Dhu al-Qarnayn

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File:Iskandar (Alexander) builds a wall against Gog and Magog (CBL Per. 395.1).jpg
Template:Transliteration building a wall with the help of the jinns to keep away Gog and Magog. Persian miniature from a book of Falnama copied for the Safavid emperor Tahmasp I (Template:Reign), currently preserved in the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin.

Template:Transliteration, (Template:Langx, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; Template:Lit. "The Owner of Two-Horns"<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>) is a leader who appears in the Qur'an, Surah al-Kahf (18), Ayahs 83–101, as one who travels to the east and west and sets up a barrier between a certain people and Gog and Magog (Template:Langx).Template:Sfn Elsewhere, the Qur'an tells how the end of the world will be signaled by the release of Gog and Magog from behind the barrier. Other apocalyptic writings predict that their destruction by God in a single night will usher in the Day of Resurrection (Template:Langx).Template:Sfn

Dhu al-Qarnayn has most popularly been identified by Western and traditional Muslim scholars as Alexander the Great.<ref>Template:Harvnb: "It is generally agreed both by Muslim commentators and modéra [sic] occidental scholars that Dhu ’l-Ḳarnayn [...] is to be identified with Alexander the Great." Template:Harvnb: "[...] Template:Transliteration (usually identified with Alexander the Great) [...]".</ref><ref name=":02">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Historically, some tradition has parted from this identification<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> in favor of others,<ref name="Cottrell" /> like pre-Islamic Arabian kings such as the (mythical) Sa'b Dhu Marathid of Himyar<ref name=":13">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> or the historical figure al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man of the Lakhmid kingdom (d. 554).<ref name="Cottrell" /> Cyrus the Great has also gained popularity among modern Muslim commentators.<ref name=":02" /><ref>Tabatabai, Muhammad Hussein. "Al-mizan." Beirut: Academic Press Co 1403 (1995): 353.</ref><ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Quran 18:83–101

File:Derbent wall.jpg
The Caspian Gates in Derbent, Russia, part of the defence systems built by the Sasanian Empire, often identified with the Gates of Alexander.
File:Verses 83-101, al-Kahf (Murattal) - Recitation of the Holy Qur'an.mp3
Recitation of al-Kahf, verses 83-101, taken from a full recitation of Al-Kahf.

The verses of the chapter reproduced below show Dhu al-Qarnayn traveling first to the Western limit of travel where he sees the sun set in a muddy spring, then to the furthest East where he sees it rise from the ocean, and finally northward to a place in the mountains where he finds a people oppressed by Gog and Magog:

