Jahangir
Template:Short description {{#invoke:other uses|otheruses}} Template:Use dmy dates Template:Use Indian English Template:Infobox royalty
Nur al-Din Muhammad SalimTemplate:Efn (Template:Langx Template:IPA) (31 August 1569 – 28 October 1627), known by his royal name Jahangir (Template:Langx, Template:IPA), Template:Efn was the fourth emperor of the Mughal Empire, reigning from 1605 until his death in 1627.
The third and only surviving son of Emperor Akbar I (Template:Reign) and his consort Maryam uz-Zamani, Jahangir received comprehensive education, covering diverse subjects such as the Chagatai, Persian and Hindustani languages, military tactics, as well as social sciences. In 1594, at the age of 26, Jahangir successfully led an army to crush the revolt of the Bundela in Orchha and, upon the surrender of their leader Vir Singh Deo, transformed the State of Orchha into a vassal state. As such, the Jahangir Mahal was later constructed in Orchha by Deo in honor of Jahangir. Following Akbar's death, Jahangir succeeded him on 3 November 1605.
Jahangir's reign was marked by a combination of artistic achievement and political intrigue, set against the backdrop of the Mughal Empire's considerable expansion and consolidation. Jahangir's rule is distinguished by his commitment to justice and his interest in the arts, particularly painting and architecture, which flourished during his reign. Jahangir's reign was characterized by a complex relationship with his nobility and family, notably reflected in his marriage to Mehar-un-Nisa (later known as Empress Nur Jahan), who wielded significant political influence behind the throne. This period saw the empire's further entrenchment into the Indian subcontinent, including efforts to subdue the Rajput Kingdoms and extend Mughal authority into the Deccan. Jahangir's foreign policy included interactions with the Safavids of Persia and the Ottoman Empire, as well as with the English East India Company, marking the beginning of European influence in Indian politics and commerce.
Despite his achievements, Jahangir's reign had challenges, including revolts led by his sons, which threatened the stability of his rule. His poor health, caused by a lifetime of opium and alcohol use, led to his death in 1627, precipitating a brief succession crisis before the throne passed to his son, Shah Jahan. Jahangir's legacy lives on through his contributions to Mughal art and architecture, his memoirs, and the policies he implemented, which continued to influence the empire after his demise.
Early life
Prince Nur al-Din Muhammad Salim<ref name="Singh14">Template:Cite book</ref> was the third son born to Akbar and Mariam-uz-Zamani in the capital city of Fatehpur Sikri on 31 August 1569.<ref name="tuzk-e-jahangiri">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="britannica.com">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="farishta">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Henry Beveridge, Akbarnama of Abu'l Fazl Volume II (1907), p. 503</ref> He had two full elder twin brothers, Hassan Mirza and Hussain Mirza, born in 1564, both of whom died in infancy.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Grief-struck, Akbar and Mariam-uz-Zamani, sought the blessings of Salim Chishti, a reputed khawaja (religious leader) who lived at Fatehpur Sikri.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Akbar confided in Salim Chisti, who assured him that he would be soon delivered of three sons who would live up to a ripe old age. His parents, Akbar and Mariam Zamani, in hope of having a son born to them even made a pilgrimage to Ajmer Sharif Dargah, barefoot, to pray for a son.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Harvnb: "Jahangir opened his memoirs with a tribute to the Sufi, calling him 'the fountainhead of most of the saints of India', and in late 1608 he recalled his father's pilgrimage with Mariam-uz-Zamani to Khawaja Moinuddin Chisti's shrine in hopes of sons by making his own pilgrimage to Akbar's tomb in Sikandra."</ref>
When Akbar was informed that his chief wife was expecting a child again, an order was passed for the establishment of a royal palace in Fatehpur Sikri (today known as Rang Mahal) near the lodgings of Salim Chishti, where the Empress could enjoy the repose in the vicinity of the saint. Mariam Zamani was shifted to the palace established there and during her pregnancy, Akbar himself used to travel to Sikri and used to spend half of his time in Sikri and another half in Agra.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
During the time of Mariam-uz-Zamani’s pregnancy with Salim, says Jahangir in his memoirs, the baby stopped kicking in the womb abruptly. When the matter was reported to Akbar, who was engaged in hunt of cheetahs at that time, vowed that if the baby resumes kicking, he would never hunt cheetahs on Fridays throughout his life and Jahangir further notes, that Akbar kept his vow throughout his life. Jahangir, too, in reverence for his father's vow, never hunted cheetahs on Friday.Template:Sfn On 31 August 1569, Mariam Zamani gave birth to Salim, and he was named after Hazrat Salim Chishti, in acknowledgement of his father's faith in the efficacy of the holy man's prayer. Akbar, overjoyed with the news of his heir-apparent, ordered a great feast and festivities which were held up to seven days and ordered the release of criminals with great offence. Throughout the empire, largesses were bestowed over common people, and he set himself ready to visit Sikri immediately. However, he was advised by his courtiers to delay his visit to Sikri on account of the astrological belief in Hindustan of a father not seeing the face of his long-awaited son immediately after his birth. He, therefore, delayed his visit and visited Sikri to meet his new born son and wife after forty-one days after his birth.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Jahangir's foster mother was the daughter of Salim Chishti, and his foster brother was Qutubuddin Koka, the grandson of Chishti.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":3">Template:Cite book</ref>
