Foie gras

A mulard duck, the hybrid used most frequently for foie gras production

Template:Lang (Template:Lit; Template:IPA, Template:IPAc-en) is a specialty food product made of the liver of a duck or goose. According to French law,<ref>French rural code Code rural – Article L654-27-1 Template:Webarchive: "Template:Lang" ("Foie gras is understood to mean the liver of a duck or a goose that has been especially fattened by gavage").</ref> Template:Lang is defined as the liver of a duck or goose fattened by Template:Lang (force feeding).

Template:Lang is a delicacy in French cuisine. Its flavour is rich, buttery, and delicate, unlike an ordinary duck or goose liver. It is sold whole or is prepared as mousse, parfait, or pâté, and may also be served as an accompaniment to another food item, such as steak. French law states, "Template:Lang belongs to the protected cultural and gastronomical heritage of France."<ref>French rural code L654-27-1</ref>

The technique of Template:Lang dates as far back as 2500 BC, when the ancient Egyptians began confining anatid birds to be forcedly fed to be fattened as a food source.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Today, France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though there are producers and markets worldwide, particularly in other European nations, the United States, and China.<ref name="npr.org">Template:Cite web</ref>

Gavage-based foie gras production is controversial, due mainly to animal welfare concerns about force-feeding, intensive housing and husbandry, and enlarging the liver to 10 times its usual volume. Several countries and jurisdictions have laws against force-feeding and the production, import, or sale of Template:Lang.

History

A bas relief depiction of overfeeding geese

Ancient times

As early as 2500 BC, the ancient Egyptians learned that many birds could be fattened through forced overfeeding and began this practice. Whether they particularly sought the fattened livers of birds as a delicacy remains undetermined.<ref name="McGee_1">Template:Harv: "Foie gras is the "fat liver" of force-fed geese and ducks. It has been made and appreciated since Roman times and probably long before; the force-feeding of geese is clearly represented in Egyptian art from 2500 BC."</ref><ref name="Toussaint-Samat_1">Template:Harv.</ref> In the necropolis of Saqqara, in the tomb of Mereruka, an important royal official, there is a bas relief scene wherein workers grasp geese around the necks to push food down their throats. Tables are positioned to one side, piled with food pellets and a flask for moistening them before feeding the geese.<ref name="Toussaint-Samat_1" /><ref name="Ginor_1">Template:Harv.</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The practice of goose fattening spread from Egypt to the Mediterranean.<ref name="Alford_1">Template:Harv.</ref> The earliest reference to fattened geese is from the 5th-century BC Greek poet Cratinus, who wrote of geese-fatteners, yet Egypt maintained its reputation as the source for fattened geese. When the Spartan king Agesilaus visited Egypt in 361 BC, he noted that Egyptian farmers fattened geese and calves.<ref name="Toussaint-Samat_1" /><ref name="Ginor_2">Template:Harv.</ref>

It was not until the Roman period, however, that foie gras is mentioned as a distinct food, which the Romans named iecur ficatum;<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Ginor_3">Template:Harv.</ref><ref name="Giacosa_1">Template:Harv.</ref> iecur means liver,<ref name="Langslow_1">Template:Harv "A second instance of the restriction of the sense of a Latin anatomical term to animals is iecur 'the liver' in Theodorus and Cassius. In both, the human liver is always hepar, while iecur is used of an animal (...)"</ref> and ficatum derives from ficus, meaning fig in Latin.<ref>"Ficus, i" (...) Derivés: (...) ficatum n. (sc. iecur): d'abord terme de cuisine "foie garni de figues", cf. Hor., S. 2, 8, 88, ficis pastum iecur anseris albae, calque du gr. συκωτόν de même sens, puis, dans le langage populaire, simplement "foie" (...) et passé avec ce sens dans les langues romanes, où ficatum a remplacé iecur. A. Ernout, A. Meillet, Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue latine, Éd. Klincksieck, Paris 1979.</ref> The emperor Elagabalus fed his dogs foie gras during the four years of his reign.<ref name="Toussaint-Samat_5">Template:Harv.</ref> Pliny the Elder (1st century AD) credits his contemporary Roman gastronome Marcus Gavius Apicius with feeding dried figs to geese to enlarge their livers:

