Dawoodi Bohra
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The Dawoodi Bohras are a religious denomination within the Ismā'īlī branch of Shia Islam. They number approximately one million worldwide and have settled in over 40 countries around the world. The majority of the Dawoodi Bohra community resides in India, with sizable congregations in Pakistan, Yemen, East Africa, and the Middle East. They also have a growing presence in Europe, North America, and Australia.
The Dawoodi Bohra community follows Islam and is specifically identified as Shia Fatimid Ismaili Tayyibi Dawoodi Bohra. Their faith is founded on the conviction that there is only one God, that the Quran is the message of God, that the Islamic prophet Muhammad is the last of the prophets, and that Ali is his legatee and successor. They follow the tenets of Islam, such as reciting the Quran, performing the five daily prayers (Salah), annual tithes of 2.5% (or 1⁄40) of total income and savings (Zakat), fasting during the month of Ramadan (Sawm), the mandatory Hajj pilgrimage to Makkah and the Prophet's shrine in Madinah<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and religious struggle (Jihad).
At the core of their faith is the belief that the Ahl al-Bayt, members of the Muhammad's family, are the rightful imams and like all Shia Muslims, they hold that Ali bin Abi Talib, Muhammad's legatee, succeeded him and provided guidance, interpretation and explanation of the Quran. A fundamental tenet of the Dawoodi Bohra faith is that there will always be an imam present on earth, who is descended from Muhammad's grandson Imam Husain, to carry on the task of leading the faithful.
When the imam chooses to withdraw from public view (as is the case today), he is represented by the Da'i al-Mutlaq (an unrestricted missionary) who, like the imam, preserves and protects the faith until the imam's return. After the 21st imam chose seclusion in 1132AH, the Dais operated from Yemen and subsequently from India, for the last 300 years.<ref name="MM">Template:Cite book</ref> The present leader is the 53rd Dai al-Mutlaq, Mufaddal Saifuddin who assumed office in January 2014.<ref name="MM" />
The Bohras are well-educated and wealthy, typically affluent traders, businesspersons, entrepreneurs and professionals (doctors, lawyers or accountants). The word "Bohra" comes from the Gujarati word vohrvu or vyavahar, meaning "to trade".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Their heritage is derived from the traditions of the Fatimid imams; direct descendants of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad through his daughter Fatima, who ruled over North Africa between the 10th and 11th century CE.<ref name="IM">Template:Cite journal</ref> Whilst adherence to traditional values is important for the community, they are also known for their business-oriented and forward outlook.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Nonetheless, they are the only muslim community of South Asia to practice Female Genital Mutilation, a widely criticised practice but defended by the community.<ref>https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/mar/06/study-reveals-fgm-india-female-genital-mutilation</ref>
Lisan al-Da'wat is the language of the Bohras. The language is based on a Neo-Indo-Aryan language, Gujarati, but incorporates a heavy amount of Arabic, Urdu, and Persian vocabulary and is written in the Arabic script naskh style. The Bohras' cultural attire is known as Libas al-Anwar. Prominent religious festivals include Eid-e-Milad an-Nabi, Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha and Muharram. The majlis is an age-old practice of the community, who congregate on major dates in the Islamic calendar. The Bohra community during their gatherings, eat in groups of eight, seated around a large steel platter called a thaal.<ref name="MM" />
History
Dawoodi Bohras are a subset of the Taiyebi sect of the Musta'li branch of Isma'ilism, a part of Shia Islam.<ref name="Abdulhussein2001">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Central to their beliefs is reverence for the Fatimid imams, who trace their lineage to Muhammad's daughter, Fatima.