Jahangir began his education at the age of five. On this occasion, a big feast was thrown by the Emperor to ceremonially initiate his son into education. His first tutor was Qutubuddin Koka. Many other tutors were appointed to teach Persian, Arabic, Turkish, Hindi, Arithmetic, History, Geography, and Sciences. Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, one of the versatile geniuses, was an important tutor of him.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> His maternal uncle, Bhagwant Das the Kachhwaha ruler of Amer, was supposedly one of his tutors on the subject of warfare tactics.Template:Citation needed During this time, Jahangir grew up fluent in Persian and Hindustani, with a "respectable" knowledge of Persianised courtly Chaghatai ("Turki"), the Mughal ancestral language.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In 1594, Jahangir was dispatched by his father, Akbar, alongside Asaf Khan also known as Mirza Jafar Beg and Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak to defeat the renegade Raja Vir Singh Deo Bundela and to capture the city of Orchha which was considered the centre of the revolt. Jahangir arrived with a force of 12,000 after many ferocious encounters and finally subdued the Bundela and ordered Vir Singh Deo to surrender. After tremendous casualties and the start of negotiations between the two, Vir Singh Deo handed over 5000 Bundela infantry and 1000 cavalry and submitted to the command of Jahangir along with taking up imperial services at the court later. The victorious Jahangir, at 26 years of age, ordered the completion of the Jahangir Mahal a famous Mughal citadel in Orchha to commemorate and honour his victory.Template:Citation needed From the very beginning of Jahangir's reign as emperor, he witnessed the internal rivalry of the Bundela chiefs for control.<ref name="THE BUNDELA REVOLTS DURING THE MUGHAL PERIOD: A DYNASTIC AFFAIR; Amir Ahmad">Template:Cite journal</ref> Jahangir appointed his favourite Vir Singh, as the ruler of Orchha by removing his elder brother Raja Ram Shah.<ref name="THE BUNDELA REVOLTS DURING THE MUGHAL PERIOD: A DYNASTIC AFFAIR; Amir Ahmad" /> This greatly hampered the interest of Ram Shah's house.<ref name="THE BUNDELA REVOLTS DURING THE MUGHAL PERIOD: A DYNASTIC AFFAIR; Amir Ahmad" /> Thus, Ram Shah along with his family members Bharat Shah, Indrajit, Rao Bhupal, Angad, Prema, and Devi (the wife of the deposed king) raised their arms in rebellion.<ref name="THE BUNDELA REVOLTS DURING THE MUGHAL PERIOD: A DYNASTIC AFFAIR; Amir Ahmad" /> However, Ram Shah was defeated by his brother Vir Singh with the help of imperial army under Abdullah Khan.<ref name="THE BUNDELA REVOLTS DURING THE MUGHAL PERIOD: A DYNASTIC AFFAIR; Amir Ahmad" /> Then the deposed Bundela chief escaped and continued to fight the Mughals for two years until he was finally arrested in 1607 and put in prison at Gwalior only later to be given the territory of Chanderi as his patrimony.
Family
The ancestral lineage of Jahangir were traced from the House of Babur
Consorts
Jahangir’s first wife was Manbhawati Bai,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> the daughter of Raja Bhagwant Das of Amber, who was serving as the governor of Punjab at the time. Their wedding took place on 13 February 1585 and included both Hindu and Muslim ceremonies.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The marriage brought significant dowry to Emperor Akbar. She was admired for her beauty, loyalty, and deep affection for Jahangir, which earned her a special place in his heart.Template:Sfn After giving birth to their first son, Khusrau, she was honored with the title Shah Begam.Template:Sfn She died on 5 May 1605.Template:Sfn
His second wife was Jagat Gosain, the daughter of Raja Udai Singh (also known as Mota Raja) of Jodhpur and Rani Manrang De of Gwalior. Their marriage took place on 11 January 1586 at Mota Raja's palace. Salim is believed to have fallen for Jagat Gosain during a social gathering attended with his mother. Despite initial hesitation from his parents, the match was approved by Hamida Banu. Her dowry was set at seventy-five lakh tankas.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn She was the mother of Emperor Shah Jahan. She died on 9 April 1619 and was given the posthumous title of Bilqis Makani.Template:Sfn
