Asiento de Negros

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File:1713 Asiento contract.png
Cover of the English translation of the Asiento contract signed by Britain and Spain in 1713 as part of the Utrecht treaty that ended the War of Spanish Succession. The contract granted exclusive rights to Britain to sell slaves in the Spanish Indies.

Template:Slavery The Template:Lang (Template:Literal translation) was a monopoly contract between the Spanish Crown and various merchants for the right to provide enslaved Africans to colonies in the Spanish Americas.<ref name="The Asiento de Negros and Internati">Template:Cite journal</ref> The Spanish Empire rarely engaged in the transatlantic slave trade directly from Africa itself, choosing instead to contract out the importation to foreign merchants from nations more prominent in that part of the world, typically Portuguese and Genoese, but later the Dutch, French, and British. The Asiento did not concern French or British Caribbean, or Brazil, but only Spanish America.

The 1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas divided the Atlantic Ocean and other parts of the globe into two zones of influence, Spanish and Portuguese. The Spanish acquired the west side, washing South America and the West Indies, whilst the Portuguese obtained the east side, washing the west coast of Africa – and also the Indian Ocean beyond. The Spanish relied on enslaved African labourers to support their American colonial project, but now lacked any trading or territorial foothold in West Africa, the principal source of slave labour.<ref>Schneider, Elena, The Occupation of Havana, University of North Carolina Press, 1977, p.23 [1]</ref> The Spanish relied on Portuguese slave traders to fill their requirements. The contract was usually obtained by foreign merchant banks that cooperated with local or foreign traders, that specialized in shipping. Different organisations and individuals would bid for the right to hold the Template:Lang.

The original impetus to import enslaved Africans was to relieve the indigenous inhabitants of the colonies from the labour demands of Spanish colonists.<ref>Haring, Clarence. The Spanish Empire in America, New York: Oxford University Press 1947, p. 219.</ref> The enslavement of Amerindians had been halted by the influence of Dominicans such as Bartolomé de las Casas. Spain gave individual Template:Lang to Portuguese merchants to bring African slaves to South America.<ref>Israel, J. (2002). Diasporas within the Diaspora. Jews, Crypto-Jews and the World Maritime Empires (1510–1740).</ref>

After the Peace of Münster, in 1648, Dutch merchants became involved in the Asiento de Negros. In 1713, the British were awarded the right to the asiento in the Treaty of Utrecht, which ended the War of the Spanish Succession.<ref name="The Asiento de Negros and Internati"/> The British government passed its rights to the South Sea Company.<ref name="Haring, p. 220">Haring, The Spanish Empire in America, p. 220.</ref> The British Template:Lang ended with the 1750 Treaty of Madrid between Great Britain and Spain after the War of Jenkins' Ear, known appropriately by the Spanish as the Guerra del Asiento ("War of the Asiento").

Template:Lang

An Template:Lang, in the Spanish language, is a short-term loan or debt contract, of about one to four years, signed between the Spanish crown and a banker or a small group of bankers (Template:Lang) against future crown revenues,<ref>The strategy of Philip II against the Cortes in the 1575 crisis and the domestic credit market freeze Carlos Álvarez-Nogal and Christophe Chamley </ref><ref>The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567–1659: The Logistics of ...by Geoffrey Parker, p. 125</ref> often included after peace treaties were signed. An Template:Lang covered one or a combination of three specific transactions: an unsecured short-term loan, a transfer of payment, and a currency exchange contract.<ref>J Conklin (1998) The Theory of Sovereign Debt and Spain under Philip II</ref> Between the early 16th and the mid-18th century, Template:Lang were used by the Spanish treasurer to adjust short-term imbalances between revenues and expenditures. The sovereign promised to repay the principal of the loan plus high interest (12%). The participant bankers in Seville, Lisbon, Republic of Genoa and Amsterdam, in turn, drew on the profits and direct investments obtained from a large number of Atlantic merchants.<ref>A Nation upon the Ocean Sea: Portugal's Atlantic Diaspora and the Crisis of ... by Daviken Studnicki-Gizbert, pp. 112–113</ref> In exchange for a set of scheduled payments, merchants and financiers were given the right to collect relevant taxes or oversee the trade in those commodities that fell under the monarch's prerogative. In this way a set of merchants received the right to ship tobacco, salt, sugar and cacao on a trade route from the Spanish West Indies, some times accompanied by licences to export bullion from Spanish Main or Cádiz.<ref>The Cambridge Economic History of Europe: From the Decline of the Roman empire by Sir John Harold Clapham, Eileen Edna Power, p. 372</ref> In particular, the Template:Lang would result in great impact for the economy of Spanish American colonies, because the treaty secured or would secure fixed revenues for the crown and the supply of the region with certain commodities, whereas the contracting party bore the risk of the trade.<ref>The Asiento de Negros and International Law by Andrea Weindl. In: Journal of the History of International Law. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/157180508X359846</ref> A new asiento was the safest means to get their money back and cash their arrears.<ref>Carlos Álvarez Nogal (2002) THE ABILITY OF AN ABSOLUTE KING TO BORROW DURING THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. SPAIN DURING THE HABSBURG DYNASTY [sic], p. 7, 30</ref>

