Atropa bella-donna

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Atropa bella-donna, commonly known as deadly nightshade or belladonna, is a toxic perennial herbaceous plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae,<ref name="POWO-2012">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Kennedy-2014">Template:Cite book</ref> which also includes tomatoes, potatoes and eggplant. It is native to Europe and Western Asia, including Turkey, its distribution extending from England in the west to western Ukraine and the Iranian province of Gilan in the east. It is also naturalised or introduced in some parts of Canada, North Africa and the United States.

The foliage and berries are extremely toxic when ingested, containing tropane alkaloids.<ref name="Kennedy-2014"/><ref name="Ulbricht-2004">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="NIH-2015">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> It can also be harmful to handle and/or touch these plants. These toxins include atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine, which cause delirium and hallucinations,<ref name="Kennedy-2014"/><ref name="Ulbricht-2004"/><ref name="NIH-2015"/><ref name="Kuhn-2008">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and are also used as pharmaceutical anticholinergics.<ref name="Kennedy-2014"/> Tropane alkaloids are of common occurrence not only in the Old World tribes Hyoscyameae (to which the genus Atropa belongs) and Mandragoreae, but also in the New World tribe Datureae—all of which belong to the subfamily Solanoideae of the plant family Solanaceae.<ref name="Kennedy-2014"/>

Consumption of Atropa bella-donna has unpredictable effects.<ref name="Ulbricht-2004"/> The antidote for belladonna poisoning is physostigmine or pilocarpine, the same as for atropine.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The highly toxic ripe fruit can be distinguished from that of black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) by its larger berry size and larger stellate calyx (with long, broad and somewhat accrescent lobes protruding beyond the fruit) and the fact that A. bella-donna bears its berries singly, whilst S. nigrum bears spherical berries resembling tiny tomatoes in umbellate clusters.

Name

As with most names in biology, the scientific name differs from the common name. The common name of this plant is deadly nightshade or simply belladonna. The name entered English when John Gerard used it in his illustrated Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes, first published in 1597, displacing dwale as the English common name for this plant.<ref name="OED-2023">Template:Cite book</ref> The English translation of 1633<ref name="Gerarde-1633">Template:Cite book</ref> was seen as the best and most exhaustive work of its kind and a standard reference for some time.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Its correct scientific name is hyphenated bella-donna.<ref name="POWO-2012"/> In his original description, Linnaeus called it Atropa bella donna with a space between 'bella' and 'donna',<ref name="Linnaeus-1753">Template:Cite book</ref> and this space is treated by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Article 60.11 Ex.42) as an error to be replaced by a hyphen.<ref name="IAPT">Template:Cite web</ref>

History

Atropa bella-donna has a long history of use as a medicine, cosmetic, and poison.<ref name="BBC">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="NIH-2015"/><ref name="Fatur-2020a">Template:Cite journal</ref> Known originally under various folk names (such as "deadly nightshade" in English), the plant was named Atropa bella-donna by Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) when he devised his classification system. Linnaeus chose the genus name Atropa because of the poisonous properties of these plants. Atropos (lit. "unturning one"), one of the Three Fates in Greek mythology, is said to have cut a person's thread of life after her sisters had spun and measured it. Linnaeus chose the species name bella-donna ("beautiful woman" in Italian) in reference to the cosmetic use of the plant during the Renaissance. While it has since been claimed<ref name="Ruddock-1867">Template:Cite book</ref> that women used belladonna to dilate their pupils in order to appear more attractive, this claim appears to date from much more recently and to conflate earlier sources which described its use for complexion with a later association with dilation of the pupils.Template:Cn

Extracts of plants in the deadly nightshade family have been in use since at least the 4th century BC, when Mandragora (mandrake) was recommended by Theophrastus for treatment of wounds, gout, and sleeplessness, and as a love potion. In the first century BC, Cleopatra used atropine-rich extracts from the Egyptian henbane plant (also a nightshade) for the above-mentioned purpose of dilating the pupils of her eyes.Template:Citation needed

The use of deadly nightshades as a poison was known in ancient Rome, as attested by the rumour that the Roman empress Livia Drusilla used the juice of Atropa bella-donna berries to murder her husband, the emperor Augustus.<ref>According to the historian Tacitus, Livia was rumored to have squeezed the juice of the berries into a plate of figs which she fed to Augustus: Tacitus, Annals 1.5. See also John Emsley, Molecules of Murder: Criminal Molecules and Classic Cases, ch. 3.6, "History of Atropine as a poison".</ref>

In the first century AD, Dioscorides recognised wine of mandrake as an anaesthetic for treatment of pain or sleeplessness, to be given prior to surgery or cautery.<ref name="Holzman-1998">Template:Cite journal citing J. Arena, Poisoning: Toxicology-Symptoms-Treatments, 3rd edition. Springfield, Charles C. Thomas, 1974, p 345</ref> The use of nightshade preparations for anaesthesia, often in combination with opium, persisted throughout the Roman and Islamic empires and continued in Europe until superseded in the 19th century by modern anaesthetics.