His third wife was a princess from Bikaner, the sixteen year old daughter of Raja Rai Singh. They were married on 28 May 1586 in Fatehpur Sikri, with a dowry of 250,000 rupees.Template:Sfn Around the same time, he also married the daughter of Gakhar chief, Said Khan Gakhar and granddaughter of Sarang Khan Gakhar as his fourth wife.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn His fifth wife was Sahib Jamal. She was the daughter of Khawaja Hassan and the cousin of Zain Khan Koka.Template:Sfn The marriage took place in 1586.<ref name=Findly>Template:Harvnb</ref> She died on 25 June 1599.Template:Sfn Another wife was the daughter of Rawal Bhim Singh of Jaisalmer, whom Jahangir married in 1587. She was given the title Malika Jahan.Template:Sfn Another wife was the daughter of Darya Malbhas.Template:Sfn
Another wife was the daughter of Mirza Sanjar, and the granddaughter of Khizr Khan Hazara. They married on 18 October 1589.Template:Sfn Another wife was Karamsi Bai,Template:Sfn daughter of Raja Keshav Das Rathor of Jhabua.Template:Sfn Another wife was the daughter of Abdal Chak and sister of Abiya Chak of Kashmir.Template:Sfn Another wife was the daughter of Ali Rai, the ruler of Little Tibet. The marriage took place on 1 January 1592.Template:Sfn This marriage had a political motive—Tibet's chief offered his daughter to Jahangir to prevent an invasion by Akbar.Template:Sfn
Another wife was Nur-un-Nissa Begum. She was the daughter of Ibrahim Hussain Mirza and Gulrukh Begum, the daughter of Kamran Mirza.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In spring of 1591, Gulrukh Begum petitioned a request of her daughter's marriage with Jahangir. Akbar agreeded to her request, and this led to their betrothal. The marriage took place on the eve of 26 February 1592 at the house of Hamida Banu Begum.Template:Sfn Another wife was the daughter of Mubarak Khan, son of Hussain Chak of Kashmir. The marriage took place on 3 November 1592.Template:Sfn
Another wife was the daughter of Raja Ali Khan, ruler of Khandesh. Her father had sent her to be married to Jahangir in 1593.Template:Sfn The marriage took place on 10 September 1594.Template:Sfn She died on 20 October 1596.Template:Sfn Another wife was the daughter of Abdullah Khan Baluch.Template:Sfn Another wife was Khas Mahal, the daughter of Zain Khan Koka.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The marriage took place on the eve of 18 June 1596 at the house of Hamida Banu Begum.Template:Sfn Another wife was the daughter of Khawaja Dost Muhammad Kabuli known as Khawaja Jahan.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In 1605, two of his concubines gave birth to two of his sons, Jahandar Mirza and Shahryar Mirza.Template:Sfn
Another wife was Saliha Banu Begum. She was the daughter of Qaim Khan.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The marriage took place in 1608.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> She died on 10 June 1620.Template:Sfn On 8 June 1608,Template:Sfn he married the daughter of Jagat Singh, the eldest son of Raja Man Singh of Amber. Jahangir personally arranged this marriage, gifting Jagat Singh 80,000 rupees and sending a rare European tapestry from the port of Cambay. The wedding took place at the residence of Mariam Zamani. As part of the dowry, Man Singh gave sixty elephants.Template:Sfn On 11 January 1610,Template:Sfn he married the daughter of Ram Chand Bundela.Template:Sfn At some point, he also married the daughter of Mirza Muhammad Hakim son of Emperor Humayun.<ref name="Q" /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
His last wife was Mihr-un-Nissa Begum (better known by her subsequent title of Nur Jahan). The marriage took place on 25 May 1611. She was the widow of a high-ranking Persian nobleman Sher Afgan. Mihr-un-Nissa became his utmost favorite wife after their marriage and was the last of his chief consorts. She was witty, intelligent, and beautiful, which attracted Jahangir to her. Before being awarded the title of Nur Jahan ('Light of the World'), she was called Nur Mahal ('Light of the Palace'). After the death of Saliha Banu Begum in 1620, she was designated the title of Padshah Begum and held it until the death of Jahangir in 1627. Her abilities are said to range from fashion and jewellery designing, perfumery, hunting to building architectural monuments and more.
Issue
| Name | Birth | Death | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| By Shah Begum (Template:Circa – 5 May 1605) | |||
| Sultan-un-Nissa Begum | 25 April 1586 | 5 September 1646 | First child of Jahangir. Remained unmarried. <ref>Template:Cite book</ref> |
| Khusrau Mirza | 16 August 1587 | 26 January 1622 | rebelled against Jahangir and was blinded and later killed on the orders of Shah Jahan. |
| By Jagat Gosain (13 May 1573 – 8 April 1619) | |||
| Begum Sultan Begum | 9 October 1590 | September 1591 | born on the same day as her half-sister, Bahar Banu. |
| Shah Jahan | 5 January 1592 | 22 January 1666 | succeeded Jahangir as the fifth Mughal Emperor. |
| Luzzat-un-Nissa Begum | 23 September 1597 | 1603 | Youngest daughter of Jahangir. <ref>Template:Cite book</ref> |
| By the daughter of Said Khan Gakhar | |||
| Iffat Banu Begum | 6 April 1589 | Infancy | <ref>Template:Cite book</ref> |
| By Sahib Jamal (unknown – 25 June 1599) | |||
| Parviz Mirza | 31 October 1589 | 28 October 1626 | married and had issues including, Nadira Banu Begum. |
| A daughter | 21 January 1591 | infancy | <ref>Template:Cite book</ref> |
| A daughter | 14 October 1594 | infancy | <ref>Template:Cite book</ref> |
| By the daughter of Raja Darya Malbhas | |||
| Daulat-un-Nissa Begum | 24 December 1589 | infancy | <ref>Template:Cite book</ref> |
