Dream of the Red Chamber

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Dream of the Red Chamber or The Story of the Stone is an 18th-century Chinese novel authored by Cao Xueqin, considered to be one of the Four Great Classic Novels of Chinese literature. It is known for its psychological scope and its observation of the worldview, aesthetics, lifestyles, and social relations of High Qing China.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The intricate strands of its plot depict the rise and decline of a family much like Cao's own and, by extension, of the dynasty itself. Cao depicts the power of the father over the family, but the novel is intended to be a memorial to the women he knew in his youth: friends, relatives and servants. At a more profound level, the author explores religious and philosophical questions, and the writing style includes echoes of the plays and novels of the late Ming, as well as poetry from earlier periods.<ref>Jonathan Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: Norton, 1990), 106–110.</ref>

Cao apparently began composing it in the 1740s and worked on it until his death in 1763 or 1764. Copies of his uncompleted manuscript circulated in Cao's social circle, under the title Story of a Stone, in slightly varying versions of eighty chapters. It was not published until nearly three decades after Cao's death, when Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan (Template:Lang) edited the first and second printed editions under the title Dream of the Red Chamber from 1791 to 1792, adding 40 chapters. It is still debated whether Gao and Cheng composed these chapters themselves and the extent to which they did or did not represent Cao's intentions. Their 120-chapter edition became the most widely circulated version.<ref name="David Hawkes 1973 pp. 15">David Hawkes, "Introduction", The Story of the Stone Volume I (Penguin Books, 1973), pp. 15–19.</ref> The title has also been translated as Red Chamber Dream and A Dream of Red Mansions. Redology is the field of study devoted to the novel.

Language

The novel is composed in written vernacular (baihua) rather than Classical Chinese (wenyan). Cao Xueqin was highly proficient in both Chinese poetry and Classical Chinese, having composed essays in a semi-wenyan style. The novel's dialogue, however, is rendered in the Beijing Mandarin dialect, which later became the foundation of modern spoken Chinese. In the early 20th century, lexicographers used the text to establish the vocabulary of the new standardised language and reformers used the novel to promote the written vernacular.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

History

Textual history

Dream of the Red Chamber has a complicated textual history that scholars have long debated.Template:Sfnp It is known with certainty that Cao Xueqin began writing the novel in the 1740s.Template:Sfnp Cao was a member of a prominent Chinese family that had served the Manchu emperors of the Qing dynasty but whose fortunes had begun to decline. By the time of Cao's death in 1763 or 1764, hand-copied manuscripts of the novel's first 80 chapters had begun circulating, and he may have written drafts of the remaining chapters.Template:Sfnp These hand-copied manuscripts circulated first among his personal friends and a growing circle of aficionados, then eventually on the open market where they sold for large sums of money.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

The first printed version of Dream of the Red Chamber, published by Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E in 1791, contains edits and revisions that Cao never authorized.<ref name="David Hawkes 1973 pp. 15"/> It is possible that Cao destroyed the last chapters<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> or that at least parts of Cao's original ending were incorporated into the 120 chapter Cheng-Gao versions,<ref>Maram Epstein, "Reflections of Desire: The Poetics of Gender in Dream of the Red Chamber," Nan Nu 1.1 (1999): 64.</ref> with Gao E's "careful emendations" of Cao's draft.Template:Sfnp

"Rouge" versions

File:Jimao Dream of the Red Chamber.jpg
A page from the "Jimao manuscript" (one of the Rouge versions) of the novel, 1759<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Up until 1791, the novel circulated in hand-copied manuscripts. Even amongst some 12 independent surviving manuscripts, small differences in some characters, rearrangements and possible rewritings cause the texts to vary a little. The earliest manuscripts end abruptly at the latest at the 80th chapter. The earlier versions contain comments and annotations in red or black ink from unknown commentators. These commentators' remarks reveal much about the author as a person, and it is now believed that some of them may even be members of Cao Xueqin's own family. The most prominent commentator is Zhiyanzhai, who revealed much of the interior structuring of the work and the original manuscript ending, now lost. These manuscripts, the most textually reliable versions, are known as "rouge versions" (zhī běn Template:Lang).

The early 80 chapters brim with prophecies and dramatic foreshadowings that give hints as to how the book would continue. For example, it is obvious that Lin Daiyu will eventually die in the course of the novel; that Baoyu and Baochai will marry; that Baoyu will become a monk. A branch of Redology, known as tànyì xué (Template:Lang), is focused on recovering the lost manuscript ending, based on the commentators' annotations in the Rouge versions, as well as the internal foreshadowings in the earlier 80 chapters.

Several early manuscripts are still extant. At the present, the "Jiaxu manuscript" (dating to 1754) is held in the Shanghai Museum, the "Jimao manuscript" (1759) is held in the National Library of China, and the "Gengchen manuscript" (1760) is held in the library of Peking University. Beijing Normal University and the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences both also held manuscripts of the novel that predate the first printed edition of 1791.

Cheng–Gao versions

Template:Main In 1791, Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan brought out the novel's first printed edition. This was also the first "complete" edition of The Story of the Stone, which they printed as the Illustrated Dream of the Red Chamber (Template:Transliteration Template:Lang). While the original Rouge manuscripts have eighty chapters, the 1791 edition completed the novel in 120 chapters. The first 80 chapters were edited from the Rouge versions, but the last 40 were newly published.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In 1792, Cheng and Gao published a second edition correcting editorial errors of the 1791 version. In the 1791 prefaces, Cheng claimed to have put together an ending based on the author's working manuscripts.Template:Sfnp

The debate over the last 40 chapters and the 1791–92 prefaces continues to this day. Many modern scholars believe these chapters were a later addition. Hu Shih, in his Studies on A Dream of the Red Chamber (1921) argued that these chapters were written by Gao E, citing the foreshadowing of the main characters' fates in Chapter 5, which differs from the ending of the 1791 Cheng-Gao version. However, during the mid-20th century, the discovery of a 120 chapter manuscript that dates well before 1791 further complicated the questions regarding Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan's involvement—whether they simply edited Cao Xueqin's work or actually wrote the continuation of the novel.<ref name=riddles/> Though it is unclear if the last 40 chapters of the discovered manuscript contained the original works of Cao, Irene Eber found the discovery "seems to confirm Cheng and Gao's claim that they merely edited a complete manuscript, consisting of 120 chapters, rather than actually writing a portion of the novel".<ref name=riddles>Irene Eber, "Riddles in the Dream of the Red Chamber," in Galit Hasan-Rokem, and David Dean Shulman, eds. Untying the Knot : On Riddles and Other Enigmatic Modes (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 237.</ref>

The book is usually published and read in Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E's 120 chapter version. Some modern editions, such as Zhou Ruchang's, do not include the last 40 chapters.