The modern pharmacological study of Atropa bella-donna extracts was begun by the German chemist Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge (1795–1867). In 1831, the German pharmacist Heinrich F. G. Mein (1799–1864)<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> succeeded in preparing a pure crystalline form of the active substance, named atropine.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> <ref>Atropine was also independently isolated in 1833 by Geiger and Hesse:

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Description

Atropa bella-donna is a branching herbaceous perennial rhizomatous hemicryptophyte, often growing as a subshrub from a fleshy rootstock. Plants can reach a height of Template:Cvt (more commonly Template:Cvt), and have ovate leaves up to Template:Cvt long. The bell-shaped flowers are dull purple tinged yellow-green toward the base and are faintly scented. The fruits are berries, which are green, ripening to a shiny black, and approximately Template:Cvt in diameter. The berries are sweet and are consumed by animals (mainly birds<ref name="BSBI atlas"/>) that disperse the seeds in their droppings, even though they contain toxic alkaloids (see Toxicity).<ref name="KayQON-2008">Template:Cite journal</ref> There is a pale-yellow flowering form with pale yellow fruit called Atropa bella-donna var. lutea.

A. bella-donna is sometimes confused with the much less poisonous black nightshade Solanum nigrum, belonging to a different genus within Solanaceae.<ref name="Fatur-2021b">Template:Cite journal</ref> A comparison of the fruit shows that black nightshade berries are spherical, have a dull lustre and grow in clusters, whereas the berries of deadly nightshade are much glossier, twice as large, somewhat flattened and are borne singly. Another distinction is that black nightshade flowers are not tubular but white and star-shaped, bearing a central cone of yellow anthers.

Distribution

Atropa bella-donna is native across temperate southern, central and eastern Europe, northwestern Africa (Morocco and Algeria), and in southwest Asia in Turkey, Iran and the Caucasus.<ref name="POWO-2012"/> In the British Isles it is native only in England, where it grows on calcareous soils, on disturbed ground, field margins, hedgerows and open woodland; it is more widespread as an alien, including in Wales, Scotland, and also Ireland, where it is a relic of cultivation as a medicinal herb.<ref name="Streeter-2010">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="BSBI atlas">Template:Cite web</ref>

It has long been introduced and cultivated outside its native range, and is now naturalised north and west of its native range in Europe, and in parts of North America, China, Australia, and New Zealand,<ref name="POWO-2012"/> where it is often found in shady, moist locations with limestone-rich soils. In southern Sweden it was recorded in Flora of Skåne in 1870 as grown in apothecary gardens near Malmö.<ref name="Hylander-1971">Template:Cite journal</ref> It is considered a weed species in parts of the world,<ref name="USDAPLANTS">Template:Cite web</ref> where it colonises areas with disturbed soils.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Cultivation

Atropa bella-donna is rarely grown in gardens, but, when grown, it is usually for its large upright habit and showy berries.<ref name="Stuart-2004">Template:Cite book</ref> Germination of the small seeds is often difficult, due to hard seed coats that cause seed dormancy. Germination takes several weeks under alternating temperature conditions, but can be sped up with the use of gibberellic acid.<ref name="Genova-1997">Template:Cite journal</ref> Seedlings require sterile soil to prevent damping off -the process of preventing soil-borne pathogens from weakening the seeds from germination- and root disturbance during transplanting, ensuring they do not resent root disturbance.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Taxonomy

Atropa bella-donna is in the nightshade family (Solanaceae), which it shares with potatoes, tomatoes, aubergine, thornapple, tobacco, wolfberry, and chili peppers. The common names for this species include deadly nightshade,<ref name="BSBI atlas"/> belladonna, divale, dwale,<ref name="Spiegl-1996"/> banewort, devil's berries, death cherries, beautiful death, devil's herb, great morel, and dwayberry.<ref name="Grieve-1971">Template:Cite book</ref>

