned medicines rather than leave them for the Guineans."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Presidency (1958–1984)

Sékou Touré visiting Yugoslavia in 1961
Sékou Touré visiting Romania in 1979

In 1960, Touré declared the PDG to be the only legal party, though the country had effectively been a one-party state since independence. For the next 24 years, Touré effectively held all governing power in the nation. He was elected to a seven-year term as president in 1961; as leader of the PDG he was the only candidate. He was reelected unopposed in 1968, 1974 and 1982. Every five years, a single list of PDG candidates was returned to the National Assembly.

During his presidency, Touré's policies were strongly based on socialism, with the nationalization of foreign companies and centralized economic plans. He won the Lenin Peace Prize as a result in 1961. His early actions to reject the French and then to appropriate wealth and farmland from traditional landlords angered many powerful forces, but the increasing failure of his government to provide either economic opportunities or democratic rights angered more.<ref>See: William Derman. Serfs, Peasants, and Socialists: A Former Serf Village in the Republic of Guinea, University of California Press (1968, 2nd ed 1973). Template:ISBN</ref> Famously, he stated that "Guinea prefers poverty in freedom to riches in slavery."<ref name=":0" />

Guineans who had fled reported that Touré's regime "practices tyranny and torture on a daily basis". His approach towards his opponents caused charges to be brought from Amnesty International (as well as other human rights organizations), accusing his rule to be too oppressive.<ref name=":0" /> From 1965 to 1975 Touré ended all his government's relations with France, the former colonial power.Template:Citation needed

Touré argued that Africa had lost much during colonization, and that Africa ought to retaliate by cutting off ties to former colonial nations. However, in 1978 Guinea's ties with the Soviet Union soured,Template:Why and, as a sign of reconciliation, President of France Valéry Giscard d'Estaing visited Guinea, the first state visit by a French president.Template:Citation needed

Andrée Touré, his wife and the first lady of Guinea

Throughout Touré's dispute with France, he maintained good relations with several socialist countries. However, Touré's attitude toward France was not generally well received by his own people<ref name=":0" /> and some other African countriesTemplate:Which ended diplomatic relations with Guinea over his actions.Template:Citation needed He also often voiced his distrust of other African nations. Meanwhile, some 1.5 million Guineans were fleeing Guinea to neighboring countries, such as Sierra Leone.<ref name=":0" /> Despite this, Touré's position won the support of many anti-colonialist and Pan-African groups and leaders.Template:Which

Touré's primary allies in the region were presidents Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Modibo Keita of Mali. After Nkrumah was overthrown in a 1966 coup, Touré offered him asylum in Guinea and gave him the honorary title of co-president.<ref>Webster, James & Boahen, Adu (1980), The Revolutionary Years; West Africa Since 1800, p. 377.</ref> As a leader of the Pan-Africanist movement, Touré consistently spoke out against colonial powers, and befriended African American civil rights activists such as Malcolm X and Stokely Carmichael, to whom he offered asylum. Carmichael took the two leaders' names, as Kwame Ture.<ref>See Molefi K. Asante, Ama Mazama. Encyclopedia of Black Studies. pp78-80</ref>

Sékou Touré with US President John F. Kennedy in October 1962

Touré had good relations with the United States under President John F. Kennedy. However, after Kennedy's assassination, the relationship with Washington soured. When a Guinean delegation was imprisoned in Ghana, after the overthrow of Nkrumah, Touré blamed Washington.Template:Citation needed He feared that the Central Intelligence Agency, as well as the Soviet Union, were plotting against his own regime even though he was taking economic aid from both parties.<ref name=":0" />

With Nkrumah, Touré helped in the formation of the All-African Peoples Revolutionary Party, and aided the PAIGC guerrillas in their fight against Portuguese colonialism in neighboring Portuguese Guinea. The Portuguese launched an attack upon Conakry in 1970 when some 350 men, under the leadership of Portuguese officers from Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau), including FLNG partisans and African Portuguese soldiers, entered Guinea to rescue Portuguese prisoners of war, overthrow Touré's regime, and destroy PAIGC bases.Template:Citation needed They succeeded in the rescue but failed to dislodge Touré's regime.Template:Citation needed Touré directed waves of arrests, detentions, and some executions of known and suspected opposition leaders in Guinea followed this military operation.Template:Citation needed