History of the Template:Lang

Template:Main

File:Insula Gaditana.jpg
The island of Cádiz by Blaeu in 1662.
File:San juan ulua1.JPG
San Juan de Ulúa, Spanish fort in Veracruz, Mexico (2008)

Background in the Spanish Americas

The general meaning of Template:Lang (from the Spanish verb Template:Lang, to sit, which was derived from the Latin Template:Lang) in Spanish is "consent" or "settlement, establishment". In a commercial context, it means "contract, trading agreement". In the words of Georges Scelle, it was "a term in Spanish public law which designates every contract made for the purpose of public utility...between the Spanish government and private individuals."<ref>Postma, Johannes, The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1815 (Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 29.</ref>

The Asiento system was established following Spanish settlement in the Caribbean when the indigenous population was undergoing demographic collapse and the Spanish needed another source of labour. Initially, a few Christian Africans born in Iberia were transported to the Caribbean. But as the indigenous demographic collapse was ongoing and opponents of the Spanish exploitation of indigenous labour grew, including that of Bartolomé de Las Casas (although rescinding his views later), the young Habsburg king Charles I of Spain allowed for the direct importation of slaves from Africa (bozales) to the Caribbean. The first asiento for selling slaves was drawn up in August 1518, granting a Flemish favourite of Charles, Laurent de Gouvenot, a monopoly on importing enslaved Africans for eight years with a maximum of 4,000. Gouvenot promptly sold his licence to the treasurer of the Template:Lang and three subcontractors, Genoese merchants in Andalusia, for 25,000 ducats.<ref>Grete Klingenstein, Heinrich Lutz, Gerald Stourzh, EUROPÄISIERUNG DER ERDE? Studien zur Einwirkung Europas auf die außereuropäische Welt 1980, p. 90.</ref><ref>Haring, The Spanish Empire in America, p. 219.</ref> The Casa de Contratación in Seville controlled both trade and immigration to the New World, excluding Jews, conversos, Muslims, and foreigners. African slaves were considered merchandise, and their imports were regulated by the crown.<ref>Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery, p. 135.</ref> The Spanish crown collected a duty on each "pieza", and not on each individual slave delivered.<ref name="books.google.com">The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History, Volume 5 by Oxford University Press</ref> Spain had neither direct access to the African sources of slaves nor the ability to transport them, so the asiento system was a way to ensure a legal supply of Africans to the New World, which brought revenue to the Spanish crown.<ref>Shelly, Cara. "Asiento" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 1, p. 218. New York: Charles Scribner's and Sons 1996, p. 218.</ref>

Portuguese monopoly

For the Spanish crown, the asiento was a source of profit. Haring says, "The asiento remained the settled policy of the Spanish government for controlling and profiting from the slave trade."<ref name="Haring, p. 220"/> In Habsburg Spain, asientos were a basic method of financing state expenditures: "Borrowing took two forms – long-term debt in the form of perpetual bonds (juros), and short-term loan contracts provided by bankers (asientos). Many asientos were eventually converted or refinanced through juros."<ref>Mauricio Drelichman and Hans-Joachim Voth, "Lending to the Borrower from Hell: Debt and Default in the Age of Phillip II, 1566–1598", p. 6.</ref>

Initially, since Portugal had unimpeded rights in West Africa via its 1494 treaty, it dominated the European slave trade of Africans. Before the onset of the official asiento in 1595, when the Spanish monarch also ruled Portugal in the Iberian Union (1580–1640), the Spanish fiscal authorities gave individual asientos to merchants, primarily from Portugal, to bring slaves to the Americas. For the 1560s most of these slaves were obtained in the Upper Guinea area, especially in the Sierra Leone region where there were many wars associated with the Mandé invasions.