Etymology

The name Atropa bella-donna was published by Carl Linnaeus in Species Plantarum in 1753.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Atropa is derived from the name of the Greek goddess Atropos ('she who may not be turned aside' i.e. 'the inflexible' or 'the implacable')—one of the three Greek fates or destinies who would determine the course of a man's life by the weaving of threads that symbolised his birth, the events in his life, and finally his death, with Atropos cutting these threads to mark the last of these.<ref name="Ruddock-1867"/><ref name="Groombridge-1839"/> The name "bella-donna" comes from the two words bella and donna in the Italian language, meaning 'beautiful' and 'woman', respectively,<ref name="Spiegl-1996">Template:Cite book</ref> originating from its usage as a cosmetic<ref name="Groombridge-1839">Template:Cite book Notes: v.4–5 (1838–1839)</ref> to beautify pallid skin<ref name="Gledhill-2008">Gledhill, David (2008). The Names of Plants. Cambridge University Press. Template:ISBN (hardback), Template:ISBN (paperback). pp. 61, 68.</ref>.

Toxicity

Deadly nightshade is one of the most toxic plants known,<ref name="Drugs.com-2019">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and its use by mouth increases risk in numerous clinical conditions, such as complications of pregnancy, cardiovascular diseases, gastrointestinal disorders, and psychiatric disorders, among others.<ref name="Ulbricht-2004"/><ref name="NIH-2015"/> All parts of the plant contain tropane alkaloids;<ref name="Ulbricht-2004"/><ref name="emea.europa.eu-1998">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="Fatur-2020b" /> roots have up to 1.3%,Template:Efn leaves 1.2%, stalks 0.65%, flowers 0.6%, ripe berries 0.7%, and seeds 0.4% tropane alkaloids; leaves reach maximal alkaloid content when the plant is budding and flowering, roots are most poisonous in the end of the plant's vegetation period.<ref name="Raetsch-2005">Template:Cite book</ref> The nectar is used by bees to make honey that also contains tropane alkaloids.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The berries pose the greatest danger to children because they look attractive and have a somewhat sweet taste.<ref name="Grieve-1971"/><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The root of the plant is generally the most toxic part, though this can vary from one specimen to another.<ref name="Grieve-1971"/><ref name="emea.europa.eu-1998"/>

The active agents in deadly nightshade, atropine, hyoscine (scopolamine), and hyoscyamine, have anticholinergic properties.<ref name="NIH-2015"/><ref name="Pepeu-2004"/><ref name="Fatur-2020b">Template:Cite journal</ref> The symptoms of poisoning include dilated pupils, sensitivity to light, blurred vision, tachycardia, loss of balance, staggering, headache, rash, flushing, severely dry mouth and throat, slurred speech, urinary retention, constipation, confusion, hallucinations, delirium, and convulsions.<ref name="NIH-2015"/><ref name="Drugs.com-2019"/><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Lee-2007">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Fatur-2020b" /> In 2009, A. bella-donna berries were mistaken for blueberries by an adult woman; the six berries she ate were documented to result in severe anticholinergic syndrome.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The deadly symptoms are caused by disruption by the atropine of the parasympathetic nervous system's ability to regulate involuntary activities, such as sweating, breathing, and heart rate. The antidote for belladonna poisoning is an anticholinesterase (such as physostigmine) or a cholinomimetic (such as pilocarpine), the same as for atropine.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Atropa bella-donna is also toxic to many domestic animals, causing narcosis and paralysis.<ref name="ncsu.edu-2000">Template:Cite web</ref> However, cattle and rabbits eat the plant seemingly without suffering harmful effects.<ref name="Lee-2007"/> In humans, its anticholinergic properties will cause the disruption of cognitive capacities, such as memory and learning.<ref name="Pepeu-2004">Template:Cite book</ref>

Due to its toxicity, it is advised to not handle the plant without the use of gloves. It is also cautioned to not eat the plant. Even in extremely small doses, when consumed, the toxicity can lead to death. In addition to this, Atropa has been known to have negative psychological effects on those that come into contact with it. Alongside the side effects of insomnia, local paralysis, and dizziness, are the interchanging states of mind swinging from excitement to absolute rabidness.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Legal status

Cultivation is legal in Europe, Pakistan, North America, and Brazil.<ref name="Raetsch-2005" /> Belladonna leaves and roots can be bought with a medical prescription in pharmacies throughout Germany.<ref name="Lindequist-1992">Template:Cite book</ref> In the United States, drugs containing tropane alkaloids such as atropine are prescription-only, and the FDA regards any over-the-counter products claiming efficacy and safety as an anticholinergic drug to be illegal.<ref name="US FDA-2018"/>

