Tao

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Symbol of Tao (the Way)
Uncreated Eight Trigrams, representing the uncreated state of a being before it incarnates into the material world.
Post-created Eight Trigrams, representing the state of a being after it is born into the material world.

The Tao or Dao (Chinese: 道; pinyin: dào; Jyutping: dou6) is the source and fundamental principle of the universe,<ref>Oxford Reference - Tao</ref><ref>Merriam-Webster Dictionary - Tao</ref> primarily as conceived in East Asian philosophy and religions. The concept is represented by the Chinese character Template:Lang, which has meanings including 'way', 'path', 'road', and sometimes 'doctrine' or 'principle'.Template:Sfnp

According to Tao Te Ching, Tao is self-existent, formless, eternal, omnipresent, and is the source of all existence. While all phenomena in the universe change continuously, Tao, as the source of all, remains motionless and changeless intrinsically :

There is something undifferentiated and yet complete.
Which existed before heaven and earth.
Soundless and formless.
It depends on nothing and does not change.
It operates everywhere and is free from danger.
It may be considered the Mother of the universe.
I do not know its name; I call it Tao.

━━━ from Chapter 25 of Tao Teh Ching <ref>Tao Teh Ching Translations</ref><ref>Another translation of Chapter 25 of Tao Teh Ching : There is a thing that is perfect and complete in nature. It always exists, even before the creation of heaven and earth. Being quiescent and formless, it is self-existent and changeless. It circulates everywhere and never becomes exhausted. It is the Mother of heaven and earth. I do not know its name, but call it Tao.</ref><ref>Another translation of Chapter 25 of Tâo Teh King : There was something undefined and complete, coming into existence before Heaven and Earth. How still it was and formless, standing alone, and undergoing no change, reaching everywhere and in no danger (of being exhausted)! It may be regarded as the Mother of all things. I do not know its name, and I give it the designation of the Tao (the Way or Course).</ref>

Tao is also described as invisible, intangible, and beyond intellectual understanding, as it is written in Tao Te Ching :

We look at it, and we do not see it, and we name it 'the Equable.'
We listen to it, and we do not hear it, and we name it 'the Inaudible.'
We try to grasp it, and do not get hold of it, and we name it 'the Subtle.'
With these three qualities, it cannot be made the subject of description;
and hence we blend them together and obtain The One.

━━━ from Chapter 14 of Tao Teh Ching <ref>The nature of Tao described in Chapter 14 of Tao Teh Ching</ref>

Other chapters of Tao Te Ching, as well as other Taoist scriptures such as Ultra Supreme Elder Lord's Ultra Plainness Scripture, and The Wonderful Scripture on the Constant Purity and Tranquility Spoken by the Ultra Supreme Elder Lord, etc., reiterate that Tao is formless, invisible, omnipresent, and is the source of all.<ref>It is written in Ultra Supreme Elder Lord's Ultra Plainness Scripture :
The Way (Tao) is immense and formless, also hidden and nameless. Beyond Heaven and Earth, it is profound and unseen. Inside Heaven and Earth, it is ample and vigorous. The Way is everywhere between Heaven and Earth.</ref><ref>It is written in The Wonderful Scripture on the Constant Purity and Tranquility, Spoken by the Ultra Supreme Elder Lord :
The Great Tao, being formless, creates heavens and earths;
The Great Tao, being emotionless, runs the sun and the moon;
The Great Tao, being nameless, eternally nurtures all beings.
I do not know its name, and artificially call it "Tao".</ref><ref>Chapter 34 of Tao Teh Ching says :
The Way is broad, reaching to the left as well as right.
The myriad creatures depend on it for life yet it claims no authority.
It accomplishes its task yet lays claim to no merit.
It clothes and feeds the myriad creatures yet lays no claim to being their master.</ref><ref>Another translation of Chapter 34 of Tâo Teh King :
All-pervading is the Great Tao! It may be found on the left hand and on the right. All things depend on it for their production, which it gives to them, not one refusing obedience to it. When its work is accomplished, it does not claim the name of having done it. It clothes all things as with a garment, and makes no assumption of being their lord.</ref>

Based on these descriptions, Tao is considered to be the Absolute Truth independent of any conditions, and the Ultimate Reality behind all phenomena. It is the underlying natural order of the universe whose ultimate essence is difficult to circumscribe because it is non-conceptual yet evident in one's being of aliveness.