Verse Number Arabic (Uthmani script) English (Marmaduke Pickthall)
18:83 وَيَسْـَٔلُونَكَ عَن ذِى ٱلْقَرْنَيْنِ ۖ قُلْ سَأَتْلُوا۟ عَلَيْكُم مِّنْهُ ذِكْرًا Template:Cite Quran
18:84 إِنَّا مَكَّنَّا لَهُۥ فِى ٱلْأَرْضِ وَءَاتَيْنَٰهُ مِن كُلِّ شَىْءٍ سَبَبًا Template:Cite Quran
18:85 فَأَتْبَعَ سَبَبًا Template:Cite Quran
18:86 حَتَّىٰٓ إِذَا بَلَغَ مَغْرِبَ ٱلشَّمْسِ وَجَدَهَا تَغْرُبُ فِى عَيْنٍ حَمِئَةٍ وَوَجَدَ عِندَهَا قَوْمًا ۗ قُلْنَا يَٰذَا ٱلْقَرْنَيْنِ إِمَّآ أَن تُعَذِّبَ وَإِمَّآ أَن تَتَّخِذَ فِيهِمْ حُسْنًا Template:Cite Quran
18:87 قَالَ أَمَّا مَن ظَلَمَ فَسَوْفَ نُعَذِّبُهُۥ ثُمَّ يُرَدُّ إِلَىٰ رَبِّهِۦ فَيُعَذِّبُهُۥ عَذَابًا نُّكْرًا Template:Cite Quran
18:88 وَأَمَّا مَنْ ءَامَنَ وَعَمِلَ صَٰلِحًا فَلَهُۥ جَزَآءً ٱلْحُسْنَىٰ ۖ وَسَنَقُولُ لَهُۥ مِنْ أَمْرِنَا يُسْرًا Template:Cite Quran
18:89 ثُمَّ أَتْبَعَ سَبَبًا Template:Cite Quran
18:90 حَتَّىٰٓ إِذَا بَلَغَ مَطْلِعَ ٱلشَّمْسِ وَجَدَهَا تَطْلُعُ عَلَىٰ قَوْمٍ لَّمْ نَجْعَل لَّهُم مِّن دُونِهَا سِتْرًا Template:Cite Quran
18:91 كَذَٰلِكَ وَقَدْ أَحَطْنَا بِمَا لَدَيْهِ خُبْرًا Template:Cite Quran
18:92 ثُمَّ أَتْبَعَ سَبَبًا Template:Cite Quran
18:93حَتَّىٰٓ إِذَا بَلَغَ بَيْنَ ٱلسَّدَّيْنِ وَجَدَ مِن دُونِهِمَا قَوْمًا لَّا يَكَادُونَ يَفْقَهُونَ قَوْلًا Template:Cite Quran
18:94 قَالُوا۟ يَٰذَا ٱلْقَرْنَيْنِ إِنَّ يَأْجُوجَ وَمَأْجُوجَ مُفْسِدُونَ فِى ٱلْأَرْضِ فَهَلْ نَجْعَلُ لَكَ خَرْجًا عَلَىٰٓ أَن تَجْعَلَ بَيْنَنَا وَبَيْنَهُمْ سَدًّا Template:Cite Quran
18:95 قَالَ مَا مَكَّنِّى فِيهِ رَبِّى خَيْرٌ فَأَعِينُونِى بِقُوَّةٍ أَجْعَلْ بَيْنَكُمْ وَبَيْنَهُمْ رَدْمًا Template:Cite Quran
18:96 ءَاتُونِى زُبَرَ ٱلْحَدِيدِ ۖ حَتَّىٰٓ إِذَا سَاوَىٰ بَيْنَ ٱلصَّدَفَيْنِ قَالَ ٱنفُخُوا۟ ۖ حَتَّىٰٓ إِذَا جَعَلَهُۥ نَارًا قَالَ ءَاتُونِىٓ أُفْرِغْ عَلَيْهِ قِطْرًا Template:Cite Quran
18:97 فَمَا ٱسْطَٰعُوٓا۟ أَن يَظْهَرُوهُ وَمَا ٱسْتَطَٰعُوا۟ لَهُۥ نَقْبًا Template:Cite Quran
18:98 قَالَ هَٰذَا رَحْمَةٌ مِّن رَّبِّى ۖ فَإِذَا جَآءَ وَعْدُ رَبِّى جَعَلَهُۥ دَكَّآءَ ۖ وَكَانَ وَعْدُ رَبِّى حَقًّا Template:Cite Quran
18:99 وَتَرَكْنَا بَعْضَهُمْ يَوْمَئِذٍ يَمُوجُ فِى بَعْضٍ ۖ وَنُفِخَ فِى ٱلصُّورِ فَجَمَعْنَٰهُمْ جَمْعًا Template:Cite Quran
18:100 وَعَرَضْنَا جَهَنَّمَ يَوْمَئِذٍ لِّلْكَٰفِرِينَ عَرْضًا Template:Cite Quran
18:101 ٱلَّذِينَ كَانَتْ أَعْيُنُهُمْ فِى غِطَآءٍ عَن ذِكْرِى وَكَانُوا۟ لَا يَسْتَطِيعُونَ سَمْعًا Template:Cite Quran

Quranic exegesis

Occasion of revelation

The story of Dhu al-Qarnayn is related in chapter 18 of the Qur'an, al-Kahf, revealed to Muhammad when his tribe, Al-Quraysh, sent two men to discover whether the Jews, with their superior knowledge of the scriptures, could advise them on whether Muhammad was truly a prophet of God. The rabbis told the Quraysh to ask Muhammad about three things, one of them "about a man who travelled and reached the east and the west of the earth, ask what his story was. If he tells you about these things, then he is a prophet, so follow him, but if he does not tell you, then he is a man who is making things up, so deal with him as you see fit." (Qur'an 18:83-98).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Qarnayn