Fatimid imams
The Fatimids, descendants of Muhammad, ruled over North Africa and Egypt, Hejaz, and the Levant between the 10th and 11th centuries.<ref name="IM" /> They flourished during what Maurice Lombard called the Golden Age of Islam,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and were patrons of arts, learning, and scientific discovery.<ref name="Abdulhussein2001" /> The 14th Imam, al-Mui’zz, founded the city of Cairo and established Al-Azhar University, one of the oldest universities in the world.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Before the empire's decline, Al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah, the 20th Fatimid imam, directed his grand emissary, Arwa bint Ahmad, the Sulayhid queen of Yemen, to establish the office of the Da'i al-Mutlaq (Template:Lit) to act as vicegerent for his son, the 21st Imam Al-Tayyib Abu'l-Qasim and to lead the faithful.<ref name="Abdulhussein2001" /> Arwa bint Ahmad appointed Zoeb bin Musa as the first Da'i al-Mutlaq.Template:R<ref name=gems>Template:Cite book Alt URL</ref>
Succession to the office of al-Da'i al-Mutlaq happens through nass, whereby each Da'i appoints a successor in his own lifetime.Template:Sfn
Origins in India
The roots of the community's establishment in India go back to the Fatimid era, when Al Mustansir Billah, the 18th Imam, sent a Dai named Abdullah from Yemen to initiate the Da’wah on his behalf. Abdullah arrived in Cambay (modern day Khambhat, Gujarat) in AD 1067/H 460 and soon won many converts, including local rulers. Abdullah was the first Wali (representative) in India.<ref name="HD">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The seclusion of al-Tayyib led to the establishment of the office of al-Dai al-Mutlaq in Yemen. The Indian community which had pledged allegiance to the Fatimids continued to remain loyal to the Dais in Yemen. This resulted in a secession with the Hafizis, led by Al-Tayyib's uncle, Abd al-Majid. Twenty-three Dais operated from their mountain bases in Yemen for nearly four centuries, preserving the faith and authoring seminal works. The 19th Dai, Idris Imaduddin, wrote numerous works, including a comprehensive and detailed history of the Fatimid faith.<ref name="Abdulhussein2001" />
Meanwhile, the community in Gujarat had maintained ties with their Dais in Yemen, who closely supervised their affairs and regularly welcomed Bohra delegations from Gujarat. During this time, the community grew in size, especially in Cambay, Patan, Sidhpur, and Ahmedabad.<ref name="HD" /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Yusuf bin Sulayman Najmuddin, originally from Sidhpur, a town in Gujarat, was one of the Bohras who travelled to Yemen to seek knowledge from the Dai. Najmuddin arrived in Yemen while still in his youth and first studied under Hasan bin Nuh al-Bharuchi. He was eventually appointed the 23rd Dai as his successor and became the first from the Indian community to lead the Tayyibi Da’wa as the 24th al-Mutlaq. When Najmuddin died in CE 1567/H 974, the central headquarters of the Da’wah were transferred from Yemen to Gujarat by his Indian successor, Jalal bin Hasan.<ref name="HD" />
When the 26th al-Dai al-Mutlaq died in CE 1589/H 997, he was succeeded by Dawood Bin Qutubshah. However, three years later, Sulayman bin Hasan, a high-ranking dignitary in Yemen, claimed the succession to the leadership of the community for himself. This succession dispute was brought before the Mughal emperor Akbar in 1597. A special tribunal decided in favour of Dawood Bin Qutubshah. However, this did not dissolve tensions, leading to a schism in the community. A majority of Bohras acknowledged Dawood Bin Qutubshah as the rightful successor and henceforth came to be known as Dawoodis (or Da’udis.)<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Major centres
Over the next few centuries, the Bohra headquarters moved within India with the changing location of the Dai. The centre of the Da’wah has been in six places: Ahmedabad (eight Dais, from 1567/974 to 1655/1065); Jamnagar in the Kathiawar region of Gujarat (five Dais, from 1655/1065 to 1737/1150); Ujjan in the present-day state of Madhya Pradesh (two Dais, from 1737/1150 to 1779/1193); Burhanpur, Madhya Pradesh (one Dai, from 1779/1193 to 1785/1200); Surat in the present-day state of Gujarat (eight Dais, from 1785/1200 to 1933/1351) and Mumbai in the state of Maharashtra, where the current Dai resides.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Starting in the early 19th century, some community members emigrated in search of better livelihoods. The first wave of Bohra traders to migrate to East Africa did so in the aftermath of a severe drought in Kathiawar. The 43rd Dai, Abdeali Saifuddin, invited 12,000 of his followers to Surat, and provided food, work and lodgings for all of them. His only conditions were that they learn and practice vocational skills, and he gave them their earnings when it was time for them to leave Surat. Many from this group decided to use this capital to venture forth to trade in East Africa.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
A century on from Abdeali Saifuddin, Taher Saifuddin acceded to the office of al-Dai al-Mutlaq as the 51st Dai, He is credited with revitalising the community by restructuring its organisation on modern lines.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
He shifted the community headquarters from Surat to Mumbai, which had become a major centre of trade and commerce in India.<ref name="HD" /> Over time, Dawoodi Bohra communities have expanded globally through migration, contributing to the establishment of thriving communities in various regions.
Faith and beliefs
Monotheism
As Muslims, the Dawoodi Bohras believe in Tawhid, Islam's central monotheistic concept of a single, indivisible God (Allah).
Seven pillars
Template:Main Template:For Walayah – devotion to God, Muhammad, his family, and his descendants – is the most important of the seven pillars of Islam according to the Dawoodi Bohra faith.