Personification of Tao

In Tao Te Ching, Tao is often described as a feminine concept or figure. For example, in some chapters, Tao is described as the Mother of the universe who gives birth to all existence and sustains them<ref>Tao Teh Ching Translations Chapter 25, 52, 51</ref><ref>A Comparison of the Femininity of Lady Wisdom of Proverbs in the Old Testament and Dao of Daodejing by Soon-Young Kim</ref>, while in some other chapters, the practice of adhering to Tao is called "keeping to the Mother", "keeping to the Feminine" or "being fed by the Mother".<ref>Tao Teh Ching Translations Chapter 52, 28, 20</ref><ref>Chapter 52 of Tao Teh Ching :
There was a beginning of the universe
Which may be called the Mother of the Universe.
He who has found the mother (Tao)
And thereby understands her sons (things)
And having understood her sons,
Still keeps to its mother,
Will be free from danger throughout his lifetime.</ref><ref>Another translation of Chapter 52 :
There was a beginning of the universe
Which may be regarded as the Mother of the Universe.
From the Mother, we may know her sons.
After knowing the sons, keep to the Mother.
Thus one's whole life may be preserved from harm.</ref><ref>Chapter 28 of Tao Teh Ching :
Know the masculine.
Keep to the feminine.
And be the Brook of the World
To be the Brook of the World is
To move constantly in the path of Virtue
Without swerving from it
And to return again to infancy.
</ref><ref>Another translation of Chapter 28 :
He who knows the male
and keeps to the female
Becomes the ravine of the world.
Being the ravine of the world.
He will never depart from eternal virtue.
But returns to the state of infancy.</ref><ref>Chapter 20 of Tao Teh Ching :
I alone am different from others
And value being fed by the Mother.</ref>

Additionally, some ancient Chinese classics describe a supreme goddess considered an embodiment of Tao, known as Holy Mother the Original Lord (聖母元君), Ultimate One Original Lord (太一元君), Uncreated Original Empress (先天元后), Supreme Original Lord (無上元君), etc.<ref>City Yung's Collective Record of Immortals (墉城集仙錄) : Holy Mother the Original Lord is an embodiment of the mysterious and harmonious energy of the Feminine Principle. She is the teacher of the Heavenly Emperor.</ref><ref>Master Loy's Spring and Autumn Annals (呂氏春秋.大樂) : Tao is the ultimate essence, which is formless and nameless. To name it artificially, it can be called Ultimate One. (道也者，至精也，不可為形，不可為名，強為之，謂之太一。)</ref><ref>The Ultimate One generates Water (太一生水) : Heaven and Earth are created by Ultimate One.</ref> According to the ancient classics, She is the teacher of Yellow Emperor, Lao Tzu and Ninth Heaven Mysterious Goddess (九天玄女).<ref>Heavenly Classic of the Seven Essences (雲笈七籤) : Ninth Heaven Mysterious Goddess is a disciple of Yellow Emperor's mentor known as Holy Mother the Original Lord.</ref><ref>Master who Embraces the Plainness (抱朴子) : Yellow Emperor and Lao Tzu received the essential teachings through learning from Ultimate One Original Lord.</ref><ref>Record of Immortals throughout the Ages (歷世真仙體道通鑑後集) : Lao Tzu traveled afar and arrived at Mountain Loe, where he met Ultimate One Original Lord. He learnt from her the secret teachings of Golden Elixir.</ref>

According to Taoist Scriptures, Ultra Supreme Elder Lord (太上老君) is also an embodiment of Tao, and the historical Lao Tzu is considered an incarnation of him.<ref>The Eighty-one Incarnations of the Elder Lord (老子八十一化) : The Elder Lord is the root of the Original Light, the true essence of creation. He is an embodiment of the Self-existent principle, which is Tao.</ref><ref>According to The Eighty-one Incarnations of the Elder Lord (老子八十一化), many important divine immortals in Taoist mythology are incarnations of the Elder Lord.</ref><ref>Heavenly Classic of the Seven Essences (雲笈七籤) : Lao Tzu is actually the Elder Lord, who is the embodiment of Tao, the source of the Original Energy, and the root of Heaven and Earth.</ref>