A well known narration from a Companion of Muhammad, Ali denies that the term "Qarnayn" literally meant horns. He instead narrates that the term "Dhul Qarnayn" was not a literal term but instead referred to injuries that took place on the two sides of the head of the ruler.<ref>Musnaf Ibn Abi Shaybah: 6/346

Al Ahaad wal Mathani by Ibn Abi Asim: 141

Jami' Bayan al Ilm by Ibn Abd al Barr: 464

Al Mashyakha al Baghadadiyya by Abi Tahrir al Silafi: 27</ref>

Cyril Glasse writes that the reference to "He of the two horns" also has a symbolical interpretation: “He of the two Ages”, which reflects the eschatological shadow that Alexander casts from his time, which preceded Islam by many centuries, until the end of the world. The Arabian word qarn means both "horn" and “period” or “century”.Template:Sfn Classical commentary from Al-Qurtubi has reported the narration from Al-Suhayli commentaries that he favored the identification that Dhu al-Qarnayn were actually two different persons, where one lived during the time of Abraham, while the other has lived during the time of Jesus.<ref name="Prophets in the Quran An Introduction to the Quran and Muslim Exegesis; Dhulqarnayn" />

Gog and Magog

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Regarding the Gog and Magog, a minority of Muslim commentators argue that Gog and Magog here refers to some barbaric North Asian tribes from pre-Biblical times which have been free from Dhu al-Qarnayn's wall for a long time.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn Modern Islamic apocalyptic writers put forward various explanations for the absence of the wall from the modern world, such as "not everything in existence can be seen", similar to human intelligence and angels, or that God has concealed the Gog and Magog from human eyes.Template:Sfn

People identified as Template:Transliteration

Alexander the Great

File:Alexander-Coin.jpg
Silver tetradrachm of Alexander the Great shown wearing the horns of the ram-god Zeus-Ammon.

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}

According to most historians, the story of Template:Transliteration has its origins in legends of Alexander the Great current in the Middle East, namely the Syriac Alexander Legend.<ref name="Bladel2">Template:Cite book</ref> The first century Josephus repeats a legend whereby Alexander builds an iron wall at a mountain pass (potentially at the Caucasus Mountains) to prevent an incursion by a barbarian group known as the Scythians, whom elsewhere he identified as Magog.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The legend went through much further elaboration in subsequent centuries before eventually finding its way into the Quran through a Syrian version.Template:Sfn However, some have questioned whether the Syriac Legend influenced the Quran on the basis of dating inconsistencies and missing key motifs,<ref name="wheelerq1998">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="Klar">Template:Cite bookTemplate:Dead link</ref><ref name=":1" /> although others have in turn rebutted these arguments.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

While the Syriac Alexander Legend references the horns of Alexander, it consistently refers to the hero by his Greek name, not using a variant epithet.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The use of the Islamic epithet Template:Transliteration "Two-Horned", first occurred in the Quran.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref> The reasons behind the name "Two-Horned" are somewhat obscure: the scholar al-Tabari (839-923 CE) held it was because he went from one extremity ("horn") of the world to the other,Template:Sfn but it may ultimately derive from imagery of the horns of Alexander, inspired by the tradition of his descent from the ram-god Zeus-Ammon, as popularised on coins throughout the Hellenistic Near East.Template:Sfn

The wall Template:Transliteration builds on his northern journey may have reflected a distant knowledge of the Great Wall of China (the 12th-century scholar Muhammad al-Idrisi drew a map for Roger II of Sicily showing the "Land of Gog and Magog" in Mongolia), or of various Sasanian walls built in the Caspian Sea region against the northern barbarians, or a conflation of the two.Template:Sfn

File:Alexander visits Elias and Khizr at the Fountain of Life', Folio from a Shahnama (Book of Kings) of Ferdowsi MET cropped.jpg
Persian miniature of Alexander (top left) visiting the fountain of Youth and meeting Khidr and Ilyas there