File:Cartagena - Fortaleza San Felipe de Barajas - 20050430bis.jpg
San Felipe, Spanish fort in Cartagena (Colombia).

Following the establishment of the Portuguese colony of Angola in 1575, and the gradual replacement of São Tomé by Brazil as the primary producer of sugar, Angolan interests came to dominate the trade, and it was Portuguese financiers and merchants who obtained the larger-scale, comprehensive asiento that was established in 1595 during the period of the Iberian Union. The asiento was extended to the importation of African slaves to Brazil, with those holding asientos for the Brazilian slave trade often also trading slaves in Spanish America. Spanish America was a major market for African slaves, including many of whom exceeded the quota of the asiento license and were illegally sold. From the period between 1595 and 1622, approximately half of all imported slaves were destined for Mexico.<ref>The Transatlantic Slave Trade: A History by James A. Rawley, Stephen D. Behrendt, p. 62-63</ref> Most smuggled slaves were not brought by freelance traders.<ref>Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery, p. 181.</ref>

Angolan dominance of the trade was pronounced after 1615 when the governors of Angola, starting with Bento Banha Cardoso, allied with Imbangala mercenaries to wreak havoc on the local African powers. Many of these governors also held the contract of Angola as well as the asiento, thus insuring their interests. Shipping registers from Vera Cruz and Cartagena show that as many as 85% of the slaves arriving in Spanish ports were from Angola, brought by Portuguese ships. In 1637 the Dutch West India Company employed Portuguese merchants in the trade.<ref>Postma, Johannes, The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1815(Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 21.</ref> The earlier asiento period came to an end in 1640 when Portugal revolted against Spain, though even then the Portuguese continued to supply Spanish colonies.

Dutch, French and British competition

File:16th century Portuguese Spanish trade routes.png
Main Spanish trade routes (white), showing the location of Seville, Havana, Portobelo, Cartagena and Veracruz.

In 1647, the Dutch reached a provisional peace agreement with Spain, recognizing the status quo in the East and West Indies, as well as the patents of the Dutch East India and the West India Company.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In the 1650s after Portugal achieved its independence from Spain, Spain denied the asiento to the Portuguese, whom it considered rebels.<ref>Shelly, "Asiento", p. 218.</ref> Spain sought to enter the slave trade directly, sending ships to Angola to purchase slaves. It also toyed with the idea of a military alliance with Kongo, the powerful African kingdom north of Angola. But these ideas were abandoned and the Spanish returned to Portuguese and then Dutch interests to supply slaves. (Captain Holmes's expedition captured or destroyed all the Dutch settlements on Ghana's coast.) The Spanish awarded large contracts for the asiento to the Genovese banker Grillo in the 1660s and the Dutch West India Company in 1675 rather than Portuguese merchants in the 1670s and 1680s.<ref>Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery, p. 203.</ref> However, this same period saw a resurgence of piracy. In 1700, with the death of the last Habsburg monarch, Charles II of Spain, his will named the House of Bourbon in the form of Philip V of Spain as the successor to the Spanish throne. The Bourbon family were also Kings of France and so the asiento was granted in 1702 to the French Guinea Company, for the importation of 48,000 African slaves over a decade. The Africans were transported to the French Caribbean colonies of Martinique and Saint Domingue(now Haiti).