Description and uses of the concept

The word "Tao" has a variety of meanings in both the ancient and modern Chinese language. Aside from its purely prosaic use meaning road, channel, path, principle, or similar,Template:Sfnp the word has acquired a variety of differing and often confusing metaphorical, philosophical, and religious uses. In most belief systems, the word is used symbolically in its sense of "way" as the right or proper way of existence, or in the context of ongoing practices of attainment or of the full coming into being, or the state of enlightenment or spiritual perfection that is the outcome of such practices.Template:Sfnp

Some scholars make sharp distinctions between the moral or ethical usage of the word "Tao" that is prominent in Confucianism and religious Taoism and the more metaphysical usage of the term used in philosophical Taoism and most forms of Mahayana Buddhism;Template:Sfnp others maintain that these are not separate usages or meanings, seeing them as mutually inclusive and compatible approaches to defining the principle.Template:Sfnp

Conventionally used to refer to something that cannot otherwise be discussed in words, the term was originally used as a form of praxis rather than theory. Early writings such as the Tao Te Ching and I Ching are careful to distinguish between conceptions of the Tao (sometimes referred to as "named Tao") and the Tao itself (the "unnamed Tao"), which cannot be expressed or understood in language.Template:NoteTagTemplate:NoteTagTemplate:Sfnp Liu Da asserts that the Tao is properly understood as an experiential and evolving concept and that there are not only cultural and religious differences in the interpretation of the Tao but personal differences that reflect the character of individual practitioners.Template:Sfnp

The Tao can be roughly thought of as the "flow of the universe", or as some essence or pattern behind the natural world that keeps the Universe balanced and ordered.Template:Sfnp It is related to qi, the essential energy of action and existence. The Tao is a non-dualistic principle—it is the greater whole from which all the individual elements of the Universe derive. Catherine Keller considers it similar to the negative theology of Western scholars,Template:Sfnp but the Tao is rarely an object of direct worship, being treated more like the Hindu concepts of karma, dharma, or Ṛta than as a divine object.Template:Sfnp The Tao is more commonly expressed in the relationship between wu (void or emptiness, in the sense of wuji) and the natural, dynamic balance between opposites, leading to its central principle of wu wei (inaction or inexertion).

The Tao is usually described in terms of elements of nature, and in particular, as similar to water.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp Like water it is undifferentiated, endlessly self-replenishing, soft and quiet but immensely powerful, and impassively generous.Template:NoteTag The Song dynasty painter Chen Rong popularized the analogy with his painting Nine Dragons.Template:Sfnp

Much of Taoist philosophy centers on the cyclical continuity of the natural world and its contrast to the linear, goal-oriented actions of human beings, as well as the perception that the Tao is "the source of all being, in which life and death are the same."Template:Sfnp

In all its uses, the Tao is considered to have ineffable qualities that prevent it from being defined or expressed in words. It can, however, be known or experienced, and its principles (which can be discerned by observing nature) can be followed or practiced. Much of East Asian philosophical writing focuses on the value of adhering to the principles of the Tao and the various consequences of failing to do so.

The Eight Trigrams, a system commonly used to represent Tao and its pursuit

The Tao was shared with Confucianism, Chan Buddhism and Zen, and more broadly throughout East Asian philosophy and religion in general. In Taoism, Chinese Buddhism, and Confucianism, the object of spiritual practice is to "become one with the Tao" (Tao Te Ching) or to harmonize one's will with nature to achieve 'effortless action'. This involves meditative and moral practices. Important in this respect is the Taoist concept of de ('virtue'). In Confucianism and religious forms of Taoism, these are often explicitly moral/ethical arguments about proper behavior, while Buddhism and more philosophical forms of Taoism usually refer to the natural and mercurial outcomes of action (comparable to karma). The Tao is intrinsically related to the concepts of yin and yang, where every action creates counter-actions as unavoidable movements within manifestations of the Tao, and proper practice variously involves accepting, conforming to, or working with these natural developments.