| By Karamsi | |||
| Bahar Banu Begum | 9 October 1590 | 8 September 1653 | Favourite daughter. Born on the same day as her half-sister, Begum Sultan. <ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref> |
| By the daughter of Abdal Chak and sister of Abiya Chak | |||
| A daughter | 12 April 1592 | infancy | <ref>Template:Cite book</ref> |
| By Nur-un-Nissa Begum (Template:Circa – unknown) | |||
| A daughter | 28 August 1595 | infancy | <ref>Template:Cite book</ref> |
| By the daughter of Abdullah Khan Baluch | |||
| A daughter | January 1595 | infancy | <ref>Template:Cite book</ref> |
| By concubines (various) | |||
| Jahandar Mirza | circa 1605 | unknown | |
| Shahryar Mirza | circa 1605 | 23 January 1628 | Youngest child of Jahangir. |
Reign
According to jesuit missionary Pierre de Jarric, the orthodox scholar Ahmad Sirhindi sent letters to his disciple, Shaikh Farid Bukhari, a Mir Bakshi official who had been appointed as representative of the muslim orthodox faction of Mughal court, to support Jahangir to succeed his father. The orthodox faction extracted promise from Jahangir that he would support the cause of orthodox faction's cause if he succeeded.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Jahangir succeeded the throne on Thursday, 3 November 1605, eight days after his father's death.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Khusrau rebellion
After Jahangir's ascent to the Mughal throne, growing tensions would cause Khusrau to rebel in April 1606.Template:Sfn Soon after, Jahangir had to fend off his son Khusrau Mirza when he attempted to claim the throne based on Akbar's will.<ref name=HistoryAfghan /> He left Agra with 350 horsemen on 6 April 1606 under the pretext of visiting Akbar's tomb in nearby Sikandra.<ref>Majumdar, R.C. (ed.)(2007). The Mughal Empire, Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, p.179</ref> Khusrau laid siege on Lahore, defended by Dilawar Khan. Jahangir relieved the siege and defeated Khusrau at the battle of Bhairowal. He was captured by Jahangir's army while crossing the Chenab river, attempting to flee toward Kabul.<ref name="The Flight of Khusrau">"The Flight of Khusrau", The Tuzk-e-Jahangiri Or Memoirs Of Jahangir, Alexander Rogers, and Henry Beveridge. Royal Asiatic Society, 1909–1914. Vol. I, Chapter 3. p 51, 62–72., Volume 1, chapter 20</ref> Khusrau was then defeated with the support of the Barha and Bukhari sāda and confined in the fort of Agra.<ref name=HistoryAfghan>Template:Cite book</ref>
Jahangir was found to be more militarily capable, and he crushed the rebellion in a week. Jahangir had all the young aristocrat supporters of Khusrau tortured, impaled and made him watch them in agony as a warning.<ref name=":2" /> After rebelled and defeated again for the second time, Khusrau was then blinded and imprisoned until 1619. In 1620, Khusrau was sent on a mission to Deccan with his brother, Shah Jahan.Template:Sfn
Rule
From the time of his marriage with Mehr-un-Nissa, later known as Empress Nur Jahan, Jahangir left the reins of government in her hands and appointed her family and relatives to high positions. Nur Jahan had complete freedom of speech near Jahangir without any reprimand. On the contrary, she could nag and fight with him on the smallest issue. Thus, her unprecedented freedom of action to control the state caused the displeasure of both his courtiers and foreigners.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In 1608, Jahangir posted Islam Khan I to subdue the rebel Musa Khan, the Masnad-e-Ala<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> of the Baro-Bhuyan confederacy in Bengal,<ref name="bpedia">Template:Cite Banglapedia</ref> who was able to imprison him.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="sen2">Template:Cite book</ref>
In 1613, Jahangir issued a sanguinary order for the extirpation of the race of the Kolis who were notorious robbers and plunderers living in the most inaccessible parts of the province of Gujarat. A large number of the Koli chiefs were slaughtered and the rest hunted to their mountains and deserts. 169 heads of such Koli chiefs killed in battle by Nur-ul-llah Ibrahim, commander of 'Bollodo'.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In the same year later,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> the Portuguese seized the Mughal ship Rahimi, which had set out from Surat on its way with a large cargo of 100,000 rupees and Pilgrims, who were on their way to Mecca and Medina to attend the annual Hajj. The Rahimi was owned by Mariam-uz-Zamani, mother of Jahangir and Akbar's favourite consort.<ref name="farishta" /> She was bestowed the title of 'Mallika-e-Hindustan' (Queen of Hindustan) by Akbar and was subsequently referred to as same during Jahangir's reign. The Rahimi was the largest Indian ship sailing in the Red Sea and was known to the Europeans as the "great pilgrimage ship". When the Portuguese officially refused to return the ship and the passengers, the outcry at the Mughal court was unusually severe. The outrage was compounded by the fact that the owner and the patron of the ship was none other than the revered mother of the current emperor. Jahangir himself was outraged and ordered the seizure of the Portuguese town Daman. He ordered the apprehension of all Portuguese within the Mughal Empire; he further confiscated churches that belonged to the Jesuits. This episode is considered to be an example of the struggle for wealth that would later ensue and lead to colonisation of the Indian sub-continent. Jahangir then gathered his forces under the command of Ali Kuli Khan and fought Raja Lakshmi Narayan Bhup of the Kingdom of Koch Bihar in the far eastern province of Bengal. Raja Lakshmi Narayan then accepted the Mughals as his suzerains and was given the title Nazir, later establishing a garrison at Atharokotha. Jahangir was responsible for ending a century-long struggle with the Sisodia Rajput house of Mewar. The campaign against them was pushed so extensively that they were made to submit with great loss of life and property.Template:Citation needed