Hence the term iecur ficatum, fig-stuffed liver; feeding figs to enlarge a goose's liver may derive from Hellenistic Alexandria, since much of Roman luxury cuisine was of Greek inspiration.<ref name="Faas_1">Template:Harv</ref> Ficatum was closely associated with animal liver and it became the root word for "liver"<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> in each of these languages: foie in French,<ref name="Walter_1">Template:Harv: "(...) for example, why it is not the word JECUR (a Latin word taken from the Greek) which has come down to us with the meaning of 'liver', but the Romance word ficato, which has become the French foie. The word ficato is formed on the Latin word FICUS 'fig', and would appear to have nothing to do with the 'liver' other than the Greeks, followed by the Romans, fattened their geese with figs to obtain particularly fleshy and tasty livers. The FICATUM JECUR or 'fig-fattened goose liver', which was very much sought after, must have become such a common expression that it was shortened to FICATUM (just as the modern French say frites as an abbreviation of pommes de terre frites). To begin with, the word FICATUM probably designated only edible animal livers, with its meaning then being extended to include the human organ."</ref> hígado in Spanish, fígado in Portuguese, fegato in Italian, fetge in Catalan and Occitan, and ficat in Romanian, all meaning "liver"; this etymology has been explained in different manners.<ref name="Littré_1">Template:Harv: "Feûte n'est pas mieux fait que foie; seulement, il conserve le t du Latin; car on sait que foie vient de ficatum (foie d'une oie nourrie de figues, et, de là, foie en général). Foie en français, feûte en wallon, fetge en provençal, fégato en italien, hígado en espagnol, fígado en portugais, témoignent que la bouche romane déplaça l'accent du mot Latin, et, au lieu de ficátum, qui est la prononciation régulière, dit, par anomalie, fícatum avec l'accent sur l'antépénultième."</ref><ref>Dizionario etimologico online: fégato Template:Webarchive.</ref>

Postclassical Europe

After the fall of the Roman empire, goose liver temporarily vanished from European cuisine. Some claim that Gallic farmers preserved the foie gras tradition until the rest of Europe rediscovered it centuries later, but the medieval French peasant's food animals were mainly pigs and sheep.<ref name="Ginor_5">Template:Harv.</ref> Others claim that the tradition was preserved by the Jews, who learned the method of enlarging a goose's liver during the Roman colonisation of Judea<ref name="Ginor_6">Template:Harv.</ref> or earlier from Egyptians.<ref name="Davidson_1">Template:Harv: "The enlarged liver has been counted a delicacy since classical times when the force-feeding of the birds was practised in classical Rome. It is commonly said that the practice dates back even further, to ancient Egypt, and that knowledge of it was possibly acquired by the Jews during their period of 'bondage' there and transmitted by them to the classical civilizations."</ref> The Jews carried this culinary knowledge as they migrated farther north and west to Europe.<ref name="Ginor_6"/>

As Jews became established in Western and Central Europe, they soon encountered difficulties in finding a suitable cooking fat for use in dishes containing meat or to be served with meat. Lard was widely available, but Judaic dietary law, Kashrut, completely forbids it because it comes from an animal considered unclean. Butter, also commonly available, was not in itself proscribed, but it could not be used with or in meals containing meat because kashrut also prohibited mixing meat and dairy products.<ref name="Alford_1" /> Jewish cuisine used olive oil in the Mediterranean and sesame oil in Babylonia, but neither cooking medium was readily available in Western and Central Europe. Jews in these regions therefore turned to poultry fat (known in Yiddish as schmaltz), which could be abundantly produced by overfeeding geese, where fat was needed with meat.<ref name="Ginor_6" /><ref name="Alford_2">Template:Harv.</ref><ref name="momentmag.com">Template:Cite web</ref>

The delicate taste of the fattened goose's liver was soon appreciated; Hans Wilhelm Kirchhof of Kassel wrote in 1562 that the Jews raise fat geese and particularly love their livers. Some rabbis were concerned that eating forcibly overfed geese violated Jewish food restrictions. Some rabbis contended that it is not a forbidden food (treyf) as none of its limbs are damaged and the geese do not feel any pain in their throats from the process.<ref name="momentmag.com" /> This matter remained a debated topic in Jewish dietary law until the Jewish taste for goose liver declined in the 19th century.<ref name="Ginor_6" /> Another kashrut matter, still a problem today, is that even properly slaughtered and inspected meat must be drained of blood before being considered fit to eat. Usually, salting achieves that; however, as the liver is regarded as "(almost) wholly blood", broiling is the only way of kashering. Properly broiling foie gras while preserving its delicate taste is difficult, and therefore rarely practised. Even so, there are restaurants in Israel that offer grilled goose foie gras. Foie gras also resembles the Jewish food staple, chopped liver.<ref name="momentmag.com"/>