In Taoism and Confucianism, the Tao was sometimes traditionally seen as a "transcendent power that blesses" that can "express itself directly" through various ways, but most often shows itself through the speech, movement, or traditional ritual of a "prophet, priest, or king."Template:Sfnp Tao can serve as a life energy instead of qi in some Taoist belief systems.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

De

Template:Main

De (Template:Zhi) is the term generally used to refer to proper adherence to the Tao. De is the active living or cultivation of the way.Template:Sfnp Particular things (things with names) that manifest from the Tao have their own inner nature that they follow in accordance with the Tao, and the following of this inner nature is De. Wu wei, or 'naturalness', is contingent on understanding and conforming to this inner nature, which is interpreted variously from a personal, individual nature to a more generalized notion of human nature within the greater Universe.Template:Sfnp

Historically, the concept of De differed significantly between Taoists and Confucianists. Confucianism was largely a moral system emphasizing the values of humaneness, righteousness, and filial duty, and so conceived De in terms of obedience to rigorously defined and codified social rules. Taoists took a broader, more naturalistic, more metaphysical view on the relationship between humankind and the Universe and considered social rules to be at best a derivative reflection of the natural and spontaneous interactions between people and at worst calcified structure that inhibited naturalness and created conflict. This led to some philosophical and political conflicts between Taoists and Confucians. Several sections of the works attributed to Zhuang Zhou are dedicated to critiques of the failures of Confucianism.

Interpretations

Taoism

The translator Arthur Waley observed that

[Tao] means a road, path, way; and hence, the way in which one does something; method, doctrine, principle. The Way of Heaven, for example, is ruthless; when autumn comes 'no leaf is spared because of its beauty, no flower because of its fragrance'. The Way of Man means, among other things, procreation; and eunuchs are said to be 'far from the Way of Man'. Chu Tao is 'the way to be a monarch', i.e. the art of ruling. Each school of philosophy has its tao, its doctrine of the way in which life should be ordered. Finally in a particular school of philosophy whose followers came to be called Taoists, tao meant 'the way the universe works'; and ultimately something very like God, in the more abstract and philosophical sense of that term.Template:Sfnp

"Tao" gives Taoism its name in English, in both its philosophical and religious forms. The Tao is the fundamental and central concept of these schools of thought. Taoism perceives the Tao as a natural order underlying the substance and activity of the Universe. Language and the "naming" of the Tao is regarded negatively in Taoism; the Tao fundamentally exists and operates outside the realm of differentiation and linguistic constraints.Template:Sfnp

There is no single orthodox Taoist view of the Tao. All forms of Taoism center around Tao and De, but there is a broad variety of distinct interpretations among sects and even individuals in the same sect. Despite this diversity, there are some clear, common patterns and trends in Taoism and its branches.Template:Sfnp

The diversity of Taoist interpretations of the Tao can be seen across four texts representative of major streams of thought in Taoism. All four texts are used in modern Taoism with varying acceptance and emphasis among sects. The Tao Te Ching is the oldest text and representative of a speculative and philosophical approach to the Tao. The Daotilun is an eighth century exegesis of the Tao Te Ching, written from a well-educated and religious viewpoint that represents the traditional, scholarly perspective. The devotional perspective of the Tao is expressed in the Qingjing Jing, a liturgical text that was originally composed during the Han dynasty and is used as a hymnal in religious Taoism, especially among eremites. The Zhuangzi uses literary devices such as tales, allegories, and narratives to relate the Tao to the reader, illustrating a metaphorical method of viewing and expressing the Tao.Template:Sfnp

A Taoist monk practicing calligraphy with water on stone. Water calligraphy, like sand mandalas, evokes the ephemeral nature of physical reality.

The forms and variations of religious Taoism are incredibly diverse. They integrate a broad spectrum of academic, ritualistic, supernatural, devotional, literary, and folk practices with a multitude of results. Buddhism and Confucianism particularly affected the way many sects of Taoism framed, approached, and perceived the Tao. The multitudinous branches of religious Taoism accordingly regard the Tao, and interpret writings about it, in innumerable ways. Thus, outside of a few broad similarities, it is difficult to provide an accurate yet clear summary of their interpretation of the Tao.Template:Sfnp

A central tenet in most varieties of religious Taoism is that the Tao is ever-present, but must be manifested, cultivated, and/or perfected to be realized. It is the source of the Universe, and the seed of its primordial purity resides in all things. Breathing exercises, according to some Taoists, allowed one to absorb "parts of the universe."<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Incense and certain minerals were seen as representing the greater universe as well, and breathing them in could create similar effects.Template:Citation needed The manifestation of the Tao is de, which rectifies and invigorates the world with the Tao's radiance.Template:Sfnp