Template:Transliteration also journeys to the western and eastern extremities ("qarns", tips) of the Earth.Template:Sfn Ernst claims that Template:Transliteration finding the sun setting in a "muddy spring" in the West is equivalent to the "poisonous sea" found by Alexander in the Syriac legend. In the Syriac story Alexander tested the sea by sending condemned prisoners into it, while the Quran refers to this as an administration of justice. In the East both the Syrian legend and the Quran, according to Ernst, have Alexander/Template:Transliteration find a people who live so close to the rising sun that they have no protection from its heat.Template:Sfn

Some exegetes believed that Dhu al-Qarnayn lived near the time of Abraham following accounts by al-Azraqi and Ibn Abi Hatim.Template:Sfn To avoid this chronological discrepancy, several medieval exegetes and historians did not identify Dhu al-Qarnayn with Alexander. Al-Tabari inferred that there were two Dhu al-Qarnayn's: the earlier one, called Dhu al-Qarnayn al-Akbar, who lived in the time of Abraham, and the later one, who was Alexander.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In one account concerning Abraham building a well at Beersheba, Dhu al-Qarnayn seems to have been placed in the role of Abimelech as described in Gen 21:22–34.Template:Sfn

Other notable Muslim commentators, including ibn Kathir,<ref name=":2">Template:Cite book</ref>:100-101 ibn Taymiyyah,<ref name=":2" />:101<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and Naser Makarem Shirazi,<ref name=":3">Template:Cite book</ref> have used theological arguments to reject the Alexander identification: Alexander lived only a short time whereas Template:Transliteration (according to some traditions) lived for 700 years as a sign of God's blessing, though this is not mentioned in the Quran, and Dhu al-Qarnayn worshipped only one God, while Alexander was a polytheist.Template:Sfn Due to this, most modern Muslim Scholars deny that Alexander the Great is Dhu al-Qarnayn<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Ṣaʿb Dhu-Marāthid

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} The various campaigns of Template:Transliteration mentioned in Q:18:83-101 have also been attributed to the South Arabian Himyarite King Ṣaʿb Dhu-Marāthid (also known as al-Rāʾid).Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Ibn Hisham gives an extensive forty-five page account of King Ṣaʿb in his work The Book of Crowns on the Kings of Himyar, relying on the Yemeni author Wahb ibn Munabbih (b. 655 CE).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref>Template:Wikisourcelang-inline</ref> In this account, King Ṣaʿb was a conqueror who was given the epithet Dhu al-Qarnayn after meeting a figure named Musa al Khidr in Jerusalem. He then travels to the ends of the earth, conquering or converting people until being led by al Khidr through the Land of Darkness.Template:Sfn Other elements include a journey to a valley of diamonds,<ref name="Akasoy 2017">Template:Cite book</ref> a castle with glass walls,Template:Sfn and a campaign as far as the Andalusia region (classical era Spain).<ref name="The Ten Lost Tribes A World History; Wahb ibn Munabbih">Template:Cite book</ref> However, according to Al-Qurtubi, the original opinion of Wahb ibn Munabbih identified the legendary conqueror as a Roman, contradicting Ibn Hisham's commentary.<ref name="Prophets in the Quran An Introduction to the Quran and Muslim Exegesis; Dhulqarnayn">Template:Cite book</ref> Al-Tabari also reports that Wahb believed Dhu al-Qarnayn was a man from Byzantium named Iskandar.Template:Sfn

Academic scholars consider the Sa'b story to be an appropriation of the Syriac Alexander Legend.<ref name="Akasoy 2017" />Template:Sfn While Ibn Hisham's book made use of Wahb's material, Tilman Nagel doubts that Wahb's text included this particular story given Ibn Hisham's sceptical attitude to the claims of Southern Arabians, and notes that al-Tabari relied on Wahb's Alexander story yet included no Himyarite (South Arabian) elements. Following a detailed analysis, Nagel instead defines the milieu in which this version emerged as that of South Arabians in early eighth-century Egypt,<ref name="Akasoy 2009">Template:Cite journal</ref> and observes that Southern Arabs were one of two factions who vied for power in the Umayyad empire.<ref name="Akasoy 2017" />

