Battle of Sepeia

At the Battle of Sepeia (Template:Langx; c. 494 BC<ref>There is some uncertainty about the date: see Democracy Beyond Athens: Popular Government in the Greek Classical Age by Eric W. Robinson, pp. 7–9</ref>), the Spartan forces of Cleomenes I defeated the Argives, fully establishing Spartan dominance in the Peloponnese.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Battle of Sepeia is infamous for having the highest number of casualties within a battle during the classical Greek period.<ref name=":6" />

The closest thing to a contemporaneous source for the description of the battle is, as for many events in this time period, the Histories of Herodotus (written approximately fifty years later, c. 440 BC).<ref name=Herodotus>Herodotus, The Histories, bk 6, 75–81, translated by G. C. Macaulay, available online at http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/hh/hh6070.htm</ref> Herodotus provides context of the political, military and economic landscape of the Peloponnese before, during and after the Battle of Sepeia.<ref name="Herodotus" /> During the 5th century Sparta was one of the largest military powers in the Peloponnese.<ref name="Herodotus" /> This is evident through the Spartans' victory over Argos in the Battle of the 300 Champions (546 BC) <ref name=":9" /> to gain control over the highly disputed territory of Thyrea. However, the Argives sought revenge on Sparta, seizing back control of Thyrea approximately fifty years after the Battle of the 300 Champions.<ref name=":2" /> Ultimately, this reignited tensions between the Spartans and the Argives, driving the two forces to engage in what is now known as the Battle of Sepeia.<ref name=":10" />

The Spartan forces were led by the Agiad King Cleomenes I.<ref name=":6" /> Cleomenes wished to take action against Argos. The King often used religion as a political tool of manipulation to enlist the support of the Spartan people.<ref name=":3" /> Thus, Cleomenes sent four Púthιoι to the Oracle of Delphi (also known as Pythia) seeking the oracle's support and religious reassurance.<ref name=":0" /> Cleomenes proclaimed that the Oracle of Delphi predicted Sparta’s triumph over Argive forces in a future battle.<ref name="Herodotus" /> Thus, Cleomenes had gained the religious approval necessary to enlist the support of the Spartan people to wage war on Argos.<ref name=":6" />

The Argive forces also sought the advice of the Oracle of Delphi.<ref name="Herodotus" /> However, the Oracle foretold the Argives of their looming defeat in a future battle.<ref name=":2" /> Thus, the Argives were cautious of their Spartan enemies, and reluctant to engage in battle if not forced to do so.<ref name=":4" />

Ultimately, when the Battle of Sepeia began, the foretold predictions by the Oracle of Delphi, dictated the stratagems employed by the Spartans and the Argives respectively.<ref name=":3" /> The Argives, cautious of the Spartan’s predicted victory, decided to listen to the Spartan Herald’s commands to his troops and copy what the Herald said.<ref name=":3" /> This allowed for the Argives to take their meal breaks at the same time as the Spartans, ensuring the Spartans would not attack the Argives when not prepared for battle.<ref name=":3" /> When Cleomenes became aware that the Argives were paying close attention to the Herald’s orders, he instructed his forces to ignore the next mealtime call and attack at this call instead.<ref name="Herodotus" /> When the Herald made his call for a mealtime break, the Spartans attacked an unsuspecting Argive force.<ref name="Herodotus" /> Many Argives were slaughtered, with the surviving hoplites seeking refuge in a nearby grove named ‘The Sacred Grove of Apollo’.<ref name=":1" />

Cleomenes, unwilling to leave any Argive survivors, devised a strategy to trick the hoplites into leaving the Grove’s religious and physical protection. <ref name=":3" /> Cleomenes deceived the Argive men into believing that a ransom had been granted and paid – allowing for their release.<ref name="Herodotus" /> However, when an Argive man tried to walk free, they were executed.<ref name=":1" /> When the Argives realised what was occurring, they stopped responding to the ransom calls. Consequently, Cleomenes set the grove on fire forcing the remaining hoplites out of the grove’s protection.<ref name=":8" /> The Battle of Sepeia resulted in approximately 6000 deaths, accounting for an estimated fifty per cent of the Argive population.<ref name=":3" />