During its first three decades of independence, Guinea developed into a militantly socialist state, which merged the functions and membership of the PDG with the various institutions of government, including the public state bureaucracy.Template:Citation needed This unified party-state had nearly complete control over the country's economic and political life.Template:Citation needed Guinea expelled the US Peace Corps in 1966 because of their alleged involvement in a plot to overthrow President Touré.Template:Citation needed Similar charges were directed against France; diplomatic relations were severed in 1965 and Touré did not renew them until 1975. An ongoing source of contention between Guinea and its French-speaking neighbors was the estimated half-million expatriates in Senegal and Ivory Coast; some were active dissidents who, in 1966, formed the National Liberation Front of Guinea (Front de Libération Nationale de Guinée, or FLNG).Template:Citation needed

In Le Français est à nous! (French language belongs to us!<ref>Le Français est à nous! , Paris, Editions de La Découverte, 2019, p. 135-136.</ref>), French university teachers Maria Candéa an Laélia Véron praise Touré for having made official eight local languages of Guinea. They describe his linguistic policy as "très ambitieuse" (very ambitious).

Between 1969 and 1976, according to Amnesty International, 4,000 persons in Guinea were detained for political reasons, with the fate of 2,900 unknown.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref> After an alleged Fulani plot to assassinate Touré was disclosed in May 1976, Diallo Telli, a cabinet minister and formerly the first secretary-general of the OAU, was arrested and sent to prison. He died without trial in November of that year.Template:Citation needed

U.S. President Jimmy Carter welcoming Sékou Touré outside the White House, Washington, D.C., 1979

In 1977, protests against the regime's economic policy, which dealt harshly with unauthorized trading, led to riots in which three regional governors were killed. Touré responded by relaxing restrictions on trading, offering amnesty to exiles (thousands of whom returned), and releasing hundreds of political prisoners. Relations with the Soviet bloc grew cooler, as Touré sought to increase Western aid and private investment for Guinea's sagging economy.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

He imprisoned or exiled his strongest opposition leaders. Large numbers of suspected political opponents were imprisoned in concentration camps, such as the notorious Camp Boiro in Conakry. In 2002, mass graves were discovered near Kindia containing hundreds of bodies. Most of the victims were killed on 17 and 18 October 1971 by Touré's regime. One grave reportedly contained 400 bodies.<ref name="'Mass graves' found in Guinea"/>

Estimates for number killed by Touré's regime vary widely. According to human rights organisations, including Amnesty International and Guinean groups such as the Camp Boiro Memorial organization, around 50,000 people were killed.<ref name="'Mass graves' found in Guinea">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Some scholars and international agencies have provided significantly lower estimates, with a US House of Representatives report placing the number at around 5,000 killed.<ref name=":1" />

Domestically, Sékou Touré pursued socialist economic policies, including nationalizations of banks, energy and transportation; in foreign affairs, he joined the Non-Aligned Movement and developed very close relations with Mao Zedong and the People's Republic of China.<ref>Jeremy Friedman, Shadow Cold War: The Sino-Soviet Competition for the Third World, p.47, 2015, The University of North Carolina Press</ref><ref>Guinea Background note, Human Rights Watch, 2007. Numbers fleeing remain controversial. Anti-Toure activists and the United States government say a million fled, HRW say tens of thousands.
For the memorial to victims of Toure's government, see: campboiro.org/ For their view, reflected in the Statues of the Camp Boiro International Memorial (CBIM), see : Tierno S. Bah: Camp Boiro International Memorial Template:Webarchive. Quote: "At its peak, Camp Boiro was a contemporary of the Khmer Rouge and a precursor of the Rwandan genocides."</ref>