As part of their strategy of maintaining a balance of power in Europe, Great Britain and her allies, including the Dutch and the Portuguese, disputed the Bourbon inheritance of the Spanish throne and fought in the War of the Spanish Succession against Bourbon hegemony. Although Britain did not prevail, it did receive the asiento as part of the Peace of Utrecht.<ref group= "nb">Similar patents in the British system were the Virginia Company, the Levant Company and the Merchant Adventurers' patent of trade with the United Provinces (essentially concurrent with the modern-day Netherlands). An overview of the British system from a Marxist perspective is given by Robert Brenner, on the editorial board of the New Left Review, in "Merchants and Revolution".</ref> This granted Britain a thirty-year asiento to send one merchant ship to the Spanish port of Portobelo, furnishing 4800 slaves to the Spanish colonies. The asiento became a conduit for British contraband and smugglers of all kinds, which undermined Spain's attempts to keep a protectionist trading system with its American colonies.<ref>Shelly, "Asiento", p. 218</ref> Disputes connected with it led to the War of Jenkins' Ear (1739).<ref>Haring, The Spanish Empire in America, p. 333.</ref> Britain gave up its rights to the asiento after the war, in the Treaty of Madrid of 1750, as Spain was implementing several administrative and economic reforms. The Spanish Crown bought out the South Sea Company's right to the asiento that year. The Spanish Crown sought another way to supply African slaves, attempting to liberalize its traffic, trying to shift to a system of the free trade in slaves by Spaniards and foreigners in particular colonial locations. These were Cuba, Santo Domingo, Puerto Rico, and Caracas, all of which used African slaves in large numbers.<ref>Haring, The Spanish Empire in America, p. 220-21</ref>

Holders of the Asiento

Early: 1518–1595

  • 1518–1527: Laurent de Gouvenot (aka Lorenzo de Gorrevod or Garrebod), ex-Governor of Bresse and Mayordomo mayor of Charles I of Spain.<ref>Thomas, Hugh (1997) The Slave Trade. Simon and Schuster</ref><ref name="Dalla Corte 2006">Dalla Corte, Gabriela (2006) Homogeneidad, Diferencia y Exclusión en América. Edicions Universitat Barcelona,</ref> The first known transatlantic slave ship—sailed from São Tomé in 1525.
    • Outsourced to Domingo de Forne, Agustín de Ribaldo and Fernando Vázquez, all Genoese established in Seville.<ref name="Dalla Corte 2006"/>
  • 1528–1536: The Welser and Fugger families from Augsburg.<ref name="Cortés López 2004">Cortés López, José Luis (2004) Esclavo y Colono. Universidad de Salamanca</ref> The Welser family is granted with the Asiento in Venezuela Province but dispossessed of the Asiento following complaints about their treatment of Native American workers.
  • 1565: King Philip II grants Pedro Menéndez de Avilés an asiento with expansive trade privileges, the power to distribute lands, and licenses to sell 500 slaves, as well as various titles, including that of adelantado of Florida.<ref name="McGrath2000">Template:Cite book</ref>

Portuguese: 1595–1640

Six Asientos were granted to:

File:Jan Valckenburgh (1623-1667) by Daniel Vertangen.jpg
Jan Valckenburgh

In 1640 the Iberian Union fell apart; the Portuguese Restoration War began. Between 1640 and 1651 there was no asiento.<ref>THE COST OF THE ASIENTO. PRIVATE MERCHANTS, ROYAL MONOPOLIES, AND THE MAKING OF TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE IN THE SPANISH EMPIRE by Alejandro García-Montón, p. 20</ref> ) Slave arrivals to the Spanish Americas declined precipitously.<ref>Atlantic History and the Slave Trade to Spanish America ALEX BORUCKI, DAVID ELTIS, AND DAVID WHEAT. AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW APRIL 2015, p. 442</ref> On 12 July 1641 Portugal and the Dutch Republic signed a 'Treaty of Offensive and Defensive Alliance', otherwise known as the Treaty of The Hague. Dutch ships were allowed in any Portuguese port for ten years. Dutch merchant Jan Valckenburgh saw an opportunity but was expelled from Loango-Angola in 1648. Dutch private entrepreneurs were responsible for almost half of the total investment in slave trade against a smaller share held by the WIC.<ref>Catia Antunes & Filipa Ribeiro da Silva (2012) Amsterdam merchants in the slave trade and African commerce, 1580s–1670s, p. 7, 18, 23, 29. In: Tijdschrift voor sociale en economische geschiedenis 9 [2012] nr. 4</ref>