Alternatively, philosophical Taoism regards the Tao as a non-religious concept; it is not a deity to be worshiped, nor is it a mystical Absolute in the religious sense of the Hindu brahman. Joseph Wu remarked of this conception of the Tao, "Dao is not religiously available; nor is it even religiously relevant." The writings of Laozi and Zhuangzi are tinged with esoteric tones and approach humanism and naturalism as paradoxes.Template:Sfnp In contrast to the esotericism typically found in religious systems, the Tao is not transcendent to the self, nor is mystical attainment an escape from the world in philosophical Taoism. The self steeped in the Tao is the self grounded in its place within the natural Universe. A person dwelling within the Tao excels in themselves and their activities.Template:Sfnp

However, this distinction is complicated by hermeneutic difficulties in the categorization of Taoist schools, sects, and movements.Template:Sfnp

Some Taoists believe the Tao is an entity that can "take on human form" to perform its goals.Template:Sfnp

The Tao represents human harmony with the universe and even more phenomena in the world and nature.

Confucianism

The Tao of Confucius can be translated as 'truth'. Confucianism regards the Way, or Truth, as concordant with a particular approach to life, politics, and tradition. It is held as equally necessary and well regarded as de and ren ('compassion', 'humanity'). Confucius presents a humanistic Tao. He only rarely speaks of the 'Way of Heaven'. The early Confucian philosopher Xunzi explicitly noted this contrast. Though he acknowledged the existence and celestial importance of the Way of Heaven, he insisted that the Tao principally concerns human affairs.Template:Sfnp

As a formal religious concept in Confucianism, Tao is the Absolute toward which the faithful move. In Zhongyong (The Doctrine of the Mean), harmony with the Absolute is the equivalent to integrity and sincerity. The Great Learning expands on this concept explaining that the Way illuminates virtue, improves the people, and resides within the purest morality. During the Tang dynasty, Han Yu further formalized and defined Confucian beliefs as an apologetic response to Buddhism. He emphasized the ethics of the Way. He explicitly paired "Tao" and "De", focusing on humane nature and righteousness. He also framed and elaborated on a "tradition of the Tao" in order to reject the traditions of Buddhism.Template:Sfnp

Ancestors and the Mandate of Heaven were thought to emanate from the Tao, especially during the Song dynasty.Template:Sfnp

Buddhism

Template:See also

Buddhism first started to spread in China during the first century AD and was experiencing a golden age of growth and maturation by the fourth century AD. Hundreds of collections of Pali and Sanskrit texts were translated into Chinese by Buddhist monks within a short period of time. Dhyana was translated as Template:Zhi, and later as "zen", giving Zen Buddhism its name. The use of Chinese concepts, such as the Tao, that were close to Buddhist ideas and terms helped spread the religion and make it more amenable to the Chinese people. However, the differences between the Sanskrit and Chinese terminology led to some initial misunderstandings and the eventual development of Buddhism in East Asia as a distinct entity. As part of this process, many Chinese words introduced their rich semantic and philosophical associations into Buddhism, including the use of "Tao" for central concepts and tenets of Buddhism.Template:Sfnp

Pai-chang Huai-hai told a student who was grappling with difficult portions of suttas, "Take up words in order to manifest meaning and you'll obtain 'meaning'. Cut off words and meaning is emptiness. Emptiness is the Tao. The Tao is cutting off words and speech." Zen Buddhists regard the Tao as synonymous with both the Buddhist Path and the results of it, the Noble Eightfold Path and Buddhist enlightenment. Pai-chang's statement plays upon this usage in the context of the fluid and varied Chinese usage of "Tao". Words and meanings are used to refer to rituals and practices. The "emptiness" refers to the Buddhist concept of sunyata. Finding the Tao and Buddha-nature is not simply a matter of formulations, but an active response to the Four Noble Truths that cannot be fully expressed or conveyed in words and concrete associations. The use of "Tao" in this context refers to the literal "way" of Buddhism, the return to the universal source, dharma, proper meditation, and nirvana, among other associations. "Tao" is commonly used in this fashion by Chinese Buddhists, heavy with associations and nuanced meanings.Template:Sfnp