Sékou Touré with U.S. President Ronald Reagan, 1982

Once Guinea began its rapprochement with France in the late 1970s, MarxistsTemplate:Who among Touré's supporters began to oppose his government's shift toward capitalist liberalisation. In 1978, Touré formally renounced Marxism and reestablished trade with the West.<ref name="ippa">Template:Cite book</ref>

Single-list elections for an expanded National Assembly were held in 1980.<ref name=":0" />Template:Citation needed Touré was elected unopposed to a fourth seven-year term as president on 9 May 1982. A new constitution was adopted that month, and during the summer Touré visited the United States. While in Washington, Touré urged for more American private investment in Guinea, and claimed that the country had "fabulous economic potential" due to its mineral reserves. This was taken by US diplomats to be a confession of the failure of Marxism.<ref name=":0" /> It was part of his economic policy change that led him to seek Western investment in order to develop Guinea's huge mineral reserves. At the same time, however, the annual average income of Guineans was US$140 (Template:Inflation), life expectancy was only at 41 years, and the literacy rate was only 10%.<ref name=":0" /> Measures announced in 1983 brought further economic liberalization, including the delegation of produce marketing to private traders.Template:Citation needed

Death

Touré died of an apparent heart attack on 26 March 1984 while undergoing cardiac treatment in the United States, at the Cleveland Clinic in Cleveland, Ohio, for emergency heart surgery;<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=":0" /> he had been rushed to the United States after being stricken in Saudi Arabia the previous day. Touré's tomb is at the Camayanne Mausoleum, situated within the gardens of the Grand Mosque of Conakry.

Prime Minister Louis Lansana Béavogui became acting president, pending elections that were to be held within 45 days. The Political Bureau of the ruling Guinea Democratic Party was due to name its choice as Touré's successor on 3 April 1984. Under the constitution, the PDG's new leader would have been automatically elected to a seven-year term as president and confirmed in office by the voters by the end of spring. Just hours before that meeting took place, the military seized power in a coup d'état. They denounced the last years of Touré's rule as a "bloody and ruthless dictatorship." The constitution was suspended, the National Assembly dissolved, and the PDG abolished. Colonel Lansana Conté, leader of the coup, assumed the presidency on 5 April, heading the Military Committee of National Restoration (Comité Militaire de Redressement National—CMRN). The military junta freed about 1,000 political prisoners.

In 1985 Conté took advantage of an alleged coup attempt to arrest and execute several of Sékou Touré's close associates, including Ismael Touré, Mamadi Keïta, Siaka Touré, former commander of Camp Boiro; and Moussa Diakité.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Desecration of Touré's tomb

On July 14, 2020, his grave was desecrated by an unknown person. According to a relative of the CEO of the GDR who went to the scene of the desecration, the individual set fire to the tricolor which was in the grave. Then he began to pour liquid into the burial place. The next day his widow lamented the act of desecration. She herself clarified that the mausoleum belongs to her clan and that it is abandoned without security. She considered hiring security personnel.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Awards and honours

Foreign awards and honours

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Ribbon Distinction Country Date Reference
Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Template:Flag 1959 <ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Collar of the Order of the White Lion Template:Flag 30 November 1959 <ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Order of the Yugoslav Great Star Template:Flag 7 January 1961 <ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Lenin Peace Prize Template:Flag 30 April 1961 <ref name=":0" /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour Template:Flag 20 December 1978 <ref name=":0" /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Collar of the Order of Civil Merit Template:Flag 10 May 1979 <ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Supreme Companion of the Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo Template:Flag 16 June 2004
(posthumously) 		<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Grand Officer of the Order Agostinho Neto Template:Flag 6 November 2025 <ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Works by Touré (partial)