The Invasion of Jamaica was the casus belli that resulted in the actual Anglo-Spanish War (1654-1660).Template:Sfn In March 1659 the Danish Africa Company was started by the Finnish Hendrik Carloff and two Dutchmen. Their mandate included trade with the Danish Gold Coast. Their goal was to compete with the Dutch, the Swedish Africa Company and the Portuguese. The Dutch competed with the Company of Royal Adventurers Trading to Africa founded in 1660. Both of these slaving powers had a strong presence on the Gold Coast and the Bight of Benin; many slaves came from Cross River (Nigeria), Calabar in the Bight of Biafra and West Central Africa. The Dutch and Portuguese signed a new Treaty of The Hague (1661). Matthias Beck, who had left Dutch Brazil in 1654, was appointed by the WIC as governor of Curaçao, that, from 1662 to 1728 and intermittently thereafter, functioned as an entrepôt through which captives on Dutch transatlantic ships reached Spanish colonies. A second branch of the intra-American slave traffic originated in Barbados and the Colony of Jamaica.<ref>Atlantic History and the Slave Trade to Spanish America ALEX BORUCKI, DAVID ELTIS, AND DAVID WHEAT. AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW APRIL 2015, p. 443, 446</ref>

Genoese: 1662–1671

In 1658 Ambrogio Lomellini and Domenico Grillo were appointed as Treasurers of the Holy Crusade, waging war against "infidels". This fact allowed them to have access to a part of the treasures that came from America.<ref>LOS BANQUEROS DE FELIPE IV Y LOS METALES PRECIOSOS AMERICANOS (1621–1665) Carlos Álvarez Nogal</ref> (From the late 1640s Grillo and his business partner Lomellini lived in Madrid.<ref name="doi.org">Ammann, F. (2019) Looking through the mirrors: materiality and intimacy at Domenico Grillo's mansion in Baroque Madrid. https://doi.org/10.1080/13507486.2015.1131248</ref>) In 1662 and 1666 Spain (or the royal finances) were bankrupt.<ref>Raphaël Carrasco, Claudette Dérozier, Annie Molinié-Bertrand, Histoire et civilisation de l'Espagne classique: 1492–1808, Nathan, 2001 Template:ISBN</ref> Slave-contracts of the WIC with Grillo and Lomellini of Madrid, 1662 and 1667,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Agreement to Deliver two thousand or More Slaves to Curacao (1662)</ref> who were permitted to sub-contract to any nation friendly to Spain.

  • July 5, 1662 – 1669: Grillo and Lomellini promised to ship 24,000 slaves in seven years, assisted by the Dutch West India Company and the English Royal Adventurers from Jamaica to Cartagena, Colombia, Veracruz in Mexico and Portobello in Panama. In 1664, the political situation in Europe and the Caribbean was volatile, leading to Second Anglo-Dutch War. Robert Holmes captured the Dutch trading post of Cabo Verde in June 1664 and confiscated several ships of the Dutch West India company. The Duke of York, governor of the Royal Africa Company, envied the Dutch trade in slaves to Spanish America.
  • Cristóbal Calderón, the attorney general or "procurador" of Havana, requests, on behalf of his city, a license to sail directly to the coasts of Guinea and Angola to supply themselves in slaves instead of relying on those the Asiento brought in from Barbados and Curaçao. Havana, April 28, 1664.
  • In January 1667, Grillo and Lomelin convinced the Council of the Indies to return 100,000 pesos to the Asiento to restore the slaving negotiations with the British and the Dutch.<ref name="Late-Seventeenth Century Panama 1674">DARING TRADE An Archaeology of the Slave Trade in Late-Seventeenth Century Panama (1663–1674) by Felipe Gaitán Ammann</ref>
  • Grillo and Lomellini contacted nl:Francesco Ferroni in Amsterdam and then turned to the Dutch to fulfil the conditions of their contract.<ref>Negro Slavery in Latin America by Rolando Mellafe</ref><ref>Postma, J.M. (2008) The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1815 blz. 33, Cambridge University Press.</ref> Grillo's monopoly was bitterly received in the colonies. He operated almost exclusively by proxy.<ref name="doi.org"/> In 1668 when Grillo's estate was threatened with confiscation because of enormous debts, he succeeded in an extension of the Asiento for two years.
  • In 1668 an immense warehouse was erected on baren island of Curaçao.<ref>The Transatlantic Slave Trade: A History by James A. Rawley, Stephen D. Behrendt, p. 76</ref> About 90% of the slaves were exported from Curaçao and half of them illegally.<ref>THE COST OF THE ASIENTO. PRIVATE MERCHANTS, ROYAL MONOPOLIES, AND THE MAKING OF TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE IN THE SPANISH EMPIRE by Alejandro García-Montón, p. 17, 18, 23, 26</ref><ref>Johannes Postma, The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, Cambridge 1990, p. 38-45</ref>
  • In 1671 the Grillo asiento is ended because of mistrust.<ref>The slave trade: the story of the Atlantic slave trade, 1440–1870 Door Hugh Thomas, p. 213.</ref><ref>The Genoese in Spain: Gabriel Bocángel y Unzueta (1603–1658): a biography by Trevor J. Dadson [3]</ref><ref>Elis, D. and Richardson, D. (eds.), Extending the Frontiers: Essays on the New Transatlantic Slave Trade Database (2008), p. 35.</ref><ref>Royal African Company Trades for Commodities Along the West African Coast</ref> Grillo's experience opened up the way for expansion of the Dutch, English and French slave trading companies.<ref name="doi.org"/>