Neo-Confucianism

During the Song dynasty, neo-Confucians regarded the Tao as the purest thing-in-itself. Shao Yong regarded the Tao as the origin of heaven, earth, and everything within them. In contrast, Zhang Zai presented a vitalistic Tao that was the fundamental component or effect of qi, the motive energy behind life and the world. A number of later scholars adopted this interpretation, such as Tai Chen during the Qing dynasty.Template:Sfnp

Zhu Xi, Cheng Ho, and Cheng Yi perceived the Tao in the context of li ('principle') and t'ien li ('principle of Heaven'). Cheng Hao regarded the fundamental matter of li, and thus the Tao, to be humaneness. Developing compassion, altruism, and other humane virtues is following of the Way. Cheng Yi followed this interpretation, elaborating on this perspective of the Tao through teachings about interactions between yin and yang, the cultivation and preservation of life, and the axiom of a morally just universe.Template:Sfnp

On the whole, the Tao is equated with totality. Wang Fuzhi expressed the Tao as the taiji, or 'great ultimate', as well as the road leading to it. Nothing exists apart from the Principle of Heaven in Neo-Confucianism. The Way is contained within all things. Thus, the religious life is not an elite or special journey for Neo-Confucians. The normal, mundane life is the path that leads to the Absolute, because the Absolute is contained within the mundane objects and events of daily life.Template:Sfnp

Chinese folklore

Yayu, the son of Zhulong who was reincarnated on Earth as a violent hybrid between a bull, a tiger, and a dragon, was allowed to go to an afterlife that was known as "the place beyond the Tao".Template:Sfnp This shows that some Chinese folk storytelling and mythological traditions had very differing interpretations of the Tao between each other and orthodox religious practices.

Christianity

Noted Christian author C.S. Lewis used the word Tao to describe "the doctrine of objective value, the belief that certain attitudes are really true, and others really false, the kind of thing the Universe is and the kind of things we are."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> He asserted that every religion and philosophy contains foundations of universal ethics as an attempt to line up with the Tao—the way mankind was designed to be. In Lewis's thinking, God created the Tao and fully displayed it through the person of Jesus Christ.

Similarly, Eastern Orthodox hegumen Damascene (Christensen), a pupil of noted monastic and scholar of East Asian religions Seraphim Rose, identified logos with the Tao. Damascene published a full commented translation of the Tao Te Ching under the title Christ the Eternal Tao.Template:Sfnp

In some Chinese translations of the New Testament, the word Template:Lang (logos) is translated as Template:Zhi, in passages such as John 1:1, indicating that the translators considered the concept of Tao to be somewhat equivalent to the Hellenic concept of logos in Platonism and Christianity.Template:Sfnp

Linguistic aspects

Template:See also The Chinese character Template:Zhi is highly polysemous: its historical alternate pronunciation as Template:Zhi possessed an additional connotation of 'guide'. The history of the character includes details of orthography and semantics, as well as a possible Proto-Indo-European etymology, in addition to more recent loaning into English and other world languages.

Orthography

Template:Multiple image "Tao" is written with the Chinese character Template:Zhi using both traditional and simplified characters. The traditional graphical interpretation of Template:Zhi dates back to the Shuowen Jiezi dictionary published in 121 CE, which describes it as a rare "compound ideogram" or "ideographic compound". According to the Shuowen Jiezi, Template:Zhi combines the 'go' radical Template:Zhi (a variant of Template:Zhi) with Template:Zhi. This construction signified a "head going" or "leading the way".

"Tao" is graphically distinguished between its earliest nominal meaning of 'way', 'road', 'path', and the later verbal sense of 'say'. It should also be contrasted with Template:Zhi. The simplified character Template:Zhi for Template:Zhi has Template:Zhi in place of Template:Zhi.

The earliest written forms of "Tao" are bronzeware script and seal script characters from the Zhou dynasty (1045–256 BCE) bronzes and writings. These ancient forms more clearly depict the Template:Zhi element as hair above a face. Some variants interchange the 'go' radical Template:Zhi with Template:Zhi, with the original bronze "crossroads" depiction written in the seal character with two Template:Zhi and Template:Zhi.