In 1614, The East India Company persuaded King James I to send a British ambassador to the Mughal court, Thomas Roe. Thomas Roe describes how petitioners could use the chain of justice to attract the emperor's attention if his decision was not to their satisfaction during Darshana. The Darshana tradition was adopted by the Mughal Emperors from Hindu religio-political rituals.<ref name="Jahangir chain of Justice">Template:Cite web</ref> As a royal envoy to the Agra court of Jahangir.<ref name="Anarchy">Template:Cite book</ref> Roe resided at Agra for three years, until 1619. At the Mughal court, Roe allegedly became a favourite of Jahangir and may have been his drinking partner; he arrived with gifts of "many crates of red wine"<ref name="Anarchy" />Template:Rp and explained to him what beer was and how it was made.<ref name="Anarchy" />Template:Rp The immediate result of the mission was to obtain permission and protection for an East India Company factory at Surat. While no major trading privileges were conceded by Jahangir, "Roe's mission was the beginning of a Mughal-Company relationship that would develop into something approaching a partnership and see the "EIC" gradually drawn into the Mughal nexus".<ref name="Anarchy" />Template:Rp While Roe's detailed journals<ref name="Roe">Template:Cite book</ref> are a valuable source of information on Jahangir's reign, the Emperor did not return the favour, with no mention of Roe in his voluminous diaries.<ref name="Anarchy" />Template:Rp
In 1615, Jahangir captured Kangra Fort, whose Katoch rulers came under Mughal vassalship during the reign of Akbar. Consequently, a siege was laid and the fort was taken in 1620, which "resulted in the submission of the Raja of Chamba who was the greatest of all the rajas in the region." The district of Kishtwar, in the vast province of Kashmir, was also conquered the same year.Template:Citation needed
In October 1616, Jahangir sent Prince Khurram to fight against the combined forces of three rebel kingdoms of Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda.<ref name="Lal (2018) p126">Template:Cite book</ref> Jahangir considered his third son, Khurram (regnal name Shah Jahan) as his favourite son.
In 1621 of February, However, when Nur Jahan married her daughter, Mihr-un-nissa Begum, to Jahangir's youngest son, Shahryar Mirza, Khurram suspected that his stepmother was trying to maneuver Shahryar as the successor to Jahangir. Using the rugged terrain of Deccan to his advantage, Khurram launched a rebellion against Jahangir in 1622. This precipitated a political crisis in Jahangir's court. Khurram murdered his blind older brother, Khusrau Mirza, to smooth his path to the throne.<ref name="Findly1993">Template:Cite book</ref> Simultaneously, the Safavid emperor Abbas the Great attacked Kandahar in the winter of 1622. Since it was both a commercial center at the border of the Mughal Empire and the burial place of Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, Jahangir dispatched Prince Shahryar to repel the Safavids. However, due to Shahryar's inexperience and harsh Afghan winter, Kandahar fell to the Safavids.
In 1623, Emperor Jahangir sent his tehsildar, Khan Alam, to Safavid Persia, accompanied by 800 sepoys, scribes and scholars, along with ten howdahs well decorated in gold and silver, to negotiate peace with Emperor Abbas after a brief conflict in the region around Kandahar.Template:Citation needed Khan Alam soon returned with valuable gifts and groups of masters of the hunt (Template:Langx) from both Safavid Iran and the Khanates of Central Asia.Template:Citation needed On March, Jahangir ordered Mahabat Khan, one of Jahangir's most loyal high generals, to crush Khurram's rebellion in the Deccan. After a series of victories by Mahabat Khan over Khurram, the civil war finally ended in October 1625.<ref name="Lal (2018) p126" /><ref name="Brit" />
In 1626, Jahangir began to contemplate an alliance between the Ottoman Empire, the Mughals, and the Khanate of Bukhara of the Uzbeks against the Safavids, who had defeated the Mughals at Kandahar.<ref name="Mughal-Ottoman Relations A Study of Political & Diplomatic Relations Between Mughal India and the Ottoman Empire, 1556-1748; Naimur Rahman Farooqi">Template:Cite book</ref> He even wrote a letter to the Ottoman Sultan, Murad IV. Jahangir's ambition did not materialise due to his death in 1627.
Death
A lifelong user of opium and wine, Jahangir was frequently ill in the 1620s. Jahangir was trying to restore his health by visiting Kashmir and Kabul. He went from Kabul to Kashmir but decided to return to Lahore because of a severe cold.