Dutch & Portuguese: 1671–1701

File:Portrait sophia trip wife of joan coymans.jpg
From 1657 to 1679 Sophia Trip managed the Coymans company, which financed and organized the slave trade. Portrait by Bartholomeus van der Helst (1645).
File:Retratodejosuavanbellers8.jpg
The Dutch merchant in Cadiz Joshua van Belle, involved with his brother Pedro van Belle in the slave trade, painting by Murillo in 1670, National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin.

In 1661 the Dutch and the Portuguese signed a peace. The beginning of the slave trade on Curaçao is in 1665.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 1666 France and Denmark declared war on England.Template:Cn After the Second Anglo-Dutch War the Dutch and the English signed the Treaty of Breda and New York became British. The Treaty of Lisbon (1668) ended the war between Spain and Portugal. In 1674, the WIC made Curaçao a free port, giving it a key position in the international networks, especially the slave trade.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

]</ref> The Portuguese who had trouble letting go of their Asiento rights ... were understood as a French privilege and indeed a marker of the superior status of the French abroad.<ref>The Sun King's Atlantic: Drugs, Demons and Dyestuffs in the Atlantic World ...by Jutta Wimmler, p. 149</ref>

French: 1701–1713

File:Jean Baptiste du Casse.JPG
Jean-Baptiste du Casse, 1700

British: 1713–1750

Template:Main After the introduction of the Trade with Africa Act 1697 the Royal African Company lost its monopoly and in 1708 it was insolvent.<ref>The African slave trade and its suppression: a classified and annotated… By Peter C. Hogg [5]</ref>

The 1713 Peace of Utrecht granted Britain an asiento de negros lasting 30 years to supply the Spanish colonies with 144,000 at 4,800 slaves per year. Britain was permitted to open offices in Buenos Aires, Caracas, Cartagena, Havana, Panama, Portobello and Vera Cruz. An extra-legal clause was added; one ship of no more than 500 tons could be sent to one of these places each year (the Navío de Permiso) with general trade goods. (Two ships were in addition to the annual ships, but were not part of the asiento contract.) One-quarter of the profits were to be reserved for the King of Spain. The Asiento was granted in the name of Queen Anne and then contracted to the company.<ref>Carswell p. 64-66</ref>

It was provided that the same reporting procedure might take place at subsequent five-year intervals. At the end of the contract the Assentistas were permitted three years to remove their effects from the Indies, adjust their accounts and ‘‘make up a balance of the whole”.<ref>(A Collection of all the Treaties, 1785; AGI. Indifferente General. Legajo 2785) Accounting and international relations: Britain, Spain and the Asiento treaty Salvador Carmona, Rafael Donoso, Stephen P. Walker, p. 259</ref>

By July the South Sea Company had arranged contracts with the Royal African Company to supply the necessary African slaves to Jamaica. Ten pounds was paid for a slave aged over 16, £8 for one under 16 but over 10. Two-thirds were to be male, and 90% adult. The company trans-shipped 1,230 slaves from Jamaica to America in the first year, plus any that might have been added (against standing instructions) by the ship's captains on their own behalf. On arrival of the first cargoes, the local authorities refused to accept the asiento, which had still not been officially confirmed there by the Spanish authorities. The slaves were eventually sold at a loss in the West Indies.<ref>Carswell p. 65-66</ref>