Bronze scripts for Template:Zhi occasionally include an element of Template:Zhi or Template:Zhi, which occurs in Template:Zhi. The linguist Peter A. Boodberg explained,

This "tao with the hand element" is usually identified with the modern character Template:Zhi tao < d'ôg, 'to lead,', 'guide', 'conduct', and considered to be a derivative or verbal cognate of the noun tao, "way," "path." The evidence just summarized would indicate rather that "tao with the hand" is but a variant of the basic tao and that the word itself combined both nominal and verbal aspects of the etymon. This is supported by textual examples of the use of the primary tao in the verbal sense "to lead" (e. g., Analects 1.5; 2.8) and seriously undermines the unspoken assumption implied in the common translation of Tao as "way" that the concept is essentially a nominal one. Tao would seem, then, to be etymologically a more dynamic concept than we have made it translation-wise. It would be more appropriately rendered by "lead way" and "lode" ("way," "course," "journey," "leading," "guidance"; cf. "lodestone" and "lodestar"), the somewhat obsolescent deverbal noun from "to lead."Template:Sfnp

These Confucian Analects citations of dao verbally meaning 'to guide', 'to lead' are: "The Master said, 'In guiding a state of a thousand chariots, approach your duties with reverence and be trustworthy in what you say" and "The Master said, 'Guide them by edicts, keep them in line with punishments, and the common people will stay out of trouble but will have no sense of shame."Template:Sfnp

Phonology

In modern Standard Chinese, Template:Zhi's two primary pronunciations are tonally differentiated between falling tone Template:Zhi and dipping tone Template:Zhi (usually written as Template:Zhi).

Besides the common specifications Template:Zhi and Template:Zhi (with variant Template:Zhi), Template:Zhi has a rare additional pronunciation with the level tone, Template:Zhi, seen in the regional chengyu Template:Zhi, a reduplication of Template:Zhi and Template:Zhi from northeast China.

In Middle Chinese (Template:Circa) tone name categories, Template:Zhi and Template:Zhi were Template:Zhi and Template:Zhi. Historical linguists have reconstructed Template:Abbr Template:Zhi and Template:Zhi as Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration (Bernhard Karlgren),Template:Sfnp Template:Transliteration and Template:TransliterationTemplate:Sfnp Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration,Template:Sfnp Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration (William H. Baxter),Template:Sfnp and Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration.Template:Sfnp

In Old Chinese (Template:Circa) pronunciations, reconstructions for Template:Zhi and Template:Zhi are Template:Transliteration (Karlgren), Template:Transliteration (Zhou), Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration,Template:Sfnp Template:Transliteration,Template:Sfnp and Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration.Template:Sfnp

Semantics

The word Template:Zhi has many meanings. For example, the Hanyu Da Zidian dictionary defines 39 meanings for Template:Zhi and 6 for Template:Zhi.Template:Sfnp

John DeFrancis's Chinese-English dictionary gives twelve meanings for Template:Zhi, three for Template:Zhi, and one for Template:Zhi. Note that brackets clarify abbreviations and ellipsis marks omitted usage examples.

2dào Template:Zhi N. [noun] road; path ◆M. [nominal measure word] ① (for rivers/topics/etc.) ② (for a course (of food); a streak (of light); etc.) ◆V. [verb] ① say; speak; talk (introducing direct quote, novel style) ... ② think; suppose ◆B.F. [bound form, bound morpheme] ① channel ② way; reason; principle ③ doctrine ④ Daoism ⑤ line ⑥〈hist.〉 [history] ⑦ district; circuit canal; passage; tube ⑧ say (polite words) ... See also 4dǎo, 4dāo

4dǎo Template:Lang B.F. [bound form] ① guide; lead ... ② transmit; conduct ... ③ instruct; direct ...

4dāo Template:Lang in shénshendāodāo ... Template:Lang R.F. [reduplicated form] 〈topo.〉[non-Mandarin form] odd; fantastic; bizarreTemplate:Sfnp

Dao, starting from the Song dynasty, also referred to an ideal in Chinese landscape paintings that artists sought to live up to by portraying "nature scenes" that reflected "the harmony of man with his surroundings."Template:Sfnp

Etymology

The etymological linguistic origins of dao "way; path" depend upon its Old Chinese pronunciation, which scholars have tentatively reconstructed as *d'ôg, *dəgwx, *dəw, *luʔ, and *lûʔ.