In 2014, three researchers using data analysis of writing styles announced that "Applying our method to the Cheng–Gao version of Dream of the Red Chamber has led to convincing if not irrefutable evidence that the first 80 chapters and the last 40 chapters of the book were written by two different authors."<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

In 2020, Zhang Qingshan, the president of the academic organization Society of the Dream of the Red Chamber, stated that although the authorship of the novel's last 40 chapters remains uncertain, it is unlikely Gao E was the one who wrote them.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Plot summary

File:Sun Wen Red Chamber 15.jpg
A piece from a series of brush paintings by the Qing dynasty artist Sun Wen (1818–1904), depicting a scene from the novel

In the novel's frame story, a sentient Stone, left over when the goddess Nüwa mended the heaven aeons ago, wants to enjoy the pleasures of the "red dust" (the mundane world). The Stone begs a Taoist priest and a Buddhist monk to take it with them to see the world. The Stone, along with a companion (in Cheng-Gao versions they are merged into the same character), is then given a chance to learn from human existence, and enters the mortal realm. In the Cheng-Gao versions, he is reborn as Jia Baoyu ("Precious Jade") – thus "The Story of the Stone".

The novel provides a detailed, episodic record of life in the two branches of the wealthy, aristocratic Jia (Template:Lang) clan—the Rongguo House (Template:Lang) and the Ningguo House (Template:Lang)—who reside in large, adjacent family compounds in the capital. The capital, however, is not named, and the first chapter insists that the dynasty is indeterminate.Template:Sfnb The ancestors of the two families were made Chinese nobility and given imperial titles, and as the novel begins the houses are two of the most illustrious families in the city. One of the Jia daughters is made a Royal Consort, and to suitably receive her, the family constructs the Daguanyuan, a lush landscaped garden, the setting for much of subsequent action. The novel describes the Jias' wealth and influence in great naturalistic detail, and charts the Jias' fall from the height of their prestige, following some thirty main characters and over four hundred minor ones.

As the carefree adolescent male heir of the family, Baoyu in this life has a special bond with his sickly and melancholic cousin Lin Daiyu, who shares his love of music and poetry. Baoyu, however, is predestined to marry another cousin, Xue Baochai, whose grace and intelligence exemplify an ideal woman, but with whom he lacks an emotional connection. The romantic rivalry and friendship among the three characters against the backdrop of the family's declining fortunes form the central story.

A series of paintings by Fei Danxu (1801–1850) depicting scenes from the novel:

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Characters

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1889 woodcut print depicting Xue Baochai chasing butterflies (Chapter 27)

Dream of the Red Chamber contains an extraordinarily large number of characters: nearly 40 major characters, and over 400 additional ones.<ref name=yang>Template:Cite book There are entries for 447 named characters.</ref> The novel is known for complex portraits of its female characters.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> According to Lu Xun in the appendix to A Brief History of Chinese Fiction, Dream of the Red Chamber broke every conceivable thought and technique in traditional Chinese fiction; its realistic characterization presents thoroughly human characters who are neither "wholly good nor wholly bad", but who seem to inhabit part of the real world.<ref>Chen (2005), pp. 1–2.</ref>

The names of the characters in particular present a challenge to translators, since many of them convey meaning. David Hawkes left the names of the masters, mistresses, and their family members in pinyin (Jia Zheng and Lady Wang, for instance), translated the meanings of the servants' names, (such as Aroma and Skybright), put the names of the Daoists and Buddhists into Latin (Sapientia), and those of actors and actresses into French.Template:Sfnb

Jia Baoyu and the Twelve Beauties of Jinling

  • Jia Baoyu (Template:Zh)
    The main protagonist is about 12 or 13 years old when introduced.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The adolescent son of Jia Zheng and his wife, Lady Wang, and born with a piece of luminescent jade in his mouth (the Stone), Baoyu is the heir apparent to the Rongguo House. Frowned on by his strict Confucian father, Baoyu reads Zhuangzi and Romance of the Western Chamber on the sly rather than the Four Books of classic Chinese education. Baoyu is highly intelligent but dislikes the fawning bureaucrats who frequent his father's house. A sensitive and compassionate individual, he has a special relationship with many of the women in the house.
  • Lin Daiyu (Template:Zh)
    Jia Baoyu's younger first cousin and his true love. She is the daughter of Lin Ruhai (Template:Lang), an official in the lucrative Yangzhou salt commission, and Lady Jia Min (Template:Lang), Baoyu's paternal aunt. She is an icon of spirituality and intelligence: beautiful, sentimental, sarcastic, self-assured, an accomplished poet, but subject to fits of jealousy. She suffers from a respiratory ailment. In the frame story, Baoyu, in his previous incarnation as the Deity Shenying, watered the Fairy Crimson Pearl, Daiyu's incarnation. The purpose of her mortal reincarnation is to repay Baoyu with tears. The novel proper starts in Chapter 3 with Daiyu's arrival at the Rongguo House shortly after the death of her mother.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
  • Xue Baochai (Template:Zh)
    Jia Baoyu's other first cousin. The only daughter of Aunt Xue (Template:Lang), sister to Baoyu's mother, Baochai is a foil to Daiyu. Where Daiyu is unconventional and sincere, Baochai is worldly-wise and very tactful: a model Chinese feudal maiden. The novel describes her as beautiful and ambitious. Baochai has a round face, fair skin, large eyes, and, some would say, a more voluptuous figure in contrast to Daiyu's slender willowy daintiness. Baochai carries a golden locket with her which contains words given to her in childhood by a Buddhist monk. Baochai's golden locket and Baoyu's jade contain inscriptions that appear to complement one another perfectly in the material world. Her marriage to Baoyu is seen in the book as predestined, but ultimately fails because Baoyu's love for Daiyu persists after her death.
