Bylina
Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:Other uses
A Template:Lang (Template:Langx, Template:IPA; Template:Plural form), also popularly known as a starina (Template:Langx),Template:Sfn is a type of Russian oral epic poem.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Template:Lang deal with all periods of Russian history. Template:Lang narratives are loosely based on historical fact, but greatly embellished with fantasy or hyperbole.Template:Sfn Template:Lang originate from the times of Kievan Rus', but had only survived in northern Russia by the time they were collected.Template:Sfn
In a strict academic sense, Template:Lang can be defined as a specific verse meter known from certain Russian sung epics, ballads and humorous songs.Template:Sfn
Terminology
The word Template:Lang derives from the past tense of the verb "to be" (Template:Langx) and implies "something that was".Template:Sfn The term most likely originated from scholars of Russian folklore (folklorists); in 1839, Ivan Sakharov, a Russian folklorist, published an anthology of Russian folklore, a section of which he titled "Byliny of the Russian People", causing the popularization of the term.Template:Sfn Later scholars believe that Sakharov misunderstood the word Template:Lang in the opening of The Tale of Igor's Campaign as "an ancient poem." The folk singers of Template:Lang called their songs stariny (Template:Langx, Template:IPA; Template:Singular Template:Langx) or Template:Lang (Template:Langx), meaning "stories of old" (Template:Langx).Template:Sfn
In the 18th and early 19th centuries, scholars and popular writers typically referred to Template:Lang as Template:Lang, since it "applied to any folk narrative, whether in prose or in verse".Template:Sfn At this point, Template:Lang were not classified into specific groups.Template:Sfn In the second half of the 19th century, Vsevolod Miller classified Template:Lang into three groups which are now commonly accepted: fairy tales, tales of everyday life, and animal tales.Template:Sfn The acceptance of the term Template:Lang in the mid-19th century for folk epics was due to increasing awareness of the differences between them and the fairy tales.Template:Sfn According to Orest Miller: "The Template:Lang connects the primal mythical base common to all folklore genres, with historical places and events. The Template:Lang does not have such connections."Template:Sfn
History
Origins
According to Russell Zguta, Template:Lang originate from the times of Kievan Rus'.Template:Sfn Zguta describes the Template:Lang as rooted in the heroic tales sung in a stately, sober manner by the Kievan gusliari or court poets.Template:Sfn Following Christianization, both the gusliari and the Western-inspired, much more flamboyant Kievan skomorokhi or minstrel-entertainers were pushed out of Kiev by the puritan clerics.Template:Sfn The two groups and traditions melted into one, with the new resulting skomorokhi bards, who entertained a much lowlier public than the former court poets, embellishing the gusliari repertoire with humour and fantastic elements.Template:Sfn They had to flee to the more permissive regions to the north and north-east, such as Novgorod and Vladimir, where their Template:Lang survived until modern times.Template:Sfn This is, in Zguta's opinion, the reason why this type of heroic epic disappeared from the folklore of the area it originates from, i.e. the medieval territories which would become Ukraine, instead being adopted and preserved further to the north and north-east, in the modern territories of Russia.Template:Sfn
Alternatively, religious pilgrims or beggars known as kaliki may have brought them to northern Russia.Template:Sfn Along with the skomorokhi, they appear as characters in Template:Lang.Template:Sfn As wanderers, the kaliki sung religious and other kinds of serious verses.Template:Sfn
Other hypotheses that explain its spread in northern Russia have also been proposed.Template:Sfn According to one theory, the Novgorodians spread the Template:Lang to areas they colonized in the far north, as well as in the Ural region.Template:Sfn Another theory suggests that areas where ethnic Russians were in close contact with other peoples had preserved the Template:Lang due to the other groups having their own epic traditions, and thus the Russians were encouraged to retain their own heritage.Template:Sfn
Later history
By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the singing of Template:Lang was preserved in northern Russia, particularly in the Onega, Pechora and Arkhangelsk regions.Template:Sfn It belonged to non-professional performers and tended to be performed by poor people who needed additional work.Template:Sfn As a result, both men and women could sing Template:Lang.Template:Sfn Since Template:Lang-singing was long and required performance poetry, they were usually sung by one person.Template:Sfn These performers typically sang at posidelki, which were courtship parties for young unmarried women.Template:Sfn
The living tradition of Template:Lang declined due to modernization with the increasing availability of mass media and improved communications with northern Russia.Template:Sfn The new Soviet government viewed Template:Lang as heroic and able to fit Soviet ideals, with government-sponsored folklorists encouraging the composition of new epics known as noviny (Template:Lang), derived from the word novyy ("new").Template:Sfn Although unsuccessful in creating a new oral tradition, the government brought heroes from Template:Lang into pop culture with films such as Sadko (1953) and Ilya Muromets (1956).Template:Sfn
Research history
According to Vsevolod Miller, the prototype of the Old Russian Template:Lang were sacred northern legends, read according to a certain "bylinic technique", passed "from generation to generation, by the teacher to the student".<ref name= Miller>Miller, Orest. Historical School of Folklore Studies Template:Webarchive (in Russian).</ref> Regarding the time of the origin of the Template:Lang, Leonid Maykov wrote: Template:Quote Finally, according to Orest Miller, the great antiquity of Template:Lang is proved by the fact that they depict a defensive policy, not an offensive one.<ref name= Miller/>
Anthologists played an important role in the narration and preservation of Template:Lang. After Sakharov, there were numerous other anthologists who contributed to its development, particularly during the 18th century. For example, Kirsha Danilov produced a compilation of 70 Template:Lang. His sources were believed to be miners living in the Perm area. The works of these folklorists provided insights into the transition of the Russian literary tradition from one that was focused on religious subjects to secular literature. The first transcriptions of Template:Lang are attributed to Richard James, an Englishman who traveled to Russia from 1617 to 1619.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The texts that he was able to record are now preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford.