Uses

Cosmetics

The common name belladonna originates from its historic use by women, as bella donna is Italian for "beautiful woman". It has been widely claimed that drops prepared from the plant were used to dilate women's pupils, an effect considered to be attractive and seductive.<ref name="Hofmann-1987">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Tombs-2004">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Fatur-2020a"/> However, as noted above, this appears to conflate use of the plant to aid complexion with a later association with dilation of the pupils. Belladonna drops act as a muscarinic antagonist, blocking receptors in the muscles of the eye that constrict pupil size.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Belladonna is currently rarely used cosmetically, as it carries the adverse effects of causing minor visual distortions, inability to focus on near objects, and increased heart rate. Prolonged usage was reputed to cause blindness.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Dietary supplements

In the United States, belladonna is marketed as a dietary supplement, typically as an atropine ingredient in over-the-counter cold medicine products.<ref name="Drugs.com-2019"/><ref name="US FDA-2018">Template:Cite web</ref> Although such cold medicine products are probably safe for oral use at typical atropine dosages (0.2 milligram), there is inadequate scientific evidence to assure their effectiveness.<ref name="US FDA-2018"/> By FDA guidelines for supplements, there are no regulated manufacturing standards for cold medicines containing atropine, with some belladona supplements found to contain contaminants.<ref name="Drugs.com-2019"/>

Medicinal uses

Scientific evidence to recommend the use of A. bella-donna in its natural form for any condition is insufficient,<ref name="Ulbricht-2004"/><ref name="NIH-2015"/><ref name="Drugs.com-2019"/> although some of its components, in particular l-atropine, which was purified from belladonna in the 1830s, have accepted medical uses.<ref name="Lee-2007" /> Donnatal is a prescription pharmaceutical, that combines natural belladonna alkaloids in a specific, fixed ratio with phenobarbital to provide peripheral anticholinergic or antispasmodic action and mild sedation.<ref name="Drugs.com-2018">Template:Cite web</ref> Donnatal contains 0.0194 mg of atropine.<ref name="Drugs.com-2018"/> According to the FDA and Donnatal labeling, it is possibly effective for use as adjunctive therapy in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (irritable colon, spastic colon, mucous colitis) and acute enterocolitis.<ref name="Drugs.com-2018"/><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Donnatal is not approved by the FDA as being either safe or effective.<ref name="Drugs.com-2018"/> According to the FDA, Donnatal use has significant risks: it can cause harm to a fetus if administered to a pregnant woman, can lead to heat prostration if used in hot climates, may cause constipation, and may produce drowsiness or blurred vision.<ref name="Drugs.com-2018"/>

The Towns-Lambert or Bella Donna Cure was a regimen for treating alcoholism in the early 20th century.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Alternative medicine and toxicity risk

Belladonna has been used in herbal medicine for centuries as a pain reliever, muscle relaxer, and anti-inflammatory, and to treat menstrual problems, peptic ulcer disease, histaminic reaction, and motion sickness.<ref name="Ulbricht-2004"/><ref name="NIH-2015"/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Vaughan-2003">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Fatur-2020a"/>

At least one 19th-century eclectic medicine journal explained how to prepare a belladonna tincture for direct administration.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In homeopathic practices, belladonna was prescribed by German physician Samuel Hahnemann as a topical medication for inflammation and pain diluted to such an extent that none of the plant was actually present in the preparation.<ref name="Ulbricht-2004"/> In the form of Doktor Koster's Antigaspills, belladonna was a homeopathic medication for upset stomach and excessive flatulence, again with no actual belladonna present in the medication.<ref name="Lambert-2014">Template:Cite book</ref> There is insufficient scientific evidence justifying the use of belladonna for these or any other clinical disorders.<ref name="Ulbricht-2004"/>

In 2010 and 2016, the US Food and Drug Administration warned consumers against the use of homeopathic teething tablets and gels containing belladonna as used for infants and children, stating that the products may be toxic, causing "seizures, difficulty breathing, lethargy, excessive sleepiness, muscle weakness, skin flushing, constipation, difficulty urinating, or agitation" especially for the lower potencies which are, counterintuitively, the ones that are more likely to include belladonna since they are less diluted.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Recreational drug