  • Wang Xifeng (Template:Zh), alias Sister Feng.
    Baoyu's elder cousin-in-law, young wife to Jia Lian (who is Baoyu's paternal first cousin), niece to Lady Wang. Xifeng is hence related to Baoyu both by blood and marriage. A handsome woman, Xifeng is capable, clever, humorous, and, at times, vicious and cruel. Undeniably the most worldly woman in the novel, Xifeng is in charge of the daily running of the Rongguo household and wields economic as well as political power within the family. Xifeng keeps both Lady Wang and Grandmother Jia entertained with her jokes and chatter. By playing the role of the perfect filial daughter-in-law, she rules the household with an iron fist. Xifeng can be kind-hearted toward the poor and helpless or cruel enough to kill. She makes a fortune by investing in loan sharking rather than maintaining the family estate and brings about the downfall of the family. She dies soon after the family assets are seized by the government.
  • Shi Xiangyun (Template:Zh)
    Jia Baoyu's younger second cousin. Grandmother Jia's grandniece. Orphaned in infancy, she grows up under her wealthy paternal uncle and aunt who treats her unkindly. In spite of this Xiangyun is openhearted and cheerful. A comparatively androgynous beauty, Xiangyun looks good in men's clothes (once she put on Baoyu's clothes and Grandmother Jia thought she was a man), and loves to drink. She is forthright and without tact, but her forgiving nature takes the sting from her casually truthful remarks. She is well educated and as talented a poet as Daiyu or Baochai. Her young husband dies shortly after their marriage. She vows to be a faithful widow for the rest of her life.
  • Jia Tanchun (Template:Zh)
    Baoyu's younger half-sister by Concubine Zhao. Extremely outspoken, she is almost as capable as Wang Xifeng. Wang Xifeng herself compliments her privately, but laments that she was "born in the wrong womb", since concubine children are not respected as much as those by first wives. She is also a very talented poet. Tanchun is nicknamed "Rose" for her beauty and her prickly personality. She later marries into a military family on the South Sea far away from home.
  • Jia Yuanchun (Template:Zh)
    Baoyu's elder sister by about a decade. Originally one of the ladies-in-waiting in the imperial palace, Yuanchun later becomes an Imperial Consort, having impressed the Emperor with her virtue and learning. Her illustrious position as a favorite of the Emperor marks the height of the Jia family's powers. Despite her prestigious position, Yuanchun feels imprisoned within the imperial palace, and dies at the age of forty. The name of four sisters together "Yuan-Ying-Tan-Xi" is a homophone with "Supposed to sigh".
  • Jia Yingchun (Template:Zh)
    Second female family member of the generation of the Jia household after Yuanchun, Yingchun is the daughter of Jia She, Baoyu's uncle and therefore his elder first cousin. A kind-hearted, weak-willed person, Yingchun is said to have a "wooden" personality and seems rather apathetic toward all worldly affairs. Although very pretty and well-read, she does not compare in intelligence and wit to any of her cousins. Yingchun's most famous trait, it seems, is her unwillingness to meddle in the affairs of her family. Eventually Yingchun marries an official of the imperial court, her marriage being merely one of her father's desperate attempts to raise the declining fortunes of the Jia family. The newly married Yingchun becomes a victim of domestic abuse and constant violence at the hands of her cruel, abusive husband.
  • Miaoyu (Template:Zh; Hawkes/Minford translation: Adamantina)
    A young nun from Buddhist cloisters of the Rong-guo house. Although beautiful and learned, she is aloof, haughty, unsociable, and has an obsession with cleanliness. The novel says she was compelled by her illness to become a nun, and shelters herself under the nunnery to dodge political affairs. Her fate is not known after her abduction by bandits.
  • Qin Keqing (Template:Zh;a homophone with "look down upon love")
    Daughter-in-law to Jia Zhen. Of all the characters in the novel, the circumstances of her life and early death are amongst the most mysterious. Apparently a very beautiful and flirtatious woman, she carried on an affair with her father-in-law and dies before the second quarter of the novel. Her bedroom is bedecked with priceless artifacts belonging to extremely sensual women, both historical and mythological. In her bed, Bao Yu first travels to the Land of Illusion where he has a sexual encounter with Two-In-One, who represents Xue Baochai and Lin Daiyu. Two-in-One's name is also Keqing, making Qin Keqing also a significant character in Bao Yu's sexual experience. The original twelve songs hint that Qin Keqing hanged herself.
  • Li Wan (Template:Zh)
    Baoyu's elder sister-in-law, widow of Baoyu's deceased elder brother, Jia Zhu (Template:Lang). Her primary task is to bring up her son Lan and watch over her female cousins. The novel portrays Li Wan, a young widow in her late twenties, as a mild-mannered woman with no wants or desires, the perfect Confucian ideal of a proper mourning widow. She eventually attains high social status due to the success of her son at the Imperial Exams, but the novel sees her as a tragic figure because she wasted her youth upholding the strict standards of behavior.
  • Jia Xichun (Template:Zh)
    Baoyu's younger cousin from the Ningguo House, but brought up in the Rongguo House. A gifted painter, she is also a devout Buddhist. She is the young sister of Jia Zhen, head of the Ningguo House. At the end of the novel, after the fall of the house of Jia, she gives up her worldly concerns and becomes a Buddhist nun. She is the second youngest of Jinling's Twelve Beauties, described as a pre-teen in most parts of the novel.
  • Jia Qiaojie (Template:Zh)
    Wang Xifeng's and Jia Lian's daughter. She is a child through much of the novel. After the fall of the house of Jia, in the version of Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan, she marries the son of a wealthy rural family introduced by Granny Liu and goes on to lead a happy, uneventful life in the countryside.