In 1714 the government announced that a quarter of profits would be reserved for Queen Anne and a further 7.5% for a financial advisor, Manuel Manasses Gilligan, an English colonist, who operated from the (neutral) Danish West Indies.<ref>Empire at the Periphery: British Colonists, Anglo-Dutch Trade, and the ... by Christian J. Koot, p. 196</ref> Some Company board members refused to accept the contract on these terms, and the government was obliged to reverse its decision.<ref>Carswell p. 67</ref> Despite these setbacks, the company continued, having raised 200,000 pesos (maybe ducats or Spanish escudos? to finance the operations.<ref>BRITISH TRADE WITH SPANISH AMERICA UNDER THE ASIENTO 1713 – 1740 by Victoria Gardner Sorsby, p. 16?</ref> Anne had secretly negotiated with France to get its approval regarding the asiento.<ref>Edward Gregg. Queen Anne (2001), pp. 341, 361.</ref> She boasted to Parliament of her success in taking the asiento away from France and London celebrated her economic coup.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

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File:Merchant with a Slave Northern Netherlandish School Rijksmuseum Amsterdam SK-C-1760.jpg
Dutch merchant with a Slave. Rijksmuseum Amsterdam

In 1714 2,680 slaves were carried, and for 1716–17, 13,000 more, but the trade continued to be unprofitable. As the French previously discovered, high costs meant the real profits from the slave trade asiento were in smuggling contraband goods, which evaded import duties and deprived the authorities of much-needed revenue. An import duty of 33 pieces of eight was charged on each slave (although for this purpose two children were counted as one adult slave). In 1718 a declaration of war between England and Spain halted operations under the Asiento until 1721. The company's assets in South America were seized, at a cost claimed by the company to be £300,000. Any prospect of profit from trade, for which the company had purchased ships and had been planning its next ventures, disappeared.<ref>Carswell p.75-76</ref> Similar conflicts interrupted the contract from 1727 to 1729 and 1739 to 1748. Increasing knowledge of illicit trading by the SSC resulted in the Spanish tightening on-site monitoring in the Americas during the 1730s.<ref>Sugar and Slavery: An Economic History of the British West Indies, 1623–1775 By Richard B. Sheridan, p. 427</ref> The Spanish then proceeded to seek recompense for clandestine trade carried on by the SSC and others under the veil of the supply of Negroes and the annual ship. Thus a key feature of the depredations crisis was the ongoing failure by the SSC to account and report transparently.<ref>Accounting and international relations: Britain, Spain and the Asiento treaty Salvador Carmona, Rafael Donoso, Stephen P. Walker, p. 258-259, 261, 263, 265</ref> Spain having raised objections to the asiento clauses, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was supplemented by the Treaty of Madrid (5 October 1750). The matter of the asiento was not even mentioned in the treaty, as it had lessened in importance to both nations, although both parties had agreed to resolve outstanding concerns at a "proper time and place".<ref>Template:Cite book, p. 277.</ref> The issue was finally settled in 1750 when Britain agreed to renounce its claim to the asiento in exchange for a payment of £100,000 and British trade with Spanish America under favourable conditions.<ref> Template:Cite book, p. 381.</ref> In 1752 the African Company of Merchants was founded.

It has been estimated that the company transported over 34,000 slaves with deaths comparable to its competitors, which was taken as competence in this area of work at the time.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref> Meanwhile, it became a business for privately owned enterprises; the Dutch West India Company began to outsource the slave trade since 1730s? In 1740 a Havana company paid Spain for the Asiento to import slaves to Cuba.<ref name="books.google.nl">The Transatlantic Slave Trade: A History by James A. Rawley, Stephen D. Behrendt, p. 62</ref>

  • There was no asiento during the Austrian War of Succession (1740–1748).<ref name="books.google.nl"/>
  • 1748–1750: Spain renewed the asiento with Britain for four years, but it ended with the Treaty of Madrid. The Spanish authorities "restore[d] the slave trade to the sphere of internal law from which it should never have left".<ref>Scelle, G., Une institution internationale disparue: l'assiento des nègres, (1906) 13 RGDIP 357, p. 395.</ref><ref name="cambridge.org"/> By the middle of the 18th century, British Jamaica and French Saint-Domingue had become the largest slave societies of the region. As of 1778, the French were importing approximately 13,000 Africans for enslavement to the French West Indies each year.<ref name=Kitchin1>Template:Cite book</ref>
  • In 1762, the British imported more than 10,000 African slaves to Havana. They used it as a base to supply the Caribbean and the lower Thirteen Colonies.<ref>Rogozinsky, Jan. A Brief History of the Caribbean. Plume. 1999.</ref> In response to the short British occupation of Havana (1762–1763), when the British disembarked 3,500 slaves in ten months, the Spanish crown made determined efforts to revive its own transatlantic slave-trading role.<ref name="institutomora.edu.mx"/> Spain theoretically allowed no foreigners to share directly in the colonial trade, the effect of which was to starve the colonies of necessary imports and to encourage smuggling.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Spanish: 1765–1779

The asiento was given to a group of Basques from 1765 to 1779.