The significance of this Battle is illustrated through the revolution of the Argive political system. The doûloι experienced an elevated social status,<ref name="Herodotus" /> due to the loss of noble Argive men. <ref name=":8" />

Prelude

Template:Main The fertile plain of Thyrea was a long-disputed territory that lay between the two city states of Sparta and Argos.<ref name=":10">Template:Cite web</ref> During the Battle of the 300 Champions (546 BC) Sparta gained control over this region.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Nearly two generations had since passed when Argos reclaimed Thyrea.<ref name=":7">Template:Cite journal</ref>

The events that occurred after this held significant religious undertones.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite web</ref> Once the Oracle of Delphi had foretold the success of Sparta against Argos, Cleomenes led his armies to the Erasinos River on the border of the Argolid.<ref name=":2" />

The Oracle of Delphi Entranced

Herodotus believes Cleomenes intended to camp his forces there, however when the king presented a sacrifice to the Erasinos River he received bad omens.<ref name="Herodotus" /> Rather uncharacteristically, Cleomenes obeyed the signs of the River God <ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref> proclaiming: “I admire the God of the River for refusing to betray his countrymen. But the Argives will not get away that easily” and left.<ref name="Herodotus" /> Cleomenes then retreated South and marched his Spartan forces East of Thyrea to Sicyon.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite book</ref>

In Thyrea, Cleomenes made another sacrifice to the sea to access the river via a different route.<ref name=":1" /> This time the omens appeared favourable. Consequently, Cleomenes made arrangements with the Aeginetans and Sicyonians, to transport the Spartan forces to the district of Tiryns and Nauplia (on the coast of the Argolid).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The transportation route Cleomenes arranged was a challenging maritime task to fulfil, involving the transportation of the Spartan forces across the díolkos at Corinth.<ref name=":2" />

Dating the Battle

Whilst Herodotus has been used as the primary source for the Battle of Sepeia, other historians have contested the date of this battle. Herodotus fails to explicitly date the battle, recording the event as part of the whole Spartan expedition against Argos.<ref name="Herodotus" /> The only mentioning of a date occurs in his book Pausnias III, where Herodotus suggests the battle occurred at the beginning of the reign of Cleomenes I i.e. 520 BC.<ref name=":3">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Bust of Herodotus in Palazzo Massimo (Rome)

Modern historians have attempted to calculate a date for the battle based on other passages from Herodotus. When the Argives visited the Oracle of Delphi, two predictions were told; the demise of Argos and that of the Milesians,<ref name="Herodotus" /> both of which are foretold to occur at the same time. The part of the prophecy concerning the Milesians was fulfilled at the end of the Ionian Revolt (494BC).<ref name=":3" /> Thus, the estimated date for the Battle of Sepeia is 494BC.<ref name=":9">Template:Citation</ref>

Strategic and Tactical Deliberations

Template:Main The strategic and tactical deliberations of the Battle of Sepeia begin with Spartan’s march to Argos.<ref name=":4">Template:Cite book</ref> Initially, Cleomenes led the Spartans to the Erasinos River, on the border of the Argolid,<ref name=":2" /> before reporting that the omen’s were not favourable there to set up camp. Interpretations of Cleomenes retreat, suggests the Argives had gained the higher ground on the opposite side of the stream.<ref name=":2" /> Cleomenes reconvened his army on the border of Tiryns.<ref name="Herodotus" /> The Argive forces were caught off guard by the Agiad King’s repositioning;<ref name=":4" /> rushing to set up camp in Sepeia at a close distance from the Lacedaemonians.<ref name=":2" /> The Argives had lost their high ground advantage.

Battle

Template:Main Ultimately, Sparta won the Battle of Sepeia through deception.<ref name=":3" /> Reluctant to engage in battle, the Argives had been mimicking the Spartan Herald's call for meal time breaks.<ref name=":2" /> This ensured the Spartans did not attack the Argives when the hoplites were not prepared.

Cicero Bust

When Cleomenes became aware of this strategy, he was able to weaponize this against them. Cleomenes instructed his forces to ignore the Herald’s announcement and instead attack at this call.<ref name="Herodotus" /> The Argive forces were caught off guard, and a slaughter ensued.