The other six pillars are tahaarat (purity in body and thought), salah (daily ritual prayers), zakaat (offering a portion of one's income in the cause of God), sawm (fasting in the month of Ramadan), hajj (a ritual pilgrimage to Mecca), and jihad (striving in the way of God).Template:R The Bohras build mosques wherever they live<ref name="hamzali">Template:Cite periodical</ref> to congregate for prayers and majalis (religious congregation) for the zikr of God and his prophets, imams, and da'is.<ref name="munaim">Template:Cite thesis</ref>
Leadership
Template:Further During the seclusion of the Imam, his vicegerent, al-Dai al-Mutlaq<ref name="HD" /> was appointed to lead the community and administer, with complete authority, its secular and religious affairs.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The Dai teaches Quranic precepts, which form the foundation of the faith, and guides the community. Over the nine centuries that this office has existed, each Dai is considered to have played an important role in shaping the community's social and economic progress. Community members seek and abide by his counsel in different aspects of life.<ref name="Abdulhussein2001" />
The 1st Dai, Dhu'ayb bin Musa, was appointed in 1138 (532H) in Yemen by Queen Arwa bint Ahmed when the 21st Imam went into seclusion.<ref name="HD" /> Over the next 400 years, 23 Dais established the Dawat in Yemen. The seat of the Dawat then transferred from Yemen to India, where the 24th Dai, Yusuf bin Sulayman Najmuddin, became the first Dai to assume office from this region.<ref name="HD" /> Despite territorial and political upheavals through different periods, the Dais persevered and continued to lead the faithful and preserve the faith.<ref name="Abdulhussein2001" />
The current leader of the Dawoodi Bohra community is the 53rd Dai al-Mutlaq, Aali Qadr Mufaddal Saifuddin, who lives in India.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Syedna Saifuddin is a descendant of Muhammad,<ref>Barakat Bayaan Fadleel Kabir. Mumbai: Alvazaratus Saifiyah, Badri Mahal. 2011. p. 14.</ref> who was himself a descendant of Abraham, through an unbroken chain of noble and august ancestry. His heritage to Muhammad traces back through Muhammad's daughter, Fatima al-Zahra, and her husband Ali ibn Abi Talib. From Fatima and Ali, the line continues through their son, Hussein, and the subsequent imams in the Ismaili tradition up to the fifth imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq.
Demographics and culture
As of 2021, there are an estimated 1 million Dawoodi Bohras around the world.<ref name=TheMuslim5002021>Template:Cite book</ref> The majority reside in India and Pakistan. A sizeable diaspora is spread across Europe, North America, the Middle East, Asia and East Africa.<ref name="paul">Template:Cite conference</ref>
The Bohras are prosperous traders, industrialists, businesspersonsTemplate:Sfn or skilled professionals.Template:R
Name and etymology
The word Bohra takes root in the Gujarati word vohrvu, in reference to their traditional occupation as traders.Template:Sfn<ref name="SinghLal2003">Template:Cite book</ref> The name 'Dawoodi' is an eponym derived from Dawood Bin Qutubshah, the 27th Da'i al-Mutlaq, who emerged as the leader of the majority following a schism in 1588.Template:R<ref name=lentin1>Template:Cite web</ref>
Language
Dawoodi Bohra culture is a blend of Yemeni, Egyptian and Indian cultures.<ref name="Adam2009">Template:Cite book</ref> Their language Lisan al-Dawat, written in Perso-Arabic script, derives from Arabic, Urdu, Persian, Sanskrit, and Gujarati.<ref name=lentin2>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Lisan al-Dawat, which takes its basic structure from Gujarati developed as a medium to articulate Islamic values and heritage. Though Arabic remains community's dominant liturgical language, Lisan al-Dawat is its language of sermons and its medium of official and day-to-day communication.<ref>Template:Cite document</ref>
Dress
The Dawoodi Bohras wear distinct attire. The men traditionally dress in a predominantly white, three-piece outfit: kurta, a form of tunic; saaya, an overcoat of equal length; and izaar, loose-fit trousers; with topi, a crocheted white cap with a gold design.Template:Sfn Men, adhering to the customs of Muhammad, are expected to grow a full beard.Template:Sfn
The women wear a two-piece dress called rida, distinct from hijab, purdah, and chador. Its distinguishing features are bright colors, decorative patterns and lace.Template:Sfn
Cuisine
Joining each other for meals is a well-known Dawoodi Bohra custom. Families and friends gather around sharing the meal from a large circular platter called a thaal.<ref name="Abdulhussein2001" /> The thaal is raised upon a kundali or tarakti made of wood or metal, on top of a safra, a large cloth that covers the floor.<ref name=jkitchen1>Template:Cite web</ref>Template:R
The meal begins and ends with a taste of salt, traditionally said to cleanse the palate and prevent diseases.Template:R<ref name=sama1>Template:Cite web</ref> A common etiquette is to wash both hands using a chilamchi lota (basin and jug).<ref name=masudi1>Template:Cite news</ref> At community feasts, the Bohras first eat Template:Transliteration (sweet dish), followed by Template:Transliteration (savoury dish), and then the main course.Template:R<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Food wastage is frowned upon. Those seated at the thaal are encouraged to take smaller portions and expected to finish whatever is taken.<ref name=madsen>Template:Cite web</ref>
The Bohra cuisine, influenced by Gujarati,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Persian, Yemeni, Arabic and Egyptian cuisines,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=dbwrffnb>Template:Cite web</ref> is known for its unique taste and dishes such as bohra-style biryani,<ref name="FF">Template:Cite web</ref> dal chaawal palidu (rice, lentils, and curry), kheema samosa (minced mutton samosa), dabba gosht, and masala bateta (spicy potatoes).Template:RTemplate:R<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Traditions and practices
Qardan Hasana
Islam prohibits riba (Template:Lit) and interest; the Dawoodi Bohras follow the practice of Qardan HasanaTemplate:Efn (Template:Lit),Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> which means interest-free loans.Template:Sfn Based on the ideal of benefitting the borrower (as opposed to the lender), this model has played an important role in the economic growth of the community.Template:R
Syedna Saifuddin has throughout his life been a strong advocate for Islamic finance principles.<ref name="PG">Template:Cite web</ref> Saifuddin has actively promoted and expanded the Burhani Qardan Hasana Trust,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> which freely offers generous interest-free loans to community members.