  • Ahmed Sékou Touré. 8 novembre 1964 (Conakry) : Parti démocratique de Guinée, (1965)
  • A propos du Sahara Occidental : intervention du président Ahmed Sékou Touré devant le 17e sommet de l'OUA, Freetown, le 3 juillet 1980. (S.l. : s.n., 1980)
  • Address of President Ahmed Sékou Touré, President of the Republic of Template:Sic : suggestions submitted during the West Africa consultative regional meeting held at Conakry, during 19 and 20 November 1971. (Cairo : Permanent Secretariat of the Afro-Asian Peoples' Solidarity Organization, 1971)
  • Afrika and imperialism. Newark, N.J. : Jihad Pub. Co., 1973.
  • Conférences, discours et rapports, Conakry : Impr. du Gouvernement, (1958–)
  • Congres général de l'U.G.T.A.N. (Union général des travailleurs de l'Afrique noire) : Conakry, 15–18 janvier 1959 : rapport d'orientation et de doctrine. (Paris) : Présence africaine, c1959.
  • Discours de Monsieur Sékou Touré, Président du Conseil de Gouvernement des 28 juillet et 25 aout 1958, de Monsieur Diallo Saifoulaye, Président de l'Assemblée territoriale et du Général de Gaulle, Président du Gouvernement de la Républ (Conakry) : Guinée Française, (1958)
  • Doctrine and methods of the Democratic Party of Guinea (Conakry 1963).
  • Expérience guinéenne et unité africaine. Paris, Présence africaine (1959)
  • Guinée-Festival / commentaire et montage, Wolibo Dukuré dit Grand-pére. Conakry : Commission Culturelle du Comité Central, 1983.
  • Guinée, prélude à l'indépendance (Avant-propos de Jacques Rabemananjara) Paris, Présence africaine (1958)
  • Hommage à la révolution Cubaine; Message du camarade Ahmed Sekou Toure au peuple Cubain à l'occasion du 20e anniversaire de l'attaque de la Caserne de Moncada (Juillet 1973). Conakry : Bureau de Presse de la Presidence de la Republique, (1975).
  • Ahmed Sékou Touré. International policy and diplomatic action of the Democratic Party of Guinea; extracts from the report on doctrine and orientation submitted to the 3d National Conference of the P.D.G. (Cairo, Société Orientale de Publicité-Press, 1962)
  • Ahmed Sékou Touré. Opening speech of the Summit of Heads of State and Government by President Ahmed Sékou Touré, chairman of the Summit (November 20, 1980). (S.l. : s.n., 1980)
  • Ahmed Sékou Touré. Poèmes militants. (Conakry, Guinea) : Parti démocratique de Guinée, 1964
  • Ahmed Sékou Touré. Political leader considered as the representative of a culture. (Newark, N. J. : Jihad Productions, 19--)
  • Ahmed Sékou Touré. Pour l'amitié algéro-guinéenne. (Conakry, Guinea : Parti démocratique de Guinée, 1972)
  • Rapport de doctrine et de politique générale, Conakry : Imprimerie Nationale, 1959.
  • Strategy and tactics of the revolution, Conakry, Guinea : Press Office, 1978.
  • Unité nationale, Conakry, République de Guinée (B.P. 1005, Conakry, République de Guinée) : Bureau de presse de la Présidence de la République, 1977.