However, other historical accounts suggest a seven-day truce had been agreed upon by the two forces.<ref name=":3" /> Contrary to Herodotus’ account, Plutarch suggests the Spartan forces broke the truce on the third night and attacked the unsuspecting Argives.<ref name=":8">Template:Cite book</ref> When Cleomenes was questioned for his breach of the truce; the King argued the truce was made for seven days and didn’t include nights.<ref name=":3" />

Additionally, Cicero further contests the nature of the Battle in his treatise ‘De Officiis’.<ref name=":3" /> Cicero suggests a thirty-day truce was agreed upon between the Spartans and the Argives.<ref name=":5">Template:Cite web</ref> However, similar to Plutarch, Cicero describes a situation in which a general plunders the fields at night, because the truce had been made for days and not nights.<ref name=":5" /> Cicero does not mention a specific date of the attack nor does he explicitly name Cleomenes or the Argives.<ref name=":3" /> Consequently, due to the large differences between Cicero’s and Plutarch’s account, and Cicero’s inability to name Cleomenes I, it is improbable that Cicero’s account would be used as evidence for the Battle.<ref name=":3" />

Aftermath

After the initial onslaught, many Argive hoplites sought refuge in the ‘Sacred Grove of Apollo’. The Argive men hoped the religious value of the grove would prevent the Spartan forces pursuing further action.<ref name=":2" /> However, Cleomenes I was by reputation ruthless,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and deceived the Argives to their death. Cleomenes announced that the hoplites who’d been ransomed for the standard fee were free to leave.<ref name=":1" /> The names of the men whose ‘ransom’ had been paid were called out individually. However, when an Argive hoplite stepped out of the Sacred Grove, they were executed by the Spartans.<ref name=":2" /> According to Herodotus, at least fifty Argive men were deceived by this strategy, until one of the men inside the grove climbed a tree and witnessed what was happening.<ref name="Herodotus" /> Thus, when the Argives became aware of the double cross, they stopped responding to the ransom calls.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Consequently, Cleomenes set fire to the grove, slaughtering any survivors who attempted to escape.

The Battle of Sepeia and the sacrilege that ensued resulted in six thousand Argive casualties.<ref name="Herodotus" /> Whilst Pausanias records a loss of five thousand Argive men,<ref name=":4" /> modern historians widely accept Herodotus’ higher figure.<ref name=":6">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Due to the nature and ambiguity pertaining to historical sources and administration during the time period, an accurate estimation of the Argive population is improbable.<ref name=":6" /> However, Aristotle in his fifth book ‘Politics’, recorded a Spartan population of ten thousand.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> If the assumption was made that we could assume a similar Argive population during the Battle of Sepeia, the losses of six thousand would have compromised a large majority of young and middle-aged Argive men.<ref name=":6" /> Ultimately, the Battle of Sepeia was one of the most decisive battles during Ancient Greek history.<ref name=":6" />

Significance

Template:Main The Battle of Sepeia severely depleted Argos’ military power. The Argives were unable to engage in battle for a generation.<ref name=":6" /> The next time Sparta and Argos fought would be in the Peloponnesian wars.

Additionally, this Battle holds profound political consequences,<ref name=":6" /> provoking an upheaval of the Argive administrative system. Due to the high number of casualties during the Battle of Sepeia, Argos lost a majority of their young and middle-aged men.<ref name=":7" /> Consequently, the city was in need of men to fulfil the political and administrative roles of recently deceased noblemen. Ultimately, due to the high number of widowed women and shortage of noble Argive men, many doûloι married into political and administrative

Ancient Argos agora

positions.<ref name=":8" /> Prior to the Battle of Sepeia, the doûloι were slaves and belonged in the bottom echelons of society.<ref name=":8" /> The Battle of Sepeia essentially allowed for a political revolution, elevating the status of the doûloι, until Argive born noble men reached maturity.<ref name="Herodotus" />

Consequently, based on the Agrarian economy and serf labour, women of the Dorian ruling class enjoyed greater political, social and economic freedoms (compared to women from Sparta and Crete) during the classical period.<ref name=":6" />