Community members are discouraged from bank saving, time deposits or borrowing, EMI finance schemes, overdrafts, contributing to or accepting money from insurance schemes, investments in commodities and stock markets, cryptocurrency, pension, mutual or retirement fund investments deeming them haram (forbidden) in Islam. Instead, he encourages strict adherence to traditional Islamic financial principles, urging followers to rely on community-based support systems rather than conventional financial instruments which are speculative in nature (gharar, maisir) or interest-based (riba). This approach has led to the development of numerous financial structures within the community, giving community members financial flexibility and integration with modern economic systems.<ref name="PG" /><ref name=qinfofy2020>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Hasanaat al-Qard al-Hasan al-Burhaniyah Department, Pg 11</ref>
Mithaq
The rite of initiation for the Bohras is the mithaq. This ceremony is a covenant between the believer and God, effected through God's representative on earth. The mithaq binds a believer to the duties owed to God, including an oath of allegiance: a vow to accept the spiritual guidance of the Da'i al-Mutlaq wholeheartedly and without reservation. This ceremony, akin to baptism in Christianity, is mandatory to enter the fold of the faith.
The mithaq is first taken at whatever age a child is deemed to have reached maturity: most commonly, thirteen years for girls, fourteen or fifteen for boys. These vows are renewed throughout a Bohra's adult life.Template:Sfn
Calendar
The Dawoodi Bohra follow a Fatimid-era tabular calendar which matches the lunar cycle of 354 days (and hence requires no adjustments).<ref name=daftary1992>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp The odd-numbered months have 30 days and the even-numbered months have 29 days—except in a leap year when the 12th and final month, Zil Hajj, has 30 days. This contrasts with other Muslim communities, which base the beginnings of specific Islamic months on sightings of the moon crescent.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Occasions
Dawoodi Bohras observe all significant occasions on the Muslim calendar, such as Muharram, Ramadan, Eid al Fitr and Eid al Adha and Mawlid al Nabi. They also observe some occasions particular to their sect, such as the death anniversaries of previous dais and the birthday of the current dai. These occasions typically bring together members of the community for educational sermons and communal meals.
During Ramadan, the 9th month of the Islamic calendar, the Dawoodi Bohras like rest of Islamic world, observe a mandatory fast from dawn to dusk. The Bohras congregate in their local mosques for daily prayers (particularly for the evening prayers), and break the day-long fast with the iftaar (Template:Lit) meal together. Ramadan is a month of heightened spiritual activity for the Bohras that ends with Eid al-Fitr.
In the month of Zil Hajj the Bohras undertake hajj and all celebrate Eid al-Adha at its conclusion. In line with Shia traditions, on the 18th of Zil Hajj, the day Muhammad publicly anointed Ali ibn Abi Talib his successor, the Bohras mark celebrate Eid i-Ghadir, by observing, fasting, and offering special prayers. Special prayers and congregations are also held during other major events such as the day Muhammad first began his Da'wah (Template:Lit), the night of Isra and Mi'raj, the birthday of Muhammad, the urs mubarak (Template:Lit) of prominent community leaders, and the birthday of the current Da'i al-Mutlaq.
Muharram
The grandson of Prophet Muhammad, Husayn ibn Ali, was martyred along with his family and companions on the plains of Karbala while on a journey from Mecca, through the deserts of modern-day Iraq, to Kufa.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The Bohras believe that Husayn's sacrifice was foretold by Muhammad, and that he was destined to change the course of Islam as a result of his martyrdom.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Remembrance of the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali, often linked to the hagiography of John the Baptist<ref name=thesis>Template:Cite journal</ref> and Jesus Christ,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> is among the most important events of the year for the Bohras.<ref name=jblankinterview>Template:Cite web</ref>
Known as ʿAshara Mubāraka (Template:Lit), the Dawoodi Bohras congregate for a series of ten majālis (Template:Lit) in the beginning of the month of Muharram<ref name=tdbsts1>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> For them, Husayn ibn Ali's martyrdom epitomizes the values of humanity, justice, and truth.<ref name=tdbashara2020>Template:Cite web</ref> They consider his sacrifice and stand against tyranny, to offer lessons in bravery, loyalty, and compassion.Template:R These values, they believe, inculcate in them a spirit of self-sacrifice, forbearance, and adherence to their faith.Template:R<ref name="TIO20101208">Template:Cite web</ref>
During the ʿAshara Mubāraka, the Bohra communities all over the world host a series of majālis twice a day, one each in the morning and in the evening, recounting Husayn ibn Ali's sacrifice, which forms the central theme of the discourse.Template:R The majālis led by the Da'i al-Mutlaq on occasion attract hundreds of thousands of followers.<ref name=ashara2009>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name=ashara2013>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name=ashara2018>Template:Cite news</ref>
Traditions
Rasm-e Saifee
To facilitate marriages among the Dawoodi Bohra, Taher Saifuddin, the 51st Da'i al-Mutlaq, started Rasm-e Saifee<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> in Jamnagar Template:Circa and later institutionalised it Template:Circa.Template:R During Rasm-e Saifee multiple nikah are solemnized at the hands of the Da'i al-Mutlaq and his representatives.