The Twelve Beauties of Jinling

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Portraits of the main female characters of the novel Dream of the Red Chamber, as they are known as the Twelve Beauties of Jinling, by an anonymous artist of the Qing dynasty, collection of the Posner Center of Carnegie Mellon University.

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Other main characters

  • Grandmother Jia (Template:Zh), née Shi.
    Also called the Matriarch or the Dowager, the daughter of Marquis Shi of Jinling. Grandmother to both Baoyu and Daiyu, she is the highest living authority in the Rongguo house and the oldest and most respected of the entire clan, yet also a doting person. She has two sons, Jia She and Jia Zheng, and a daughter, Min, Daiyu's mother. Daiyu is brought to the house of the Jias at the insistence of Grandmother Jia, and she helps Daiyu and Baoyu bond as childhood playmates and, later, kindred spirits. She distributes her savings among her relatives after the seizure of their properties by the government shortly before her death.
  • Jia She (Template:Zh)
    The elder son of the Dowager. He is the father of Jia Lian and Jia Yingchun. He is a treacherous and greedy man, and a womanizer. He is jealous of his younger brother whom his mother favors. He is later stripped of his title and banished by the government.
  • Jia Zheng (Template:Zh)
    Baoyu's father, the younger son of the Dowager. He is a disciplinarian and Confucian scholar. Afraid his one surviving heir will turn bad, he imposes strict rules on his son, and uses occasional corporal punishment. He has a wife, Lady Wang, and one concubine: Zhao. He is a Confucian scholar who tries to live life as an upright and decent person, but out of touch with reality and a hands-off person at home and in court.
  • Jia Lian (Template:Zh)
    Xifeng's husband and Baoyu's paternal elder cousin, a notorious womanizer whose numerous affairs cause much trouble with his jealous wife, including affairs with men that are not known by his wife. His pregnant concubine (Second Sister You) eventually dies by his wife's engineering. He and his wife are in charge of most hiring and monetary allocation decisions, and often fight over this power. He is a cad with a flawed character but still has a conscience.
  • Xiangling (Template:Zh; Hawkes/Minford translation: Caltrop) – the Xues' maid, born Zhen Yinglian (Template:Lang, a homophone with "deserving pity"), the kidnapped and lost daughter of Zhen Shiyin (Template:Lang, a homophone with "Hiding the truth"), the country gentleman in Chapter 1. Her name is changed to Qiuling (Template:Lang) by Xue Pan's spoiled wife, Xia Jingui (Template:Lang) who is jealous of her and tries to poison her. Xue Pan makes her the lady of the house after Jingui's death. She soon dies while giving birth.
  • Ping'er (Template:Zh; Hawkes/Minford translation: Patience)
    Xifeng's chief maid and personal confidante; also concubine to Xifeng's husband, Jia Lian. Originally Xifeng's maid in the Wang household, she follows Xifeng as part of her dowry when Xifeng marries into the Jia household. She handles her troubles with grace, assists Xifeng capably and appears to have the respect of most of the household servants. She is also one of the very few people who can get close to Xifeng. She wields considerable power in the house as Xifeng's most trusted assistant, but uses her power sparingly and justly. She is supremely loyal to her mistress, but more soft-hearted and sweet-tempered.
  • Xue Pan (Template:Zh)
    Baochai's older brother, a dissolute, idle rake who was a local bully in Jinling. He was known for his amorous exploits with both men and women. Not particularly well educated, he once killed a man over a servant-girl (Xiangling) and had the manslaughter case hushed up with money.
  • Granny Liu (Template:Zh)
    A country rustic and distant relation to the Wang family, who provides a comic contrast to the ladies of the Rongguo House during two visits. She eventually rescues Qiaojie from her maternal uncle, who wanted to sell her.
  • Lady Wang (Template:Zh)
    A Buddhist, primary wife of Jia Zheng. Daughter of one of the four most prominent families of Jinling. Because of her purported ill-health, she hands over the running of the household to her niece, Xifeng, as soon as the latter marries into the Jia household, although she retains overall control over Xifeng's affairs so that the latter always has to report to her. Although Lady Wang appears to be a kind mistress and a doting mother, she can in fact be cruel and ruthless when her authority is challenged. She pays a great deal of attention to Baoyu's maids to make sure that Baoyu does not develop romantic relationships with them.
  • Aunt Xue (Template:Zh), née Wang
    Baoyu's maternal aunt, mother to Pan and Baochai, sister to Lady Wang. She is kindly and affable for the most part, but finds it hard to control her unruly son.
  • Hua Xiren (Template:Zh; Hawkes/Minford translation: Aroma)
    Baoyu's principal maid and his unofficial concubine. While she still has standing as the Dowager's maid, the Dowager gave her to Baoyu so, in practice, Xiren is his maid. Considerate and forever worried about Baoyu, she is the partner of his first adolescent sexual encounter in the real world in Chapter 5. After Baoyu's disappearance, she unknowingly marries actor Jiang Yuhan, one of Baoyu's friends.
File:Hongloumeng1.jpg
Qingwen, painted by Xu Baozhuan
  • Qingwen (Template:Zh; Hawkes/Minford translation: Skybright)
    Baoyu's personal maid. Brash, haughty and the most beautiful maid in the household, Qingwen is said to resemble Daiyu very strongly. Of all of Baoyu's maids, she is the only one who dares to argue with Baoyu when reprimanded, but is also extremely devoted to him. She is disdainful of Xiren's attempt to use her sexual relation with Baoyu to raise her status in the family. Lady Wang later suspected her of having an affair with Baoyu and publicly dismisses her on that account; angry at the unfair treatment and of the indignities and slanders that attended her as a result, Qingwen dies of an illness shortly after leaving the Jia household.
  • Yuanyang (Template:Zh; Hawkes/Minford translation: Faithful)
    The Dowager's chief maid. She rejects a marriage proposal (as concubine) to the lecherous Jia She, Grandmother Jia's eldest son, and commits suicide right after the Dowager's death.
  • Mingyan (Template:Zh; Hawkes/Minford translation: Tealeaf)
    Baoyu's page boy. Knows his master like the back of his hand.
  • Zijuan (Template:Zh; Hawkes/Minford translation: Nightingale)
    Daiyu's faithful maid, ceded by the Dowager to her granddaughter. She later becomes a nun to serve Jia Xichun.
  • Xueyan (Template:Zh; Hawkes/Minford translation: Snowgoose)
    Daiyu's other maid. She came with Daiyu from Yangzhou, and comes across as a young, sweet girl. She is asked to accompany the veiled bride Baochai to trick Baoyu into believing that he is marrying Daiyu.
  • Concubine Zhao (Template:Zh)
    A concubine of Jia Zheng. She is the mother of Jia Tanchun and Jia Huan, Baoyu's half-siblings. She longs to be the mother of the head of the household, which she does not achieve. She plots to murder Baoyu and Xifeng with black magic, and it is believed that her plot cost her own life.

Notable minor characters

File:Hongloumeng3.jpg
A scene from the story, painted by Xu Baozhuan
  • Qin Zhong (Template:Lang, a homophone with "great lover") – His elder sister is Qin Keqing, Baoyu's nephew's wife, and so he is technically a generation younger than Baoyu. Both he and Qin Keqing are the adopted children of Qin Ye(Template:Lang). The two boys enroll in the Jia clan's school together and he becomes Baoyu's best friend. The novel leaves open the possibility that things might have gone beyond innocent friendship. Qin Zhong and the novice Zhineng (Template:Lang, "Intelligent"; "Sapientia" in the Hawkes translation) fall in love but Qin Zhong dies soon after from a combination of his father's severe beating, sexual exhaustion, grief and remorse.<ref>The Story of the Stone, Vol I The Golden Days, translated by David Hawkes, pp. 206–209, 300, 320–23. See also Jonathan Spence, "Ch'ing," in K.C. Chang, ed., Food in Chinese Culture (Yale University Press, 1977), p. 279.</ref> One commentator writes that Qin Zhong is a pun for qingzhong (passion incarnate), and that his sister Qinshi initiates Baoyu into heterosexual relations in his dream and Qin Zhong initiates him into homosexual ones.Template:Sfnb
  • Jia Yucun (Template:Lang) — The childhood tutor of Lin Daiyu. Originally a poor scholar, he became a prefect with the help of Zhen Shiyin before being fired for corruption. He later connected himself with his distant relatives in the Jia family through the Lin family and was reinstated as prefect.
  • Jia Lan (Template:Lang) – Son of Baoyu's deceased older brother Jia Zhu and his virtuous wife Li Wan. Jia Lan is an appealing child throughout the book and at the end succeeds in the imperial examinations to the credit of the family.
  • Jia Zhen (Template:Lang) – Head of the Ningguo House, the elder branch of the Jia family. He has a wife, Lady You, a younger sister, Jia Xichun, and many concubines. He is extremely greedy and the unofficial head of the clan, since his father has retired. He has an adulterous affair with his daughter-in-law, Qin Keqing.
  • Lady You (Template:Lang) – Wife of Jia Zhen. She is the sole mistress of the Ningguo House.
  • Jia Rong (Template:Lang) – Jia Zhen's son. He is the husband of Qin Keqing. An exact copy of his father, he is the Cavalier of the Imperial Guards.
  • Xue Baoqin (Template:Lang) – The paternal cousin of Xue Baochai. Depicted as extremely beautiful and talented. Grandmother Jia originally sought to betroth her to Jia Baoyu.
  • Second Sister You (Template:Lang) – Jia Lian takes her in secret as his lover. Though a kept woman before she was married, after her wedding she becomes a faithful and doting wife. Because of Wang Xifeng's intrigue, she finally kills herself by swallowing a large piece of gold.
  • Liu Xianglian (Template:Lang) – A descendant of the Liu family and an amateur actor. A bold man, he is good friends with Jia Baoyu and forms a brotherhood with Xue Pan.
  • Lady Xing (Template:Lang) – Jia She's wife. She is Jia Lian's stepmother.
  • Xing Xiuyan (Template:Lang) – The niece of Lady Xing. She is intelligent and courteous, but is a modest beauty due to her and her family's financial struggles.
  • Jia Huan (Template:Lang) – Son of Concubine Zhao. He and his mother are both reviled by the family, and he carries himself like a kicked dog. He shows his malignant nature by spilling candle wax, intending to blind his half-brother Baoyu.
  • Sheyue (Template:Lang; Hawkes/Minford translation: Musk) — Baoyu's main maid after Xiren and Qingwen. She is beautiful and caring, a perfect complement to Xiren.
  • Qiutong (Template:Lang) — Jia Lian's other concubine. Originally a maid of Jia She, she is given to Jia Lian as a concubine. She is a very proud and arrogant woman.
  • Sister Sha (Template:Lang) – A maid who does rough work for the Dowager. She is guileless but amusing and caring. In the Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan version, she unintentionally informs Daiyu of Baoyu's secret marriage plans.