Atropa bella-donna and related plants, such as Datura stramonium (commonly known as thornapple or jimson weed), have occasionally been used as recreational drugs because of the vivid hallucinations and delirium they produce.<ref name="Fatur-2021a">Template:Cite journal</ref> These hallucinations are most commonly described as very unpleasant, and recreational use is considered extremely dangerous because of the high risk of unintentional fatal overdose.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Micke-1996">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Cummins-1968">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Fatur-2020a"/> The main psychoactive ingredients are the alkaloids scopolamine and, to a lesser extent, hyoscyamine.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The effects of atropine on the central nervous system include memory disruption, which may lead to severe confusion.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The major effects of belladonna consumption last for three to four hours; visual hallucinations can last for three to four days, and some negative aftereffects are preserved for several days.<ref name="Raetsch-2005" />

Poison

The tropane alkaloids of A. bella-donna were used as poisons, and early humans made poisonous arrows from the plant.<ref name="Michael-1998">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Fatur-2020a"/> In ancient Rome, it was allegedly used as a poison by Agrippina the Younger, wife of Emperor Claudius, on the advice of Locusta, a woman who specialised in poisons, and Livia, who is rumored to have used it to kill her husband, Emperor Augustus.<ref name="Michael-1998"/><ref name="Timbrell-2005">Template:Cite book</ref>

The Scots used it during a truce to poison the troops of the invading Harold Harefoot, King of England, to the point that the English troops were unable to stand their ground and had to retreat to their ships.<ref name="Groombridge-1839"/><ref name="Fatur-2020a"/>

Medical historians also suspect that Solomon Northup, a free black man who was kidnapped and sold into slavery in 1841, was poisoned using a combination of Atropa bella-donna and laudanum.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Folklore

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Flying ointment

Template:Main In the past, witches were believed to use a mixture of belladonna, opium poppy and other plants, typically poisonous (such as monkshood and hemlock), in flying ointment, which they allegedly applied to help them fly to gatherings with other witches or to experience bacchanalian carousal.<ref>Hansen, Harold A. The Witch's Garden pub. Unity Press 1978 Template:ISBN</ref><ref name="Fatur-2020a"/> Carlo Ginzburg and others have argued that flying ointments were preparations meant to encourage hallucinatory dreaming; a possible explanation for the inclusion of belladonna and opium poppy in flying ointments concerns the known antagonism between tropane alkaloids of belladonna (scopolamine) and opiate alkaloids in the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum (to be specific, morphine), which produces a dream-like waking state (hypnagogia) or potentiated dreams while the user is asleep. This antagonism was known in folk medicine and discussed in traditional medicine formularies.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Belladonna is also notable for the unpredictability of its toxic effects.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Female attractiveness

Among the ancient folk traditions of the Romanian (Moldavian) / Ukrainian region of Bukovina in the Carpathians is the ritual for a Bukovinian girl to enhance her attractiveness by making an offering to deadly nightshade. She entered the fields on a Sunday in Shrovetide, clad in her Sunday best, accompanied by her mother and bringing a bag of bread, salt, and brandy. She would dig up a deadly nightshade root and leave the three offerings in its place. As she returned home, she carried the root on the top of her head. On the way both to and from home, she avoided all quarrels and arguments. If asked by anyone on the way back what she was taking home, she would not divulge the truth or the spell would break.<ref>Schenk, Gustav Das Buch der Gifte translated by Michael Bullock as The Book of Poisons pub. Weidenfeld and Nicolson 1956 page 28, quoting Hovorka, Oskar von and Kronfeld, Adolf : Vergleichende Volksmedizin Zweiter Band. Eine Darstellung volksmedizinische Sitten und Gebräuche, Anschauungen und Heilfaktoren des Aberglaubens und der Zaubermedizin [Translation : Comparative Folk Medicine, a study in two volumes: an account of the ethnomedical practices, habits of thought and healing practices to be found in Superstition and Magical Medicine] 2 vols., pub. Strecker und Schröder Stuttgart 1908-9</ref>

Gallery

Specimen with abundant flowers and green, immature berries
Single flower, showing long pedicel springing from leaf axil.
Atropa belladonna L. Corolla and calyx of single flower in profile.
Atropa belladonna L. Single flower angled to show both exterior and interior.
Atropa belladonna L. Single flower, full face, showing reticulated corolla base and insertion of (characteristically curled) stamens, and pistil.
Single flower, three-quarter face, showing fine detail of puberulent stigma
Atropa belladonna L. single flower back-lit by bright sunlight to reveal purple reticulation of yellowish-green corolla tube.
Back-lit corolla, showing contrast between pubescent, ribbed exterior and more glabrous interior
Cross-section of corolla, showing ripe anthers with flocculent, cream pollen
Atropa belladonna L. Reverse of fruiting calyx, showing concave backs of calyx lobes with dirt from air pollution coating sticky trichomes.
The translucent yellow berries of Atropa belladonna lutea.