Saifuddin's son and successor, Mohammed Burhanuddin, founded the International Taiseer al-Nikah Committee (ITNC),<ref name="rqiv">Template:Cite web</ref> which now organizes Rasm-e Saifee throughout the year at various religious events.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Burhanuddin's successor, Mufaddal Saifuddin, continues to uphold the tradition.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Pilgrimages
It is customary among the Bohras to visit mausoleums, mosques, and other places of religious importance in Palestine, Jordan, Syria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Iraq, and India. In most places, a community-administered complex (mazaar) provides accommodation, business centers, dining, and various recreational activities to the traveling Bohras.Template:Citation needed
A Bohra mausoleum typically has white exteriors with a golden finial at the apex of the dome. The interior is usually lit up in incandescent light and Quranic verses are inscribed on its walls. These mausoleums embody several meanings in the form of their structure and build.Template:Citation needed As an example, Raudat Tahera, an austere structure in Mumbai, has a range of intricacies in its design. The inner height of Raudat Tahera is 80 feet above the plinth: the number signifies the age of Taher Saifuddin, who is buried there. The sanctum of the mausoleum is 51 × 51 feet, which symbolises Saifuddin's position as the 51st Dai al-Mutlaq. The entire Quran is inscribed in gold on its walls, whilst Bismillah is engraved 113 times in precious stones, and four doors, one on each side of the wall, are clad with silver.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The inner side of the dome proclaims, "Allah holds the sky and earth together which none else can."<ref name=marfatia1>Template:Cite web</ref>
Society
Community centers
The office of the Da'i al-Mutlaq, known as Dawat-e-Hadiyah, manages the affairs of the close-knit Dawoodi Bohra community through a distributed network of Jamaat committees.Template:SfnTemplate:R The Dawat-e-Hadiyah head office is at Badri Mahal in Fort, Mumbai.Template:Sfn
Several sub-committees and trusts administer different aspects of a local Bohra community under the purview of the respective Jamat. Set up anywhere Bohras live and work, a jamat may number from a hundred to tens of thousands of Bohras.Template:Sfn A resident Amil, appointed by the dai is the president of a given jamat.Template:R and administers and manages its socio-religious affairs. At the local mosque or markaz under his jurisdiction, the Amil leads daily prayers, and presides over sermons and discourses.Template:Sfn
Masjid
The masjid is the nucleus of Dawoodi Bohra communities around the world. It was often the practice of Bohras who migrated to a new city or country to build a masjid (or a markaz- community center- if it was not possible to build a masjid). While a Dawoodi Bohra masjid is primarily a place of worship and congregation, it forms an important socio-cultural center for the community, the masjids are also a center for education and sessions of learning, in line with Fatimid traditions. A masjid complex usually houses a dining hall for communal meals, called a mawaid or jamaat khana, as well as classrooms and administrative offices.<ref name=mdaud1>Template:Cite web</ref> The masjid is predominantly constructed in a distinct Neo-Fatimid style,Template:R<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> with the names of God and verses from the Quran engraved on its walls.Template:R<ref name=lim>Template:Cite web</ref> Some Dawoodi Bohra masjids in India, such as the newly restored Saifee Masjid in Bhendi Bazaar, Mumbai, feature a fusion of Fatimid, Indian, and classical architecture. The masjids are usually multi-storied structures, the main prayer hall on the ground floor is used by men while women participate in prayers and sermons from large galleries on the floors.Template:R<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Building new and restoring old masjids is an important part of Dawoodi Bohra culture. The last half-century has seen a surge in the building of Bohra masjids across the world, especially after the landmark restoration of al-Jami al-Anwar (the mosque of al-Hakim) in Cairo in 1980.