Themes

Template:Rquote The opening chapter of the novel describes a great stone archway and on either side a couplet is inscribed: Template:Blockquote

This couplet is later reiterated, however this time as: Template:Blockquote

As one critic points out, the couplet signifies "not a hard and fast division between truth and falsity, reality and illusion, but the impossibility of making such distinctions in any world, fictional or actual."Template:Sfnb It also symbolizes the peculiar Taoist religious tradition prevalent in Northern China since the Yuan dynasty as practiced in Cao's time, as well as Taoism's alternate roles in society such as doctrines for philosophical and intellectual rather than religious guidance and one of the schools of thought Buddhist sects in China syncretized with their own.<ref name=":0" /> This theme is further reflected in the name of the main family, Jia (Template:Lang, pronounced jiǎ), which is a homophone with the character jiǎ Template:Lang, meaning false or fictitious; this is mirrored by the surname of the other main family, Zhen (Template:Lang, pronounced zhēn), a homophone for the word "real" (Template:Lang). It is suggested that the novel is both a realistic reflection and a fictional or "dream" version of Cao's own family.

Early Chinese critics identified its two major themes as those of the nature of love, and of the transitoriness of earthly material values, as outlined in Buddhist and Taoist philosophies.<ref>Chen (2005), pp. 31–37</ref> Later scholars echoed the philosophical aspects of love and its transcendent power as depicted in the novel.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> One remarked that the novel is a remarkable example of the "dialectic of dream and reality, art and life, passion and enlightenment, nostalgia and knowledge."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The novel also vividly depicts Chinese material culture, such as medicine, cuisine, tea culture, festivities, proverbs, mythology, Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, filial piety, opera, music, architecture, funeral rites, painting, classic literature and the Four Books. Among these, the novel is particularly notable for its grand use of poetry.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Since the establishment of Cao Xueqin as the novel's author, its autobiographical aspects have come to the fore. Cao Xueqin's clan was similarly raided in real life, and suffered a steep decline. Marxist interpretation starting in the New Culture Movement saw the novel as exposing feudal society's corruption and emphasized the clashes between the classes. Since the 1980s, critics have embraced the novel's richness and aesthetics in a more multicultural context.<ref>Chen (2005), pp. 12–15</ref>

In the title Hóng lóu Mèng (Template:Lang, literally "Red Chamber Dream"), "red chamber" can refer to the sheltered chambers where the daughters of a prominent family reside.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> It also refers to Baoyu's dream in Chapter five, set in a "red chamber", a dream where the fates of many of the characters are foreshadowed. "Mansion" is one of the definitions of the Chinese character "Template:Lang" (lóu), but the scholar Zhou Ruchang writes that in the phrase hónglóu it is more accurately translated as "chamber".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The novel's mythological elements were also inspired by the services Cao was involved in at the Dongyue Temple.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref> The temple's most venerated gods came from Daoism, Chinese Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism and shamanic traditions from various regions within and outside of China, and the book's spiritual themes, prose stylization, and portrayals of mythical figures were inspired by the traditional stories told about these deities and other oral temple traditions from Beijing.<ref name=":0" /> Much of this folklore was already popular during the Yuan dynasty and was retold in various ways in Cao's era in the Qing dynasty.<ref name=":0" />

Feminist interpretations

Dream of the Red Chamber played a significant role in assisting modern researchers in studying the gender issues of feudal Chinese society. The metaphor of gender is mainly reflected in the portrayal of characters and the construction of the environment. Regarding the setting of the environment, some critics interpret that the novel constructs two symbolic gendered spaces: one is the "Prospect Garden", which is related to women and matriarchy; the other is the patriarchal world dominated by men.<ref>Template:Cite thesis</ref>

Cao Xueqin's portrayal of female characters broke through the mainstream norms of the patriarchal society in the Qing dynasty, emphasizing their spiritual qualities and independent personalities. For instance, the detailed depiction of Lin Daiyu's emotions and the description of Wang Xifeng's bold and capable nature both reflect the concern for the multifaceted nature of women. Even Jia Baoyu expressed in the text the view that "the essence of human nature is concentrated in women, while men are merely the dross",<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and this stance can be regarded as a direct challenge to the gender paradigm in the social environment of that time. As some scholars have summarized, Dream of the Red Chamber can be regarded as an early case of proposing gender equality in the context of its era.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> By presenting characters with both "feminine" and "masculine" traits, it demonstrates the equal status of men and women in terms of spirit and emotion.

In the study of Dream of the Red Chamber, "gender inversion" is a significant literary phenomenon. It differs from the medical concept of "Gender dysphoria", as it does not refer to a complete change of gender. Instead, it pertains to characters breaking through the traditional social expectations of gender in certain aspects. For instance, male characters might exhibit traits more typically associated with females in their behavior, personality, or appearance, while female characters might display characteristics more commonly found in males. Such depictions reflect the contradiction between the strict gender norms of feudal society and the individual's true nature, as well as the author's unique perspective on aesthetic ideals and gender culture.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The literary talent, especially in poetry, is depicted as a disruptive gender reversal in Dream of the Red Chamber. Traditional society often emphasizes the notion that "a woman without talent is virtuous", but in Cao Xueqin's works, the poetic talents are almost exclusively concentrated among the female characters. The women in the Jiaoguan Garden, through poetry associations, not only demonstrated talents surpassing those of men, but also used writing as a way to confirm their self-worth and dignity. In contrast, the protagonist of the novel, Jia Baoyu, was only "barely qualified". Scholars such as Angelina Yee pointed out that this reversal made the creativity of women the source of subjectivity and was consolidated through the form of a literary community.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> At the same time, the novel symbolically equates "women's tears" with "the author's ink", suggesting that Cao Xueqin himself completed the process of self-expression and self-redemption through writing.

Jia Baoyu embodies the tension between masculinity and femininity. His character has been described as an example of where male characters in the text are endowed with some traditional female traits, creating a literary form of gender duality. This implies the negotiation between Confucian prescriptions of rigid gender norms and alternative Daoist yin–yang models of balance, which are mutually dependent and interpenetrate each other, providing a philosophical foundation for the ambiguity and transformation of gender. Baoyu frequently demonstrates behaviors coded as not traditionally masculine, such as his knowledge of cosmetics, his willingness to do domestic chores, and even eating rouge. Some scholars state that female companions reprimand him for these eccentricities, symbolizing what call "a symbolic explosion of gender boundaries",<ref>Template:Cite thesis</ref> while others resist seeing Baoyu's traits as 'gender crossing' and instead emphasize cultural or aesthetic symbolism. Many Western scholars have also researched the ambiguity of Baoyu. Edwards compared this contradiction with the Western feminist theory of the French language, particularly the "metaphorical duality" concept proposed by Cixous and Kristeva, which suggests that the subject should simultaneously incorporate the traits of both men and women to break through the binary framework of patriarchy.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In this contrast, Baoyu not only embodies the fluidity of yin and yang complementarity but is also suppressed by the Confucian system as an "uncompleted man", thus forming an ambiguous and complex gender identity.