There was also a known German translation of the Template:Lang and this was published anonymously in 1819.<ref>Chadwick & Chadwick, p. 134.</ref> Overall, interest in these epic poems continued to the point that comprehensive and wide-ranging materials were sourced from virtually all of Great Russia. Although these were preserved, according to Kahn et al., only those Template:Lang from "northern Russia, the areas of Arkhangelsk, Olonetsk, the Onega region, and parts of Siberia" were actively preserved into the 20th century.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Scholarly approaches
The advent of the mythological school began in the 1860s and was represented by Alexander Afanasyev, Fyodor Buslaev, and Orest Miller.Template:Sfn These scholars primarily interpreted Template:Lang through the lens of mythology, seeking to trace the origins of folklore through pre-Christian mythic traditions.Template:Sfn Although they considered all folklore to originate from ancient religious beliefs, they did not see a direct relationship between Template:Lang (fairy tales) and Template:Lang; instead, the latter had emerged over time and was an evolution.Template:Sfn As the mythologists were the first to present broad interpretations of the Template:Lang, they distinguished between "older" and "younger heroes", and believed that the heroes were related to mythological figures like Perun.Template:Sfn
The comparative school advanced the theory that the subjects of folklore originated from the Eastern world.Template:Sfn Vladimir Stasov presented the theory that Russian Template:Lang are related to the Eastern world, having been borrowed from Asia, and thus were not Russian in origin.Template:Sfn In contrast to the mythological school, he considered the Template:Lang to be older than the fairy tale.Template:Sfn
By the end of the 19th century, the historical school gained prominence, with its key representative being Vsevolod Miller.Template:Sfn As Russian chronicles contained key information about historical events and figures, Miller considered it important for folklorists to search these chronicles for specific names and events that may have inspired the creation of a particular Template:Lang.Template:Sfn The hero Dobrynya Nikitich for example was identified with Dobrynya, the uncle of Vladimir the Great.Template:Sfn
Collections
Template:Lang have been collected in Russia since the 17th century; initially they were published for entertainment in prose paraphrases. The Cossack Kirsha Danilov compiled the most notable of the early collections in the Ural region for the mill owner Prokofi Demidov in the middle of the 18th century.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In the middle of the 19th century, Pavel Rybnikov traveled through the region of Lake Onega and rediscovered that the Template:Lang tradition, which was thought to be extinct, still flourished among the peasants of northwest Russia. A storm stranded Rybnikov on an island in Lake Onega where he heard the sound of a Template:Lang being sung; he persuaded the singer to repeat the song and wrote down his words. He proceeded to collect several hundred Template:Lang, all of which he recorded from spoken paraphrase, and published them from 1861 to 1867 in several volumes entitled Songs Collected by P. N. Rybnikov.Template:Sfn
Another influential collector, Alexander Gilferding, published one collection entitled Onega Bylinas Recorded by A. F. Gilferding in the Summer of 1871. He improved upon Rybnikov's work by transcribing the Template:Lang directly from the sung performance rather than the spoken retellings. He noticed that the rhythm differed between the sung and spoken versions, and asked the performers to pause for a longer period of time between lines to allow him time to record the words from the song itself. He also organized his collection by singer rather than subject and included short biographical sketches of the performers with their collected songs, thus focusing on the singer's role in the composition of the song.Template:Sfn Most of the texts are Template:Lang, but Yermak Timofeyevich and Stenka Razin were also mentioned in the songs.Template:Sfn Following the work of Rybnikov and Gilferding, many more scholars searched for Template:Lang everywhere in northern Russia, and obtained Template:Lang from the shores of the White Sea and the rivers flowing to the north.Template:Sfn
Classifications