Markaz
Template:Multiple image A Bohra community (or jamaat) is centered around a markaz when there is no existing mosque nearby.Template:Citation needed
Communal meals are served in dining halls called the jamaat khaana, which are generally part of the mosque complex.Template:R
FMB community kitchen
In 2012, the 53rd Da'i al-Mutlaq established Faiz al-Mawaid al-Burhaniyah (FMB) community kitchens to deliver at least one meal per day to all Bohra families and to ensure no one in the community goes to bed hungry. FMB proved beneficial to women in particular as household cooking is reduced, freeing up time to pursue other activities.<ref name="FF" /><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Meals are delivered in tiffin containers daily, and have a rotating menu.<ref name=plucky>Template:Cite web</ref> As of 2021, FMB community kitchens, usually built near mosques, are operational in each and every Bohra community throughout the world.Template:RTemplate:R
Whilst FMB has substantially increased food security within the Bohra community,<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> in times of crisis (such as natural disaster or the COVID-19 pandemic), it has also supplied meals and provisions to the wider society.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Education
In line with Islamic traditions,Template:Sfn the Bohras seek both religious and secular education.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>Template:R Men are encouraged to pursue careers in fields such as business, medicine, law and accounting. Guided by Syedna's vision<ref name=":0">Template:Cite web</ref> for women's education, Home Science is recognized as a valuable field of study, empowering women with essential life skills and diverse career paths.<ref name=":0" />
Higher education is common in the community.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>
The community-run Madrasah Saifiyah Burhaniyah (MSB) chain of international co-ed schools teach sciences, humanities, and arts. In 1984, Mohammed Burhanuddin established the first MSB schools in Nairobi and Mumbai.<ref name="tdbed">Template:Cite web</ref> As of 2021, 24 MSB schools operate in Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Africa, affiliated to IGCSE and ICSE boards.<ref name="idaramsb">Template:Cite web</ref>
Aljamea-tus-Saifiyah (Jamea) is the community's primary educational and cultural institute. Selected students pursue rigorous Islamic and Arabic studies for up to 11 years,Template:Sfn and are trained to subsequently lead various institutions Dawat-e-Hadiyah.Template:Sfn<ref name=saify1>Template:Cite thesis</ref> Aljamea's predecessor is Dars-e-Saifee, an Islamic theology school established by the 43rd Da'i al-Mutlaq Abdeali Saifuddin, in 1814 in Surat, Gujarat. A century later, the 51st Da'i al-Mutlaq Taher Saifuddin renovated and institutionalized it as a university.<ref name="From Gurukul to IBO varsity">Template:Cite news</ref> His son and successor, Mohammed Burhanuddin, further expanded its reach and scope, opening campuses in three more cities and establishing a dedicated center for Quranic sciences, Mahad al-Zahra.Template:Sfn The second campus was founded in 1983 in Karachi, Pakistan. A third campus was established in Nairobi, Kenya in 2011, and a fourth in 2013 in Mumbai, India.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The libraries of Jamea preserve rare Arabic manuscripts.Template:Sfn Other departments of Jamea specialize in the art of Quran recitation, Arabic calligraphy, and Arabesque design.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
A significant volume of literature, from Fatimid-era text to treatises, discourses and poetry of the Dua't Mutlaqeen are part of the Jamea curriculum.Template:Sfn Per tradition, the current Da'i al-Mutlaq presides over annual examinations (al-Imtihan al-Sanawi) every year. Senior Jamea students additionally undergo a public viva voce examination where they are questioned by rectors of the institute and occasionally by the Da'i al-Mutlaq.Template:Sfn
Status of women
Overview
Women in the Bohra community have long held a respected status, with greater emphasis on education and professional opportunities. According to Jonah Blank, women of the Bohra faith are among the best-educated women in the Indian subcontinent.Template:Sfn Inspired by Syedna Saifuddin's progressive vision for women's education,<ref name=":0" /> the study of Home Science has equipped women with essential life skills, critical thinking, and problem-solving abilities.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
At an interfaith celebration of Eid al-Fitr hosted by the Bohra community of Detroit, Michigan, United States on 7 June 2019, U.S. Congresswoman Brenda Lawrence (Democrat, Michigan's 14th congressional district) praised the Bohras for having "used their voices to make progress on countless issues including gender equality and the environment".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Bohra women integrate business and work with their religious practices and cultural ethos, bolstered by time honoured community principles of women's empowerment through entrepreneurship.<ref>In public sermons, Syedna Saifuddin has often encouraged women in the community to supplement their income by cooking flatbreads (called rotis) or by knitting traditional Bohra skullcaps (called Topi) and selling them.</ref> Traditionally engaged in home-based businesses, such as knitting and sewing (encouraged in the Bohra community as 'mighzal'<ref>Literally, mighzal means "spinning wheel" - a tool used to make yarn</ref>), women are now increasingly expanding and transitioning to digital entrepreneurship, utilizing online platforms to market these their products.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Supported by community institutions, they receive financial aid, training, and access to virtual markets, showcasing how digital ventures empower women while also allowing them to fulfil their commitments to their families.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Female circumcision