In 1627 on 29 October,<ref name="britannica.com" /> during the journey from Kashmir to Lahore, Jahangir died near Bhimber.<ref name="Allan 1934 p. 398">Template:Cite book</ref> To embalm and preserve his body, the entrails were removed; these were buried inside Baghsar Fort near Bhimber in Subah of Lahore. The body was then conveyed by palanquin to Lahore and was buried in Shahdara Bagh, a suburb of that city. His son, Shah Jahan, commissioned his tomb and is today a popular tourist attraction site.<ref name="JTT">Template:Cite web</ref> The tomb site was inscribed on the tentative list for UNESCO World Heritage Site status in 1993.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Jahangir's death launched a minor succession crisis. While Nur Jahan desired her son-in-law, Shahryar Mirza, to take the throne, her brother Abu'l-Hassan Asaf Khan was corresponding with his son-in-law, Prince Khurram to take over the throne. To counter Nur Jahan, Abu'l Hassan put Dawar Bakhsh as the puppet ruler and confined Nur Jahan in the Shahdara. Upon his arrival in Agra in February 1628, Prince Khurram executed both Shahryar and Dawar and took the regnal name Shah Jahan (Shihab-ud-Din Muhammad Khurram).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Personal life
Jahangir was famous for his "Chain of Justice". In contemporary paintings, it has been shown as a golden chain with golden bells. In his memoir Tuzk-e-Jahangiri, he wrote that he ordered the creation of this chain for his subjects to appeal to the emperor if they were denied justice at any level.<ref name="Jahangir chain of Justice" />
Jahangir also took interest in public health and medicine. After his accession, he passed twelve orders, of which at least two were related to this area. The fifth order forbade the manufacturing and sale of rice spirit and any kind of intoxicating drugs, and the tenth order was instrumental in laying the foundation of free hospitals and appointment of physicians in all the cities of his empire.<ref name="Chattopadhyay_1995">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Religious view
According to M. Athar Ali, Jahangir generally continued the religious policy of Akbar and had a major interest in pantheism.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> However, orthodox figures in the Mughal's court influenced him in his later years to become more puritan in stance and reversed some Akbar's religious policy.<ref name=FaridInfluence /><ref name="pol" /><ref name="The Mughal Empire Part 1, Volume 5; John F. Richards; 1993" />
At the start of his regime, many staunch Sunnis were hopeful, because he seemed less tolerant of other faiths than his father had been. At the time of his accession and the elimination of Abu'l Fazl, his father's chief minister and the architect of his eclectic religious stance, a powerful group of orthodox noblemen had gained increased power in the Mughal court. This included nobles especially like Shaykh Farid, Jahangir's trusted Mir Bakhshi, who held firmly the citadel of orthodoxy in Muslim India.<ref name=FaridInfluence>Template:Cite book</ref> Another influence for Jahangir changed his religious policies was due to the action of Ahmad Sirhindi, who routinely attend the court debates to counteract some religious beliefs and doctrines which prevalent in the court.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In the process, it is recorded from these correspondence which compiled in 1617, that Farid Murtaza Khan took Ahmad Sirhindi advices regarding this matter.<ref name="pol">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Failed verification His efforts influenced Abul Fazl, protegee of emperor Akbar, to support Ahmad Sirhindi in effort to convince Jahangir to reverse the policies of Akbar of tolerating Hindus in Mughal court.<ref name="The Mughal Empire Part 1, Volume 5; John F. Richards; 1993">Template:Cite book</ref> Yohanan Friedmann has noted that according to many modern historians and thinkers, the puritanical though of Ahmad Sirhindi has inspired the religious orthodoxy of emperor Aurangzeb.<ref name="The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought; Gerhard Bowering, Mahan Mirza, Patricia Crone">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp This was noted by how Ahmad Sirhindi managed to influence the successor of emperor Akbar, starting from Jahangir, into reversing Akbar's policies such as lifting marriage age limits, mosque abolishments, and Hijra methodology revival which was abandoned by his father.Template:Sfn It is noted by historians that this influence has been significantly recorded during the conquest of Kangra under Jahangir, that at the presence of Ahmad Sirhindi who observed the campaign, the Mughal forces had the Idols broken, a cow slaughtered, Khutbah sermon read, and other Islamic rituals performed.Template:Sfn Further mark of Jahangir's departure from Akbar's secular policy were recorded Terry, a traveller, who came and observed India region between 1616 and 1619, where he found the mosques full of worshippers, the exaltation of Quran and hadith practical teaching, and the complete observance of Fasting during Ramadan and Eid al-Fitr celebrations.Template:Sfn
Jahangir issued bans on cowslaugher and animal slaughter on certain days of the week in continuance of his father's policy. According to the Dabistan-i Mazahib he appointed Srikant of Kashmir to be qazi of the Hindus so that they would have their own judicial representative. He also continued his father's policy of patronizing Brahmins and temples. Notably he issued several grants to the Chaitanya sect for their temples in Vrindavan, but also made negative comments about their temples. He, like his father, disapproved of reincarnation and idol worship and ordered the boar image to be removed from Rana Shankar's temple at Pushkar.Template:Sfn
Most notorious was the execution of the Sikh Guru Arjan Dev on Jahangir's orders. His lands were confiscated and his sons imprisoned as Jahangir suspected him of helping Khusrau's rebellion.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It is unclear whether Jahangir even understood what a Sikh was, referring to Guru Arjan as a Hindu, who had "captured many of the simple-hearted of the Hindus and even of the ignorant and foolish followers of Islam, by his ways and manners... for three or four generations (of spiritual successors) they had kept this shop warm." The trigger for Guru Arjan's execution was his support for Jahangir's rebel son Khusrau Mirza, yet it is clear from Jahangir's own memoirs that he disliked Guru Arjan before then: "many times it occurred to me to put a stop to this vain affair or bring him into the assembly of the people of Islam."<ref>Goel, The Story of Islamic Imperialism in India, 59.</ref> Guru Arjan's successor Guru Hargobind was imprisoned for sometime but released soon. He developed friendly relations with Jahangir and accompanied him on his journey to Kashmir just before the latter's death.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