There are several ways to categorize Template:Lang, and scholars disagree on which classification to use. Scholars from the mythological school differentiate between Template:Lang about "older" and "younger" heroes. The "older" heroes resembled mythological figures, while the "younger" heroes resembled ordinary human beings. The historical school classifies Template:Lang based on the principality in which the story took place, as in Kievan, Novgorodian, and Galician–Volhynian cycles. The mythological Template:Lang of giants and the like probably originated long before the Kievan state was founded, and cannot be classified easily by principality. Scholars of the historical school often consider mythological Template:Lang separately. Other scholars group Template:Lang based on content, including heroic, fairy tale type, novella type and ballad-Template:Lang. Most scholars prefer classification based on principalities or cities.Template:Sfn
Bylina cycles
Mythological Template:Lang, the group considered to be the oldest, cannot be linked to datable events.Template:Sfn These are followed by the Kievan cycle of Template:Lang and are usually centered on Prince Vladimir; the Kievan cycle includes the most well-known heroes, such as Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich and Alyosha Popovich.Template:Sfn The Galician cycle is sometimes considered to be separate to the Kievan cycle and includes heroes such as Duke Stepanovich and Churilo Plenkovich.Template:Sfn The Novgorodian cycle is considered to be the newest cycle; rather than tsars or princes, merchants like Vasily Buslayev and Sadko are often present.Template:Sfn
Structure
Because of their nature as performed pieces, Template:Lang singers employ basically linear and easy to follow structure.Template:Sfn Template:Lang structure typically includes three basic parts, introduction, narrative portion and epilogue. The introduction sometimes includes a verse to entice the audience to listen. Introductions often describe heroes at a feast being given a task or setting out on a mission. The narrative portion relates the adventure with exaggerated details and hyperbole to make the story more exciting. The epilogue refers to the reward for the mission, a moral or a reference to the sea, since Template:Lang were often performed to attempt to calm the sea.Template:Sfn To help listeners grasp the story, singers used 'tag lines' to preface speeches or dialogues, setting up for the audience who is talking to whom.Template:Sfn
Common themes
Scenes common to Template:Lang include a hero taking leave of his mother, saddling a horse, entering a council chamber, bragging, departing over the wall of a city, going on a journey, urging on his horse, in battle, dressing in the morning, exchanging taunts with an enemy, becoming blood brothers with another hero, and asking for mercy. Singers may use their telling of these scenes in many of their songs, incorporating different elements in song after song. Themes in many Template:Lang include the birth and childhood of a hero, father and son fighting, battling a monster, the imprisoned or reluctant hero returning in time to save his city, matchmaking or bride taking, a husband arriving at the wedding of his wife, and encounters with a sorceress who turns men into animals.Template:Sfn Christian beliefs mixed with pre-Christian ideas of magic and paganism in Template:Lang, for instance, saints would appear to defend mortals against darkness.Template:Sfn
Major characters and prototypes
Major Template:Lang characters are Russian epic heroes known as bogatyrs.
| Russian name | English name | Prototype |
|---|---|---|
| Template:Lang | Ilya Muromets | Saint Template:Ill, monk of Kiev Pechersk Lavra |
| Template:Lang | Dobrynya Nikitich | Dobrynya, Kievan voivode. |
| Template:Lang | Alyosha Popovich | Rostov boyar Alexander (Olesha) Popovich. |
| Template:Lang | Svyatogor | East Slavic pre-Christian folk tales. |
| Template:Lang | Mikula Selyaninovich | Personification of the Russian peasants. |
| Template:Lang | Template:Interlanguage link multi | Vladimir the Great |
| Template:Lang | Volga Svyatoslavich<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> | Prince Oleg |
| Template:Lang | Evpaty Kolovrat | Ryazan nobleman with the same name. |
| Template:Lang | Sadko | |
| Template:Lang | Nikita the Tanner | |
| Template:Lang | Vasily Buslayev | |
| Template:Lang | Duke Stepanovich | |
| Template:Lang | Zmey Gorynych | Slavic variation of the European dragon. |
| Template:Lang | Nightingale the Robber |