In contrast, Wang Xifeng represents another mode of gender crossing, who is described as unusually forceful for a woman, often compared to men in her decisiveness and ambition. Scholars argue that Xifeng perceived appropriate gender distinctions by simultaneously subverting and supporting the Confucian order. Critics have also associated her with social disorder, as "gender confusion is symbolic of larger disorder: it is the blurring of distinctions that make social order possible".Template:Sfn Her portrayal has been interpreted as reflecting anxieties about women who step outside traditional roles, which reveal tensions in Qing society about the limits of female authority. Therefore, Xifeng's strength and agency challenge male-dominated hierarchies, complicating her role in the book as merely a disruptive figure.

The representation of gender in Dream of the Red Chamber shows the contradictions of Qing society's gender norms. As Ma mentioned, the topic of gender in Dream of the Red Chamber reflects the historical context during the Qing dynasty.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The blending of male and female genders in the novel undoubtedly represents the support of women's rights within the feudal society, as well as the vanguard role in advocating for women's rights amidst the restrictions on freedom of speech. It also inspires contemporary society to advocate for women's rights, which have promoted gender equality and encouraged women to shape their own destinies through strength and determination.

Reception and influence in modern era

File:Dream of the red chamber - Youzheng version.png
The cover of a 1912 printed edition of the Youzheng version

In the late 19th century, Hong Lou MengTemplate:'s influence was so pervasive that the reformer Liang Qichao attacked it along with another classic novel, Water Margin, as "incitement to robbery and lust", and for smothering the introduction of Western style novels, which he regarded as more socially responsible.<ref>Leo Ou-fan Lee, "Literary Trends I: The Quest for Modernity, 1895–1927," in John K. Fairbank, ed., Cambridge History of China Vol. 12 Republican China 1912–1949 Pt I (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983): 455.</ref> The eminent scholar Wang Guowei, however, achieved a new method of literary interpretation in an innovative and path-breaking 1904 essay which invoked the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer. Wang called the novel "the tragedy of tragedies", in contrast to the prosperous endings in most earlier drama and fiction.Template:Sfnp Wang further proclaims the novel as "worthy of being considered as the one great masterpiece in the realm of Chinese art."<ref>Wang Guowei, as quoted in Lin Yutang's appreciation of "The Red Chamber Dream", Renditions (Spring 1974), p. 23</ref>

In the early 20th century, although the New Culture Movement took a critical view of the Confucian classics, the scholar Hu Shih used the tools of textual criticism to put the novel in an entirely different light, as a foundation for national culture. Hu and his students, Gu Jiegang and Yu Pingbo, first established that Cao Xueqin was the work's author. Taking the question of authorship seriously reflected a new respect for fiction, since the lesser forms of literature had not been traditionally ascribed to particular individuals.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Hu next built on Cai Yuanpei's investigations of the printing history of the early editions to prepare reliable reading texts. The final, and in some respects most important task, was to study the vocabulary and usage of Cao's Beijing dialect as a basis for Modern Mandarin.

In the 1920s, scholars and devoted readers developed Hongxue, or Redology into both a scholarly field and a popular avocation. Among the avid readers was the young Mao Zedong, who later claimed to have read the novel five times and praised it as one of China's greatest works of literature.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The influence of the novel's themes and style are evident in many modern Chinese prose works. The early 1950s was a rich period for Redology with publication of major studies by Yu Pingbo. Zhou Ruchang, who as a young scholar had come to the attention of Hu Shih in the late 1940s, published his first study in 1953, which became a best seller.<ref name="books.google.com">Editor's Preface, Ruchang Zhou, Between Noble and Humble: Cao Xueqin and the Dream of the Red Chamber (New York: Peter Lang, 2009), xiv.</ref> But in 1954 Mao personally criticized Yu Pingbo for his "bourgeois idealism" in failing to emphasize that the novel exposed the decadence of "feudal" society and the theme of class struggle. In the Hundred Flowers Campaign, Yu came under heavy criticism but the attacks were so extensive and full of quotations from his work that they spread Yu's ideas to many people who would not otherwise have known of their existence.<ref>Joey Bonner, "Yü P'ing-Po and the Literary Dimension of the Controversy over Hung Lou Meng," The China Quarterly 67 (1976): 546–581 Template:Doi; Merle Goldman, Literary Dissent in Communist China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967).</ref>

During the Cultural Revolution, the novel initially came under fire, though it quickly regained its prestige in the following years. Zhou Ruchang resumed his lifework, eventually publishing more than sixty biographical and critical studies.<ref name="books.google.com"/> In 2006, Zhou, who had long distrusted Gao E's editions, and the novelist Liu Xinwu, author of popular studies of the novel, joined to produce a new 80 chapter version which Zhou had edited to eliminate the Cheng-Gao emendations. Liu completed an ending that was supposedly more true to Cao's original intent.<ref>Conspiracy of the Red Mansions. Danwei (6 December 2006).</ref> The novel continues to be influential on contemporary Chinese poets such as Middle Generation's An Qi, who paid homage to it in her poem To Cao Xueqin.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>

Translations and reception in the West

Template:Rquote Cao utilizes many levels of colloquial and literary language and incorporates forms of classic poetry that are integral to the novel, making it a major challenge to translate.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> A 2014 study of fourteen translations of the novel concluded that the work is a "challenge even to the most resourceful of translators, and the process of rendering it into another language is bound to involve more translation problems, techniques, and principles than the process of rendering any other literary work." Accordingly, the aims and achievements of the translators differ widely.Template:Sfnb

The first recorded translation into English was in 1812 by the Protestant missionary and sinologist Robert Morrison (1782–1834), who translated part of Chapter 4 for the second volume of his unpublished 1812 book Horae Sinicae. In 1816, Morrison did publish a translation of a conversation from Chapter 31 in his Chinese language textbook Dialogues and Detached Sentences in the Chinese Language. In 1819, the British diplomat and sinologist John Francis Davis (1795–1890) published a short excerpt in the London Journal Quarterly Review. Davis also published a poem from Chapter 3 in the 1830 Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society.<ref>Gray, Ronald "The Stone's Curious Voyage to the West: A Brisk Overview of Honglou Meng's English Translation History and English Hongxue." Journal of Sino-Western Communication 3.2 (December, 2011).</ref> In 1842, Karl Gützlaff's article, "Hung Lau Mung, or Dreams in the Red Chamber", in the sixth volume of the "Chinese Repository", included translation and criticism of some passages.