Bartolomeo Scappi

Appreciation of fattened goose liver spread to gastronomes outside the Jewish community, who could buy in the local Jewish ghetto of their cities. In 1570, Bartolomeo Scappi, chef de cuisine to Pope Pius V, published his cookbook Opera, wherein he writes that "the liver of [a] domestic goose raised by the Jews is of extreme size and weighs [between] two and three pounds".<ref name="Ginor_7">Template:Harv.</ref> In 1581, Marx Rumpolt of Mainz, chef to several German nobles, published the massive cookbook Ein Neu Kochbuch, describing that the Jews of Bohemia produced livers weighing more than three pounds; he lists recipes for it, including one for goose liver mousse.<ref name="Ginor_7"/><ref name="Toussaint-Samat_6">Template:Harv.</ref> János Keszei, chef to the court of Michael Apafi, the prince of Transylvania, included foie gras recipes in his 1680 cookbook A New Book About Cooking, instructing cooks to "envelop the goose liver in a calf's thin skin, bake it and prepare [a] green or [a] brown sauce to accompany it. I used goose liver fattened by Bohemian Jews; its weight was more than three pounds. You may also prepare a mush of it."

Cultural significance in France

Foie gras became a significant part of French culinary tradition during the 17th and 18th centuries, particularly under the reigns of Louis XV and Louis XVI. It was served at royal courts as a symbol of luxury and refinement. In 1779, French chef Jean-Joseph Clause elevated foie gras to new heights by creating pâté de foie gras. His innovation earned him a patent in 1784, and he later established a business supplying this delicacy to the French aristocracy. By the early 19th century, Strasbourg had become renowned as the "goose-liver capital of the world".<ref name="gourmetfoodworld.com">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="thespruceeats.com">Template:Cite web</ref>

After the French Revolution, foie gras transitioned from being an exclusive royal delicacy to one enjoyed by the middle class.Template:Cn Its production and consumption became particularly associated with Southwest France, including regions like Dordogne and Alsace, where traditional methods of preparation flourished. Today, these regions remain central to foie gras production in France, with over 90% of producers located in the Dordogne Valley.

Foie gras is so deeply embedded in French culture that it is protected under French law, which declares it part of the country's "protected cultural and gastronomical heritage." This legal recognition underscores its importance as a symbol of French culinary excellence.

The legacy of foie gras in France reflects its evolution from a courtly luxury to an enduring emblem of French gastronomy, celebrated at festivals such as the Fest’Oie in Sarlat and enjoyed during holidays and special occasions.

Production and sales

Country	Production (tons, 2005)	% of total (2005)	Production (tons, 2014)	% of total (2014)<ref name="Viva" />	Production (tons, 2020)	% of total (2020)
France	18,450<ref name=xinhua>Template:Cite news</ref>	78.5%	19,608<ref name=":0">Template:Cite web</ref>	74.3%	14,266<ref name=":1">Template:Cite web</ref>	63.7%
Bulgaria	1,500<ref name="xinhua" />	6.4%	2,600<ref name=":0" />	9.8%	2,752<ref name=":1" />	12.3%
Hungary	1,920<ref name=xinhua/>	8.2%	2,590<ref name=":0" />	9.8%	2,147<ref name=":1" />	9.6%
United States	340 (2003)<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>	1.4%	250<ref name=":0" />	0.9%	?
Canada	200 (2005)<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>	0.9%	200<ref name=":0" />	0.8%	?
China	150<ref name=xinhua/>	0.6%	500<ref name=":0" />	1.9%	?
Others	940	4.0%	648<ref name=":0" />	2.5%	?
Total	23,500<ref name=xinhua/>	100%	26,396<ref name=":0" />	100%	22,409<ref name=":1" />	100%

In the 21st century, France is the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though it is produced and consumed in several other countries worldwide, particularly in some other European nations, the United States, and China.<ref name="npr.org"/> Approximately 30,000 people work in the French foie gras industry, with 90% of them residing in the Périgord (Dordogne), Aquitaine in the southwest, and Alsace in the east.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The European Union recognizes the foie gras produced according to traditional farming methods (label rouge) in southwestern France with a protected geographical indication.Template:Cn

Hungary is the world's second-largest foie gras (libamáj) producer and the largest exporter (although Bulgaria sometimes had a higher production in recent years, see table above). France is the principal market for Hungarian foie gras – mainly exported raw. Approximately 30,000 Hungarian goose farmers are dependent on the foie gras industry.<ref name="Hungary">Template:Cite web</ref> French food companies spice, process, and cook the foie gras so it may be sold as a French product in its domestic and export markets.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