According to Jahangir's memoirs, he issued a firman banning Jain seorahs (monks) due to alleged scandalous behavior. However, the ban was quickly rescinded but Jahangir neglected to mention that in his memoirs. There is a wide variety of evidence that Jahangir had good relations with Jains and Jain sources themselves extol him. According to Ali, Jahangir wrote his memoirs with his intended audience of Persian-speaking Muslims in mind and sought to portray himself as an anti-idolatry sultan and thus "modified" facts.Template:Sfn Jahangir's memoirs also omit the fact that three of his nephews at one point converted to Christianity with his permission, although they would later reverse their decision.Template:Sfn
He issued 'Jahangiri coins' which had his own portrait. He even issued the zodiac series of gold and silver coins which had images of zodiac symbols alongside the radiating sun in the background, due to his faith in astrology. The sign of the zodiac was substituted for the month in which the coin was minted. All of this was considered haram by the ulema due to which his successor Shah Jahan ordered all those coins melted, accounting for their extreme rarity now.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Jahangir had a strong inclination toward pragmatism, reason and skepticism. He often remarked on unusual occurrences by stating, "This is so strange, it is recorded here," or dismissing claims that defied logic with, "It does not accord with reason, and my mind does not accept it." While he upheld religious tolerance, his patience did not extend to deceitful religious practices. He swiftly punished a self-proclaimed guru who displeased him, expelled a yogi while destroying his idol for performing a superstitious ritual with his visitors, and imprisoned a renowned Naqshbandi Muslim scholar for a while, who, in his view, held an inflated sense of self-importance and hoodwinked people by peddling mysticism. However, he was not without his own biases. He maintained a deep reverence for the tombs of saints and firmly believed in the power of holy men’s prayers, particularly those he credited with enabling his birth. He held faith in astrology and ensured he gave alms to counteract the negative effects of unfavorable planetary alignments.<ref name=":4" />
According to Richard M Eaton, Emperor Jahangir issued many edicts admonishing his nobles not to convert the religion of anybody by force, but the issuance of such orders also suggests that such conversions must have occurred during his rule in some measure. He continued the Mughals tradition of being scrupulously secular in outlook. Stability, loyalty, and revenue were the main focus, not the religious change among their subjects.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Art
Jahangir was fascinated with art and architecture. In his autobiography, the Jahangirnama, Jahangir recorded events that occurred during his reign, descriptions of flora and fauna that he encountered, and other aspects of daily life, and commissioned court painters such as Ustad Mansur to paint detailed pieces that would accompany his vivid prose.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> For example, in 1619, he put pen to paper in awe of a royal falcon delivered to his court from the ruler of Iran: "What can I write of the beauty of this bird's colour? It had black markings, and every feather on its wings, back, and sides was extremely beautiful," and then recorded his command that Ustad Mansur paint a portrait of it after it perished.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> "Nadiri" was a type of exclusive clothing designed by Jahangir, reserved for his personal use and esteemed courtiers.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Jahangir bound and displayed much of the art that he commissioned in elaborate albums of hundreds of images, sometimes organized around a theme such as zoology.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Jahangir himself was far from modest in his autobiography when he stated his prowess at being able to determine the artist of any portrait by simply looking at a painting. As he said: Template:Blockquote
Jahangir took his connoisseurship of art very seriously. He also preserved paintings from Emperor Akbar's period. An excellent example of this is the painting done by Ustad Mansur of Musician Naubat Khan, son-in-law of legendary Tansen. In addition to their aesthetic qualities, paintings created under his reign were closely catalogued, dated and even signed, providing scholars with fairly accurate ideas as to when and in what context many of the pieces were created.
In the foreword to W. M. Thackston's translation of the Jahangirnama, Milo Cleveland Beach explains that Jahangir ruled during a time of considerably stable political control, and had the opportunity to order artists to create art to accompany his memoirs that were "in response to the emperor's current enthusiasms".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> He used his wealth and his luxury of free time to chronicle, in detail, the lush natural world that the Mughal Empire encompassed. At times, he would have artists travel with him for this purpose; when Jahangir was in Rahimabad, he had his painters on hand to capture the appearance of a specific tiger that he shot and killed because he found it to be particularly beautiful.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
He had his artist Govardhan travel to Prayagraj(Allahabad) to paint sadhus. This resulted in the earliest set of images depicting sadhus in all yogic positions.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite web</ref>
The Jesuits had brought with them various books, engravings, and paintings and, when they saw the delight Akbar held for them, sent for more and more of the same to be given to the Mughals. They felt the Mughals were on the "verge of conversion", a notion which proved to be very false. Instead, both Akbar and Jahangir studied this artwork very closely and replicated and adapted it, adopting much of the early iconographic features and later the pictorial realism for which Renaissance art was known. Jahangir was notable for his pride in the ability of his court painters. A classic example of this is described in Sir Thomas Roe's diaries, in which the Emperor had his painters copy a European miniature several times creating a total of five miniatures. Jahangir then challenged Roe to pick out the original from the copies, a feat Sir Thomas Roe could not do, to the delight of Jahangir.Template:Citation needed