A literal translation of selected passages was published for foreigners learning Chinese by the Presbyterian Mission Press of Ningbo in 1846.<ref>Robert Thom, The Chinese Speaker; or, Extracts from Works Written in the Mandarin Language, as Spoken at Peking (Ningpo: Presbyterian mission Press, 1846).</ref> Edward Charles Bowra of the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs published a translation of the first eight chapters in 1868<ref>E. C. Bowra The China Magazine (Hong Kong: Noronha & Sons, 1868–1870) University of Virginia Chinese Text Initiative (This etext contains only the Preface and Chapter 1) Template:Cite web</ref> and H. Bencraft Joly of the first fifty-six chapters in 1892.<ref>The Dream of the Red Chamber or (Hung Lou Meng) (Hong Kong: Kelly & Walsh) 1891, 1892. Hung Lou Meng, from the Project Gutenberg, Hong Kong: Kelly & Walsh, 1892–1893, paper published edition is also available. Wildside Press, Template:ISBN; and Hard Press, 3 November 2006, Template:ISBN. Text of the 1892–1893 English translation at University of Adelaide; rpr. with a new foreword by John Minford (1982-1986), Tokyo; North Clarendon, Vt.: 2010 Template:ISBN.</ref> Alfred Lister in an 1873 review, wrote that the novel is "a work of art ... yet at a great disadvantage on account of its bulk. Its tremendous length, no less than twenty volumes; the vast number of persons involved in the story; and the complicatedly mysterious character of the introductory chapters, make it a book which perhaps the most heroic efforts of enthusiastic scholars will never succeed in introducing to the world of Western letters."<ref>Alfred Lister, "An Hour with a Chinese Romance", in The China Review, Vol. I, No. 5 (1873 Apr), p. 287.</ref> The Reverend E.J. Eitel reviewed Joly's translation and condemned the novel, saying that Chinese read it "because of its wickedness." Herbert Giles, whom John Minford called "one of the more free-thinking British consular officers," took a more favorable view in a twenty-five page synopsis in 1885 that Minford calls still a "useful guide."<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Giles further highlighted it in his A History of Chinese Literature in 1901.<ref>Herbert Allen Giles, The Hung Lou Meng 红楼梦 : Commonly Called the Dream of the Red Chamber Monograph ([S.l.]: Read 16th of April, 1885); A History of Chinese Literature pp. 355-384</ref>

In 1928, Elfrida Hudson published a short introduction to the novel titled "An old, old story".<ref>The China Journal of Science and Art VII.1 (January 1928): 7- 15</ref> An abridged translation by Wang Chi-Chen which emphasized the central love story was published in 1929, with a preface by Arthur Waley. Waley said that "we feel most clearly the symbolic or universal value" of the characters in the passages which recount dreams. "Pao Yu", Waley continued, stands for "imagination and poetry" and his father for "all those sordid powers of pedantry and restriction which hamper the artist".<ref>Dream of the Red Chamber (Wang Chi-Chen), (New York: Doubleday; London: Routledge, 1929) enlarged version (New York: Twayne: 1958 Template:ISBN).</ref> In a 1930 review of Wang's translation, Harry Clemons of The Virginia Quarterly Review wrote "This is a great novel", and along with the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, it "ranks foremost" among the novels of classic Chinese literature.<ref name=Clemons/> Although Clemons felt "meaning was only fragmentarily revealed" in the English translated prose and that "many of the incidents" and "much of the poetry" were omitted, he nevertheless thought "at any rate the effort to read The Dream of the Red Chamber is eminently worth making."<ref name=Clemons>Template:Cite journal</ref> In 1958 Wang published an expansion on his earlier abridgement, though it was still truncated at 60 chapters.

The stream of translations and literary studies in the West grew steadily, building on Chinese language scholarship. The 1932 German translation by Franz Kuhn<ref>Der Traum Der Roten Kammer (Leipzig: Insel-verlag, 1932).</ref> was the basis of an abridged version, The Dream of the Red Chamber, by Florence and Isabel McHugh published in 1958,<ref>(New York: Pantheon: 1958, Template:ISBN). Available at Open Library (link).</ref> and a later French version. Critic Anthony West wrote in The New Yorker in 1958 that the novel is to the Chinese "very much what The Brothers Karamazov is to Russian and Remembrance of Things Past is to French literature" and "it is beyond question one of the great novels of all literature."<ref name=newyorkerwest>Template:Cite magazine</ref> Kenneth Rexroth in a 1958 review of the McHugh translation, describes the novel as among the "greatest works of prose fiction in all the history of literature", for it is "profoundly humane".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Bramwell Seaton Bonsall finished what is probably the first complete 120 chapter translation in the 1950s, Red Chamber Dream, but publication was abandoned when Penguin announced the Hawkes project. A typescript is available on the web.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The respected and prolific Yang Hsien-yi was commissioned to translate the first complete English version. Though he confessed that this was his least favorite of the classic novels, Yang began work in 1961 and had finished roughly 100 chapters in 1964, when he was ordered to stop. He and his wife, Gladys Yang, were imprisoned on suspicion of espionage during the Cultural Revolution, but they finished the translation as a team after their release in 1974. It was published by Beijing Foreign Language Press as A Dream of Red Mansions, in three volumes, 1978–1980.Template:Sfnb The second complete English translation to be published was by David Hawkes some century and a half after the first English translation. Hawkes was already a recognised redologist and had previously translated Chu Ci when Penguin Classics approached him in 1970 to make a translation which could appeal to English readers. After resigning from his professorial position, Hawkes published the first eighty chapters in three volumes (1973, 1977, 1980).<ref name="obit">Template:Cite web</ref> The Story of the Stone (1973–1980), the first eighty chapters translated by Hawkes and last forty by his son-in-law John Minford consists of five volumes and 2,339 pages of actual core text (not including Prefaces, Introductions and Appendices) and over 2,800 pages in total.<ref>(Penguin Classics and Bloomington: Indiana University Press, five volumes, 1973–1980. Template:ISBN, Template:ISBN, Template:ISBN; Template:ISBN, Template:ISBN).</ref> The word count of the Penguin Classics English translation is estimated at 845,000 words. In a 1980 review of the Hawkes and Minford translation in The New York Review of Books, Frederic Wakeman, Jr. described the novel as a "masterpiece" and the work of a "literary genius".<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> Cynthia L. Chennault of the University of Florida stated that "The Dream is acclaimed as one of the most psychologically penetrating novels of world literature."<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The novel and its author have been described as among the most significant works of literature and literary figures of the past millennium.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The sinologist Oldřich Král also undertook a Czech translation of the entire novel, Sen v červeném domě (Prague: Odeon, three volumes, 1986–1988). Slovak sinologist and philosopher Marina Čarnogurská translated into Slovak whole four volumes of the novel, Sen o Červenom pavilóne (Bratislava: Petrus, 2001–2003. Template:ISBN).