Template:Further The Dawoodi Bohra practice what they call khatna,<ref name=Ghadially1991>Template:Cite journal, cited in Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Global Concern Template:Webarchive, New York: United Nations Children's Fund, February 2016, footnote 2.</ref> khafd,<ref name=Nair28Dec2017>Template:Cite news</ref> or khafz,<ref name=Hindu26Aug2018/> a practice critics consider female genital mutilation (FGM). The procedure is for the most part performed without anaesthesia by a traditional circumciser when girls reach their seventh year.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Non-Bohra women who seek to marry into the community are also required to undergo it.Template:Sfn There are no authoritative studies on the extent of the practice among the Bohra.<ref name=Nair28Dec2017/><ref>Cole, Diana (8 February 2016). "UNICEF Estimate Of Female Genital Mutilation Up By 70 Million". National Public Radio.</ref> A 1911 Bombay census of unknown reliability noted that they were performing clitoridectomy.Template:Sfn According to a 1991 article in Manushi, the Bohra remove either the clitoral hood or the tip of the clitoris.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Supporters of the practice say that the Bohra remove only the clitoral hood or perform symbolic nicking, and that it should be referred to as "female circumcision", not FGM.<ref name=Hindu26Aug2018>Template:Cite news</ref>
A qualitative study in 2018 carried out by WeSpeakOut, a group opposed to FGM,<ref>Cantera, Angel L. Martínez (6 March 2018). "'I was crying with unbearable pain': study reveals extent of FGM in India'". The Guardian.</ref> concluded that most Bohra girls experience Type I FGM, removal of the clitoral hood or clitoral glans.Template:Sfn<ref name=Reuters5Feb2018>Template:Cite news</ref> A gynaecologist who took part in the study examined 20 Bohra women and found that both the clitoris and clitoral hood had been cut in most cases.Template:Efn According to the Dawoodi Bohra Women's Association for Religious Freedom, the study's conclusions did not reflect the views of most Bohra women.<ref name=Reuters5Feb2018/> They argue that female circumcision is a minor religious procedure<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> involving only a small nick or excision on the clitoral hood or prepuce, which does not cause harm. The DBWRF position is that khafz is a centuries-old religious freedom and rite of passage for religious purity,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> comparable to male circumcision, and is not intended to control female sexuality. However, this position is contested by some members of the Bohra community<ref>Template:Cite AV media</ref> and activists who oppose the practice.<ref>Template:Cite AV media</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Syedna's Saifuddin's administration has actively supported community members in their legal battles to exercise their religious freedoms, his UK-registered charity spent more than £800,000<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Dawat E Hadiyah (United Kingdom) Trust, Financial Report and Statement for financial year ending 31 December 2017, see Nominees Report Page 2.</ref> on “costs incurred in defending four members of the Dawoodi Bohra congregation in Sydney<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> in connection with female circumcision”. In 2018, the convictions of three members of the Bohra community, related to performing FGM on two girls, were overturned when the appeal court accepted that the tip of each girl's clitoris was still visible and had not been "mutilated"; the defence position was that only "symbolic khatna" had been performed.<ref name=NSW>Template:Cite AustLII.Template:Pb Template:Cite news</ref> The High Court of Australia overturned that decision in October 2019, ruling that the phrase "otherwise mutilates" in Australian law does encompass cutting or nicking the clitoris. As a result, the convictions were upheld, and the defendants received custodial sentences of at least 11 months.<ref>Template:Cite AustLII Template:Citation.Template:Pb Template:Cite news</ref>
The community has successfully defended an indictment<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> brought against the practice by the U.S. Department of Justice Criminal Division and the Federal Bureau of Investigation<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> by arguing that the US federal statute was unconstitutional.<ref>Template:Cite AV media</ref><ref>Template:Cite AV media</ref>Regarding this landmark judgement, Constitutional law scholar Alan Dershowitz, a professor emeritus of Harvard University and prominent Birmingham defense attorney Mayer Morganroth was hired by Dawat-e-Hadiyah "to protect the people charged and represent the religious organization" as per Morganroth.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Social work and politics
Template:Quote box As a minority community, the Dawoodi Bohras follow a policy of cooperating with the incumbent government wherever they reside. This approach allows them to foster harmony and goodwill with all governments while staying out of political disputes. For instance, they have developed close ties with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in India, particularly with Prime Minister Narendra Modi.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Similarly, they maintain cordial relations with the Shiv Sena in Maharashtra.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite AV media</ref>
The community's stance, in line with sunnah,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> has been to be loyal to one's country of residence.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> As a migratory minority community,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Dawoodi Bohras participate in culture and society, but to the Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa.<ref name="tdbhumanism">Template:Cite web</ref> Their belief is that every religion is related to one another, that all of creation shares the same purpose.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> True fulfillment is achieved through harmonious living and skillfully managing relationships to avoid conflicts.