Boodberg noted that the shou Template:Lang "head" phonetic in the dao Template:Lang character was not merely phonetic but "etymonic", analogous with English to head meaning "to lead" and "to tend in a certain direction," "ahead," "headway".

Paronomastically, tao is equated with its homonym Template:Linktext tao < d'ôg, "to trample," "tread," and from that point of view it is nothing more than a "treadway," "headtread," or "foretread "; it is also occasionally associated with a near synonym (and possible cognate) Template:Linktext ti < d'iôk, "follow a road," "go along," "lead," "direct"; "pursue the right path"; a term with definite ethical overtones and a graph with an exceedingly interesting phonetic, Template:Linktext yu < djôg," "to proceed from." The reappearance of C162 [Template:Lang] "walk" in ti with the support of C157 [Template:Lang] "foot" in tao, "to trample," "tread," should perhaps serve us as a warning not to overemphasize the headworking functions implied in tao in preference to those of the lower extremities.Template:Sfnp

Victor H. Mair proposes a connection with Proto-Indo-European drogh, supported by numerous cognates in Indo-European languages, as well as semantically similar Semitic Arabic and Hebrew words.

The archaic pronunciation of Tao sounded approximately like drog or dorg. This links it to the Proto-Indo-European root drogh (to run along) and Indo-European dhorg (way, movement). Related words in a few modern Indo-European languages are Russian doroga (way, road), Polish droga (way, road), Czech dráha (way, track), Serbo-Croatian draga (path through a valley), and Norwegian dialect drog (trail of animals; valley). .... The nearest Sanskrit (Old Indian) cognates to Tao (drog) are dhrajas (course, motion) and dhraj (course). The most closely related English words are "track" and "trek", while "trail" and "tract" are derived from other cognate Indo-European roots. Following the Way, then, is like going on a cosmic trek. Even more unexpected than the panoply of Indo-European cognates for Tao (drog) is the Hebrew root d-r-g for the same word and Arabic t-r-q, which yields words meaning "track, path, way, way of doing things" and is important in Islamic philosophical discourse.Template:Sfnp

Axel Schuessler's etymological dictionary presents two possibilities for the tonal morphology of dào Template:Lang "road; way; method" < Middle Chinese dâuB < Old Chinese *lûʔ and dào Template:Lang or Template:Lang "to go along; bring along; conduct; explain; talk about" < Middle dâuC < Old *lûh.Template:Sfnp Either dào Template:Lang "the thing which is doing the conducting" is a Tone B (shangsheng Template:Lang "rising tone") "endoactive noun" derivation from dào Template:Lang "conduct", or dào Template:Lang is a Later Old Chinese (Warring States period) "general tone C" (qusheng Template:Lang "departing tone") derivation from dào Template:Lang "way".Template:Sfnp For a possible etymological connection, Schuessler notes the ancient Fangyan dictionary defines yu < *lokh Template:Lang and lu < *lu Template:Lang as Eastern Qi State dialectal words meaning dào < *lûʔ Template:Lang "road".

Other languages

Many languages have borrowed and adapted "Tao" as a loanword.

In Chinese, this character Template:Lang is pronounced as Cantonese dou6 and Hokkian to7. In Sino-Xenic languages, Template:Lang is pronounced as Japanese dō, tō, or michi; Korean do or to; and Vietnamese đạo.

Since 1982, when the International Organization for Standardization adopted Pinyin as the standard romanization of Chinese, many Western languages have changed from spelling this loanword tao in national systems (e.g., French EFEO Chinese transcription and English Wade–Giles) to dao in Pinyin.

The tao/dao "the way" English word of Chinese origin has three meanings, according to the Oxford English Dictionary.

1. a. In Taoism, an absolute entity which is the source of the universe; the way in which this absolute entity functions.

1. b. = Taoism, taoist

2. In Confucianism and in extended uses, the way to be followed, the right conduct; doctrine or method.

The earliest recorded usages were Tao (1736), Tau (1747), Taou (1831), and Dao (1971).

The term "Taoist priest" (Template:Zhi), was used already by the Jesuits Matteo Ricci and Nicolas Trigault in their De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas, rendered as Tausu in the original Latin edition (1615),Template:NoteTag and Tausa in an early English translation published by Samuel Purchas (1625).Template:NoteTag

See also

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References

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Further reading

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