  • 1765–1772: Miguel de Uriarte in name of Aguirre, Aristegui, J.M. Enrile y Compañía, or Compañía Gaditana.
  • 1773–1779: Aguirre, Aristegui y Compañía, or Compañía Gaditana.
  • A severe credit crisis in 1772 forced the Cliffords and several other bankers and their firms, going bankrupt. In 1773 many planters in Surinam and the Caribbean came into financial trouble and the Dutch slave trade dropped.
  • A significant moral victory was achieved when the British Chief Justice, Lord Mansfield, ruled in 1772 that slavery was illegal in Britain (Somersett's Case), thereby freeing about 15,000 slaves who had accompanied their masters there—and abruptly terminating the practice of black slaves ostentatiously escorting their masters about the kingdom.
  • During the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War the English seized a few Dutch slave ships, such as the Zong. An attempt to capture the Dutch castle at Elmina on Africa's Gold Coast (modern Ghana) failed in 1782. While many Dutch territories in the West Indies were taken by the British, some, like Curaçao, were not attacked due to their defensive strength.
  • In 1784, the Spanish crown contracted with the large Liverpool firm to bring slaves to Venezuela and Cuba between 1786 and 1789.<ref>Atlantic History and the Slave Trade to Spanish America ALEX BORUCKI, DAVID ELTIS, AND DAVID WHEAT, p. 450</ref>
  • On the 4th of February 1794 a decree is passed by the National Legislative Assembly, making France the first European country to officially outlaw slavery in all its colonies.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> However this was only implemented in Saint-Domingue, Guadeloupe and Guiana.
  • In March 1795 the Batavian Republic did not accept all citizens on equal footing (bookkeeping);<ref>S. Schama, p. 260-262</ref>
  • The Law of 20 May 1802 reinstates slavery in the French Empire.
File:Amaro Pargo.jpg
The Spanish Amaro Pargo, who was one of the most famous privateers of the Golden Age of Piracy, participated in the African slave trade in Hispanic America

Spain's connection to the slave trade with Africa was minor, smaller than that of the Portuguese, the English, the French and Dutch, estimated at only 185 voyages and 276,885 slaves who embarked from 1500 to 1800. This compares to almost 25,000 voyages and over 7,331,831 slaves who disembarked in total by those nations from 1500 to 1800.<ref name="Estimates">Template:Cite web</ref> Of the total number of slaves, nearly half went to the Caribbean islands and the Guianas, almost 40 per cent to Brazil, and some 6 per cent to mainland Spanish America. Most of them arrived between 1601 and 1625, but the number dropped to its lowest between 1676 and 1700.<ref name="Estimates"/> Surprisingly enough, under 5 per cent of the slaves went to North America. These figures may change as authors of "Atlantic History and the Slave Trade to Spanish America" suggest half of them went to Brazil and a quarter to the Caribbean.<ref>Atlantic History and the Slave Trade to Spanish America ALEX BORUCKI, DAVID ELTIS, AND DAVID WHEAT. In: AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW APRIL 2015, p. 440</ref>

The Spanish privateer and merchant Amaro Pargo (1678-1747) managed to transport slaves to the Caribbean, although, it is estimated, to a lesser extent than other captains and figures of the time dedicated to this activity.<ref name="amaropargoesclavitud_1">Template:Cite web</ref> In 1710, the privateer was involved in a complaint by the priest Alonso García Ximénez, who accused him of freeing an African slave named Sebastián, who was transported to Venezuela on one of Amaro's ships. The aforementioned Alonso García granted a power of attorney on July 18, 1715 to Teodoro Garcés de Salazar so that he could demand his return in Caracas. Despite this fact, Amaro Pargo himself also owned slaves in his domestic service.<ref name="amaropargoesclavitud_1"/>

See also

Notes

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