Jahangir was also revolutionary in his adaptation of European styles. A collection at the British Museum in London contains seventy-four drawings of Indian portraits dating from the time of Jahangir, including a portrait of the emperor himself. These portraits are a unique example of art during Jahangir's reign because faces were not drawn in full, including the shoulders as well as the head as these drawings are.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Politics
Jahangir is widely considered to have been a weak and incapable ruler.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Orientalist Henry Beveridge (editor of the Tuzk-e-Jahangiri) compares Jahangir to the Roman emperor Claudius, for both were "weak men... in their wrong places as rulers... [and had] Jahangir been head of a Natural History Museum,... [he] would have been [a] better and happier man."Template:Sfn Further he notes, "He made no addition to the imperial territories, but on the contrary, diminished them by losing Qandahar to the Persians. But possibly his peaceful temper, or his laziness, was an advantage, for it saved much bloodshed. His greatest fault as a king was his subservience to his wife, Nur-Jahan, and the consequent quarrel with his son, Shah Jahan, who was the ablest and best of his male children".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Sir William Hawkins, who visited Jahangir's court in 1609, said: "In such short that what this man's father, called Ecber Padasha [Badshah Akbar], got of the Deccans, this king, Selim Sha [Jahangir] beginneth to lose."Template:Sfn Italian writer and traveller, Niccolao Manucci, who worked under Jahangir's grandson, Dara Shikoh, began his discussion of Jahangir by saying: "It is a truth tested by experience that sons dissipate what their fathers gained in the sweat of their brow."Template:Sfn
According to John F. Richards, Jahangir's frequent withdrawal to a private sphere of life was partly reflective of his indolence, brought on by his addiction to a considerable daily dosage of wine and opium.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Science
Jahangir had a keen interest in conducting his own "scientific" experiments, which reflected his deep fascination for the natural world. He found that the widely accepted belief about the aggressiveness of mountain sheep was not true. He investigated the effectiveness of bitumen for healing broken bones using a chicken as a specimen(bitumen proved ineffective). He compared the air quality of Ahmadabad and Mahmudabad by observing the rate of decay in sheep carcasses. Additionally, he actively engaged in animal husbandry and goat breeding, accurately estimated the gestation period of elephants, and studied the livers of lions and wolves to determine whether the location of their gall bladders, whether they were inside or outside the liver, correlated with courage.<ref name=":4">Template:Cite book</ref>
Popular culture
_and_his_legendary_illicit_love.jpg){kind=link}
Films and television
- In the 1939 Hindi film Pukar, Jehangir was portrayed by Chandra Mohan.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- In the 1953 Hindi film Anarkali, he was portrayed by Pradeep Kumar.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- In the 1955 Hindi film Adil-E-Jahangir, he was portrayed by D. K. Sapru.
- In the 1955 Telugu film Anarkali, he was portrayed by ANR.
- In the 1958 Urdu film Anarkali, he was portrayed by Sudhir.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
- In the 1960 Hindi film Mughal-e-Azam, he was portrayed by Dilip Kumar.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite news</ref> Jalal Agha also played the younger Jahangir at the start of the film.<ref name=":0" />
- In the 1966 Malayalam film Anarkali, he was portrayed by Prem Nazir.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
- In the 1979 Telugu film Akbar Salim Anarkali, he was portrayed by Balakrishna.
- In the 1988 Shyam Benegal's TV Series Bharat Ek Khoj, he was portrayed by Vijay Arora.
- Jahangirer Swarnamudra is a detective story about a missing gold coin of Jahangir written by Indian filmmaker Satyajit Ray, starring his famous character Feluda. It was adapted as a television film in 1998.
- In the 2000 TV series Noorjahan, he was portrayed by Milnd Soman.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>
- In the 2013 Ekta Kapoor's TV Series Jodha Akbar, he was portrayed by Ravi Bhatia. Ayaan Zubair Rahmani also played young Salim initially.
- In the 2014 Indu Sudaresan's TV Series Siyaasat, he was portrayed by Karanvir Sharma and Later Sudhanshu Pandey.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
- In the 2014 Indian television sitcom Har Mushkil Ka Hal Akbar Birbal, Pawan Singh portrayed the role of prince Salim.
- In the 2018 Colors TV series Dastaan-E-Mohabbat Salim Anarkali, he is portrayed by Shaheer Sheikh.
- In the 2023 ZEE5's web series Taj: Divided by Blood, he is portrayed by Aashim Gulati.
Literature
- Jahangir is a principal character in Indu Sundaresan's award-winning historical novel The Twentieth Wife (2002)<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> as well as in its sequel The Feast of Roses (2003).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Jahangir is a principal character in Alex Rutherford's novel Ruler of the World (2011)<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> as well as in its sequel The Tainted Throne (2012)<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> of the series Empire of the Moghul.
- Jahangir is a character in novel Nur Jahan's Daughter (2005) written by Tanushree Poddar.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Jahangir is a character in the novel Beloved Empress Mumtaz Mahal: A Historical Novel by Nina Consuelo Epton.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Jahangir is a principal character in the novel Nurjahan: A historical novel by Jyoti Jafa.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Jahangir is a character in the novel Taj, a Story of Mughal India by Timeri Murari.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
See also
Appendix
Notes
References
Bibliography
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite journal
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite journal
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite journal
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book
External links
Template:Wikiquote Template:Commons category
- Template:Gutenberg author
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book
- Jehangir and Shah Jehan Template:Webarchive
- The World Conqueror: Jahangir (archived)
- Jains and the Mughals
Template:S-start Template:S-hou Template:S-reg Template:S-bef Template:S-ttl Template:S-aft Template:S-end