The Burhani Foundation
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In 1991, Mohammed Burhanuddin established the Burhani Foundation, a charitable trust for environmental awareness, conservation of biological diversity, effective utilisation of resources, pollution control, and other related cause.<ref name="Abdulhussein2001" /> In 2017, Mufaddal Saifuddin, Burhanuddin's successor, initiated a worldwide program to plant 200,000 tree saplings.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2018, the Bohras, together with Champion of the Earth, launched Turning the Tide, a campaign to remove plastic from oceans, rivers, and beaches.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> On 6 November 2023, ahead of the COP28 World leaders summit, Shahzada Husain Burhanuddin on behalf of his Father Syedna Mufaddal Saifuddin, attended the COP28 Global Faith leaders summit among 28 Faith leaders in Abu Dhabi and signed a joint appeal to take meaningful action in addressing climate crisis.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Zero food waste
Under the aegis of FMB, the Dana Committee (Template:Lit) aims to eliminate food wastage. As of 2021, the committee has 7000 volunteers across 40 countries. After congregations, these volunteers collect leftovers, consume them or distribute them to the deprived.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> To prevent wastage of food due to excess cooking or poor turnout, the committee uses AI predictive tools and mobile RSVP apps. Before a meal commences, volunteers remind attendees of their responsibility as MuslimsTemplate:Efn in ensuring no food goes to waste.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The Bohras also participate in the United Nations' annual World Food Day campaigns.<ref name=wfd2020>Template:Cite press release</ref>
In September 2018, the Golden Book of World Records<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> recognized and awarded the Dawoodi Bohra community for undertaking the largest zero-waste religious event as part of the community's Ashara Mubaraka sermons in Indore. The event was attended by 150,000 Bohras, who had gathered in Indore to commemorate Ashara Mubaraka with Mufaddal Saifuddin, the 53rd Da'i al-Mutlaq.<ref name="indoremirror">Template:Cite web</ref> This zero-waste policy was also adopted at the 2019 Ashara Mubaraka in Colombo. Dana Committee volunteers helped with portion control and distributed leftover food to the disadvantaged.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In line with the UAE's policy to mark 2023 as the Year of Sustainability, the 2023 Ashara Mubaraka in Dubai, attended by more than 75,000, also adopted a zero food wastage policy. The Ashara Mubaraka congregations also aligned with the UAE's waste-to-energy initiative, in which organic waste collected during meals is converted into energy.<ref>(https://www.khaleejtimes.com/uae/uae-bohra-volunteers-serve-150000-meals-every-day-on-ashara-mubaraka-congregations)</ref>
Other initiatives
Project Rise
In June 2018, the Bohra community launched Project Rise, a philanthropy programme focused on the marginalized and the poor. Their first initiative, undertaken in collaboration with Action Against Hunger, sought to address malnutrition among those living in Palghar and Govandi districts of Maharashtra, India.<ref name="Action Against Hunger">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> During the 2019 floods, volunteers sent aid to the Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Gujarat;<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> while during the 2020 lockdown in India, volunteers distributed food packets among the poor.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2020, Narendra Modi, the Prime Minister of India acknowledged the community's social service.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In 2019 and 2020, volunteers in North America marked United Nations World Food Day by donating to local food banks.<ref name="propr">Template:Cite press release</ref>Template:R Since then, based on Islamic traditions of philanthropy,Template:Efn Project Rise has expanded to launch programs that focus on healthcare, nutrition, sanitation and hygiene, and environmental conservation.<ref name="About Project Rise">Template:Cite web</ref> As part of these drives, volunteers attempt to raise the standard of living of the disadvantaged through revamped housing, access to food, and improved well-being.<ref>Template:Cite press release</ref><ref>Template:Cite press release</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Bhendi Bazaar cluster redevelopment
In 2009, Mohammed Burhanuddin, the 52nd Da'i al-Mutlaq, established Saifee Burhani Upliftment Trust (SBUT) to undertake one of urban India's largest makeover projects believed to impact lives of around 20,000 people. Its mandate was to rebuild Bhendi Bazaar—a decrepit, under-developed, and dense muslim-majority locale in South Bombay. The redevelopment project spans over an area of 16.5 acres comprising 250 decrepit buildings, 3,200 families, and 1,250 shops.The area is being transformed into a healthy and sustainable development comprising 11 new towers, wider roads, modern infrastructure, open spaces and highly visible commercial areas. Relocated residential and commercial tenants will own their new premises at no cost to them.<ref name=sadhwani>Template:Cite web</ref> Due to the scope of the project, the largest "cluster redevelopment" project in India, it has faced logistical and regulatory challenges, resulting in several delays at an estimated cost of $550 million (₹4000 crores).
Starting in 2010, the trust began building transit homes near Mazagaon. In 2012, the trust relocated tenants and demolished buildings it had acquired.Template:R More transit homes were built in Sion, Ghodapdeo, and Sewri.<ref name=sbutcover>Template:Cite magazine</ref> In early 2016, Mufaddal Saifuddin laid foundation for Clusters I and III.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2020, 600 residents and 128 shop owners were relocated to the completed twin towers called Al Saadah,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> marking completion of the project's first phase.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
After completing the first phase of the project SBUT initiated construction work on the second phase of the project in February 2021.
Syedna Mufaddal Saifuddin inaugurated the newly reconstructed Saifee Masjid and its complex on the eve of Milad al Nabi in September 2023.This complex known as Sector 1 was demolished and redeveloped with modern sustainable amenities and a commercial shopping arcade.
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
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