See also

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References

Citations

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Sources

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News articles

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  • "New West Africa Union Sealed By Heads of Ghana and Guinea" By Thomas F. Brady, The New York Times. May 2, 1959, p. 2
  • Guinea Shuns Tie to World Blocs; But New State Gets Most Aid From East—Toure Departs for a Visit to the U. S. By John B. Oakes, The New York Times, October 25, 1959, p. 16,
  • Red Aid to Guinea Rises By Homer Bigart, The New York Times. March 6, 1960, p. 4
  • Henry Tanner. Regime in Guinea Seizes 2 Utilities; Toure Nationalizes Power and Water Supply Concerns—Pledges Compensation, The New York Times. February 2, 1961, Thursday, p. 3
  • Toure Says Reds Plotted a Coup; Links Communists to Riots by Students Last Month. (UPI), The New York Times. December 13, 1961, Wednesday, p. 14
  • Toure's Country--'Africa Incarnate'; Gui'nea embodies the emphatic nationalism and revolutionary hopes of ex-colonial Africa, but its energetic President confronts handicaps that are also typically African. Toure's Country--'Africa Incarnate' By David Halberstam, July 8, 1962, Sunday The New York Times Magazine, p. 146
  • Guinea Relaxes Business Curbs; Turns to Free Enterprise to Rescue Economy. (Reuters), The New York Times, December 8, 1963, Sunday p. 24
  • U.S. Peace Corps Ousted by Guinea; 72 Members and Dependents to Leave Within a Week By Richard Eder, The New York Times, November 9, 1966, Wednesday, p. 11
  • Guinea Is Warming West African Ties, The New York Times, January 26, 1968, Friday, p. 52
  • Alfred Friendly Jr. Toure Adopting a Moderate Tone; But West Africa Is Skeptical of Guinean's Words. The New York Times. April 28, 1968, Sunday, p. 13
  • Ebb of African 'Revolution', The New York Times, December 7, 1968, Saturday p. 46
  • Guinea's President Charges A Plot to Overthrow Him, (Agence France-Presse), The New York Times, January 16, 1969, Thursday p. 10
  • Guinea Reports 2 Members Of Cabinet Seized in Plot, (Reuters), The New York Times, March 22, 1969, Saturday p. 14
  • 12 Foes of Regime Doomed in Guinea, The New York Times, May 16, 1969, Friday p. 2
  • Guinea Reports Invasion From Sea by Portuguese; Lisbon Denies Charge U.N. Council Calls for End to Attack Guinea Reports an Invasion From Sea (Associated Press), The New York Times, November 23, 1970, Monday, p. 1
  • Guinea: Attack Strengthens Country's Symbolic Role, The New York Times, November 29, 1970, Sunday, p. 194
  • Guinean is Adamant On Death Sentences, The New York Times, January 29, 1971, Friday. p. 3
  • Guinea Wooing the West In Bauxite Development; Guinea is Seeking Help On Bauxite, The New York Times, February 15, 1971, Monday Section: Business and Finance, p. 34
  • Political Ferment Hurts Guinea, The New York Times, January 31, 1972, Monday Section: Survey of Africa's Economy, p. 46
  • Guinean, in Total Reversal, Asks More U.S. Investment by Bernard Weinraub, The New York Times, July 2, 1982, Friday Late City Final Edition, p. A3, Col. 5
  • Guinea is Slowly Breaking Out of Its Tight Cocoon by Alan Cowell, The New York Times, December 3, 1982, Friday, Late City Final Edition, p. A2, Col. 3
  • In Revolutionary Guinea, Some of the Fire is Gone by Alan Cowell, The New York Times, December 9, 1982, Thursday, Late City Final Edition, p. A2, Col. 3
  • Guinea's president, Sekou Toure, Dies in Cleveland Clinic by Clifford D. May, The New York Times, Obituary, March 28, 1984, Wednesday, Late City Final Edition, p. A1, Col. 1
  • Thousands Mourn Death of Toure by Clifford D. May, The New York Times, March 29, 1984, Thursday, Late City Final Edition, p. A3, Col. 1
  • Ahmed Sekou Toure, a Radical Hero by Eric Pace, The New York Times, Obituary, March 28, 1984, Wednesday, Late City Final Edition, p. A6, Col. 1
  • In Post-Coup Guinea, a Jail is Thrown Open. Clifford D. May. The New York Times, April 12, 1984, Thursday, Late City Final Edition, p.A1, Col. 4
  • Topics; How to Run Things, Or Ruin Them, The New York Times, March 29, 1984.
  • Guinea Airport Opens; Capital Appears Calm, The New York Times, April 7, 1984.
  • Guinea Frees Toure's Widow, (Reuters), The New York Times, January 3, 1988.
  • How France Shaped New Africa, Howard W. French, The New York Times, February 28, 1995.
  • Conversations/Kwame Ture; Formerly Stokely Carmichael And Still Ready for the Revolution, Karen DeWitt, The New York Times, April 14, 1996.
  • Stokely Carmichael, Rights Leader Who Coined 'Black Power,' Dies at 57, Michael T. Kaufman, The New York Times, November 16, 1998.
  • 'Mass graves' found in Guinea. BBC, 22 October 2002.
  • Stokely Speaks (Book Review), Robert Weisbrot, The New York Times Review of Books, November 23, 2003.

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Other secondary sources

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