Richard Stoneman notes that Wahb was known for the composition of qisas, in which folklore is served up as history. According to Stoneman, the South Arabian legend was composed within the context of the division between the South Arabs and North Arabs that began with the Battle of Marj Rahit in 684 AD and consolidated over two centuries. He too dates the story to the 8th century CE, intended to give a parallel for, and to justify, the Islamic conquests in the west, representing a glorification of the South Arabian traditions and their conquests in Egypt.Template:Sfn Anna Akasoy agrees with Alfred Beeston that Sa'b's entire existence is fictional and a product of Yemeni chauvinism, noting that later Yemeni Kings whose existence is confirmed were assigned similar exploits borrowed from legends of Alexander.<ref name="Akasoy 2009" /> According to Wheeler, it is possible that some elements of these accounts that were originally associated with Ṣaʿb have been incorporated into stories which identify Dhu al-Qarnayn with Alexander.Template:Sfn

Cyrus the Great

Template:Multiple image

In modern times, some Muslim scholars have argued in favour of Template:Transliteration being actually Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Achaemenid Empire and conqueror of Persia and Babylon. Proponents of this view cite Daniel's vision in the Old Testament where he saw a two-horned ram that represents "the kings of Media and Persia" (Template:Bibleverse).Template:Sfn They also cite the Hemhem crown (a type of ancient Egyptian crown mounted on a pair of long spiral ram's horns) of the Pasargadae winged genie, once thought by some to be a representation of Cyrus,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> though this is no longer accepted.Template:Sfn<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

This theory was proposed in 1855 by the German philologist G. M. Redslob, but it did not gain followers in the west.<ref name="tatum">Template:Cite book</ref> Among Muslim commentators, it was first promoted by Sayyed Ahmad Khan (d. 1889), then by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, whose commentary became popular in 1970s Pahlavi Iran,Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and generated wider acceptance over the years.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Brannon Wheeler argues that it would be possible to make that identification based on what is known of the conquests of Cyrus. However, the Arabic histories did not view Cyrus as a conqueror in the sense described in Q 18:83-102, and the early Quran commentaries did not identify Cyrus with Dhu al-Qarnayn.Template:Sfn

Others

Other persons who either were identified with the Quranic figure or given the title Template:Transliteration:

In later literature

Template:Further Dhu al-Qarnayn, the traveller, proved a popular subject for later writers. In Al-Andalus, for instance, an Arabic translation of the Syriac Alexander Legend appeared, entitled Qissat Dhulqarnayn. This work explores Dhu al-Qarnayn's life – his upbringing, journeys, and eventual death. The text identifies Dhu al-Qarnayn with Alexander the Great and portrays him as the first person to complete the Hajj pilgrimage.<ref name=":12">Template:Cite book</ref>

Another Hispano-Arabic legend featuring Dhu al-Qarnayn, representing Alexander, is the Hadith Dhulqarnayn (or the Leyenda de Alejandro). In one of the many Arabic and Persian versions depicting Alexander's encounter with Indian sages, the Persian Sunni Sufi theologian al-Ghazali (1058–1111) describes a scene where Dhu al-Qarnayn meets a people who own nothing but dig graves outside their homes. Their king explains that death is life's only certainty, a reason for their practices. Ghazali's interpretation found its way into the One Thousand and One Nights.Template:Sfn

The esteemed medieval Persian poet Rumi (1207-1273) wrote about Dhu al-Qarnayn's eastward travels. Here, the hero climbs Mount Qaf, the emerald 'mother' of all mountains encircling the Earth, its veins spreading below every land. Upon Dhu al-Qarnayn's request, the mountain reveals how earthquakes occur: when God wills it, one of its veins pulsates, triggering a tremor. Atop this grand mountain, Dhu al-Qarnayn encounters Israfil (archangel Raphael), prepared to sound the trumpet on Judgement Day.Template:Sfn

The Malay epic Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain links several Southeast Asian royal lines to Iskandar Zulkarnain;<ref name="(Malaysia)19992">Template:Cite book</ref> this includes the Minangkabau royalty of Central Sumatra<ref>Early Modern History Template:ISBN page 60</ref> and the Cholan emperor Rajendra I in the Malay Annals.<ref name="TasaiDjamari20052">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Sapiee20072">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

See also

References

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Sources

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