In 2014, an abridged English translation by writer Lin Yutang, about half the length of the original, was discovered in a Japanese library. Long believed nonexistent, Lin’s translation was not a literal rendering. He adopted an adaptive approach, incorporating interpretive explanations within the prose and using few footnotes. In June 1973, Lin printed six copies of the manuscript and sent them to publishers in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Italy, among others, seeking publication. His efforts failed amid the Fourth Arab–Israeli War, which triggered the oil crisis and a worldwide paper shortage. The contacted publishers declined, citing the shortage, the manuscript’s length, and the existence of three earlier English versions. In November that year, Lin sent one copy to Japanese translator Ryoichi Sato, hoping to arrange a publication in Japan based on his English version. A few months later, Lin mailed Sato a revised manuscript that omitted Chapters 42–64 and the epilogue. In early 1988, Sato and his wife donated the revised manuscript, along with most of their Lin-related materials, to the Lin Yutang House in Taipei, but the revised manuscript was subsequently lost. Sato later published a four-volume Japanese edition in 1983 credited as “Edited by Lin Yutang, Translated by Ryoichi Sato,” followed by a single-volume edition in 1992. He eventually donated his collection, including Lin’s English manuscript, to the Hachinohe City Library in Aomori Prefecture, where it was rediscovered in 2015 by Song Dan, a Nankai University PhD candidate researching Japanese translations of Dream of the Red Chamber while on exchange at Waseda University. Lin’s estate, which holds the copyright, declined publication of his English translation despite considerable interest from multiple publishers, stating that the version kept in Japan was not Lin’s final draft and that its publication might misrepresent his work.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In a study of fourteen translations into English, German, French, Spanish, Laurence K. P. Wong finds that some challenges to translation are "surmountable", some "insurmountable," though translators sometimes hit on "surprisingly happy versions that come very close to the original," Hawkes, however, normally came up with versions that are "accurate, ingenious, and delightful". Hawkes recreates the meanings and sounds of the original with "remarkable precision, achieving much greater success than any one of his fellow translators in surmounting the limits of literary translation".Template:Sfnb Another scholar agreed that the Yang's translation is "literal" in the sense of rendering word for word, but argued that the Hawkes translation achieved what should be called a "higher level of literalness: in the sense of "text for text." That is, Hawkes tries to maintain the range and contrasting levels of usage of the original while the Yangs smooth out the language with a "plain international English" and add explanations in footnotes.Template:Sfnb

Other scholars examined particular aspects of the Yangs' translation and the Hawkes and Minford translation. The names of some characters sound like the words for their personality traits, and some names serve as allusions. Hawkes conveys the communicative function of the names rather than lexical equivalence; for example, Huo Qi is homonymous with "the beginning of catastrophe", and Hawkes makes the English name "Calamity". Hawkes sometimes uses Italian/Sanskrit terms when Western Christian culture lacks a term for a concept.<ref name=ZhuJian-chun>Template:Cite journal</ref> Gladys Yang and Yang Hsien-yi prefer literal translation, informing readers of names' meanings through annotations. Zhu Jian-chun argued that Hawkes' choice to simply translate certain names that are puns makes the author's intentions clearer, and that the Yangs' choice of transliteration leaves the meaning more elusive, even if the transliterated names are more believable as character names. Zhu questioned the Yangs' translation of "Dao Ren" as "reverend".<ref name="ZhuJian-chun" /> According to Barry Lee Reynolds and Chao-Chih Liao, the Yangs' version contains more faithful translations of religious expressions but is also less readable to English language readers.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Xuxiang Suo argued, "Hawkes successfully conveyed the original textual information to foreign readers with smooth and beautiful English, but the loss of Chinese culture-loaded information is inevitable. Mr. Yang mostly adopted the way of literal translation, trying his best to keep the true and idiomatic Chinese style and national tint."<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Sequels and continuations

Owing to its immense popularity, numerous sequels and continuations to the novel have been published, even during the Qing era. There are currently more than thirty recorded sequels or continuations to the novel, including modern ones.<ref>《明清小说研究概论》 by 党月异、张廷兴 (中央编译出版社, 2015), Template:ISBN, lists 15 alone printed during the Qing dynasty and 17 during the Republican era (1912–1949).</ref> Modern (post-1949) continuations tend to follow after the eightieth chapter, and include those by Zhang Zhi,<ref>张之, 《红楼梦新补》, 1984.</ref> Zhou Yuqing,<ref>周玉清, 《红楼梦新续》, 1990.</ref> Hu Nan<ref>胡楠, 《梦续红楼》, 2007.</ref> and Liu Xinwu.<ref>《刘心武续红楼梦》, 2011.</ref>

Adaptations

File:Daiyu Burying Flowers 1924.jpg
The earliest recorded adaptation of the novel, starring Peking opera artist Mei Lanfang as Lin Daiyu

At least fourteen cinematic adaptations of the Dream of the Red Chamber have been made, including a short film in 1924 starring Mei Lanfang,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite AV media</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> a lost 1927 version by Ren Pengnian and Yu Boyan,<ref>Template:Cite AV media</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> the 1944 film directed by Bu Wancang, the 1977 Shaw Brothers adaptation starring Sylvia Chang and Brigitte Lin, and the 1988 film directed by Xie Tieli (Template:Lang) and Zhao Yuan (Template:Lang). This last film took two years to prepare and three years to shoot, and remains, at 735 minutes, the longest Chinese film ever made.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>

In 1981, Jiangsu Song and Dance Ensemble premiered a dance drama version of Dream of the Red Chamber. A reworked version was performed in 1982 in Beijing by China Opera and Dance Drama Theatre featuring lead dancer Chen Ailian.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

At least ten television adaptations have been produced (excluding numerous Chinese opera adaptations), and they include the renowned 1987 television series, which is regarded by many within China as being a near-definitive adaptation of the novel. It was initially somewhat controversial as few Redologists believed a television adaptation could do the novel full justice. Producer and director Wang Fulin's decision in employing non-professional young actors was vindicated as the television series gained enormous popularity in China. The series' success owes much to composer Wang Liping (Template:Lang). He set many of the novel's classical verses to music, taking as long as four years to deliberate and complete his compositions. Other television versions include a 1996 Taiwanese series and a 2010 version directed by Fifth Generation director Li Shaohong.

File:红楼梦212857.jpg
A scene from Dream of the Red Chamber as depicted in Chinese opera

Unlike the other great Chinese novels, particularly Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Journey to the West, the Dream of the Red Chamber has received little attention in the gaming world, with only two Chinese language visual novels having been released as of 2017. Hong Lou Meng and Hong Lou Meng: Lin Daiyu yu Bei Jingwang (Template:Lang) were both released by Beijing Entertainment All Technology (Template:Lang). The latter one was released on 8 January 2010, and it is an extended version of the first game, with the main heroines of the game fully voiced and additional CG+endings.

An English-language opera based on the novel in two acts was composed by Chinese American composer Bright Sheng, with libretto by Sheng and David Henry Hwang. The three-hour opera had its world premiere on 10 September 2016, by the San Francisco Opera. For their 2020 album, Transience of Life, the American art-rock band Elysian Fields set several poems from the novel to music.

In the 2023 video game Limbus Company created by South Korean studio Project Moon, character Jia Baoyu, going by the alias Hong Lu, is based on Dream of the Red Chamber. He is one of the 12 playable Sinners in the game, and wields a guandao. His Canto's setting and the characters in it take many of the locations and character names from the novel.

See also

References

Citations

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Works cited and further reading

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