2005

In 2005, France produced 18,450 tonnes of foie gras (78.5% of the world's estimated total production of 23,500 tonnes), of which 96% was duck liver and 4% goose liver. Total French consumption of foie gras this year was 19,000 tonnes.<ref name=xinhua/> In 2005, Hungary, the world's second-largest foie gras producer, exported 1,920 tonnes,<ref name="Hungary" /> and Bulgaria produced 1,500 tons of foie gras.<ref name=xinhua/>

The demand for foie gras in the Far East is such that China has become a sizeable producer.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Madagascar is a small but rapidly growing producer of high-quality foie gras.<ref>Rakotomalala, M. Élevage – La filière foie gras se porte bien Template:Webarchive. Express de Madagascar. No. 5632. 15 May 2013.</ref>

2011

In 2011, in Bulgaria (which started production in 1960), five million mule ducks were raised for foie gras on 800 farms, making Bulgaria the second-largest European producer.<ref name="Marinova">Template:Cite journal</ref>

2012

In 2012, France produced approximately 19,000 tonnes of foie gras, representing 75% of the world's production in that year. This required the force-feeding of around 38 million ducks and geese.<ref name="Guardian2012">Template:Cite news</ref> World production in 2015 is estimated as 27,000 tonnes.<ref name="Viva"/>

2014–2015

In 2014, the whole of the EU produced approximately 25,000 tonnes of foie gras – 23,000 tonnes of duck foie gras and 2,000 tonnes of goose foie gras.<ref name="EU2014">Template:Cite web</ref> The same year, France was producing 72% of world foie gras production, of which 97% was from ducks.<ref name="Francois">Template:Cite journal</ref>

In 2014, France produced 19,608 tons of foie gras (74.3% of the world's estimated total production).<ref name=":0" />

Foie gras served with hawthorn puree at the Da Dong Roast Duck Restaurant, at Zi Wei Park, Nanxincang, Dongcheng, Beijing in 2016

In 2015, it was reported that in France, sales of foie gras may be waning, and an OpinionWay poll found that 47% of the French population supported a ban on force-feeding.<ref name="Telegraph 2015">Template:Cite newsTemplate:Cbignore</ref><ref name="Huffington2015">Template:Cite news</ref>

2015–2016

In 2016, it was reported that France produces an estimated 75% of the world's foie gras and southwestern France produces approximately 70% of that total. In 2016, it could retail for upwards of $65 a pound.<ref name="Houck">Template:Cite news</ref>

In late 2015, there were several outbreaks of the highly contagious H5N1 bird flu in France, which escalated in 2016. This led to Algeria, China, Egypt, Japan, Morocco, South Korea, Thailand and Tunisia banning French poultry exports, including foie gras, and France to initiate increased bio-security protocols which cost an estimated 220 million euros. One of these measures was the halting of production in southwestern France from early April 2016 for an anticipated period of three months to reduce the spread of the virus. Exports of foie gras from France are expected to decrease from 4,560 tonnes in 2015 to 3,160 in 2016.<ref name="Houck" /><ref name="Samuel">Template:Cite newsTemplate:Cbignore</ref><ref name="Rousseau">Template:Cite news</ref>

The largest producer in the United States is Hudson Valley Foie Gras in New York, which processes approximately 350,000 ducks annually.<ref name="DeSoucey2016" />

Forms

An entire foie gras (ready for cooking in a terrine)

A Moulard duck foie gras torchon with pickled pear

In France, foie gras exists in different, legally defined presentations, ordered by expense:<ref>Decree 93-999 August 9, 1993 Template:Webarchive defining legal categories and terms for foie gras in France</ref>

• Template:Lang ("whole foie gras"), made of one or two whole liver lobes; either Template:Lang ("cooked"), Template:Lang ("semi-cooked"), or Template:Lang ("fresh");
• Template:Lang, made of pieces of livers reassembled together;
• Template:Lang, a fully cooked, moulded block composed of 98% or more foie gras; if termed Template:Lang ("with pieces"), it must contain at least 50% foie gras pieces for goose, and 30% for duck.

Additionally, there is Template:Lang, Template:Lang (either must contain 50% or more foie gras), Template:Lang (must contain 75% or more foie gras), and other preparations (no legal obligation established).

Fully cooked preparations are generally sold in either glass containers or metal cans for long-term preservation. Whole, fresh foie gras is usually unavailable in France outside Christmas, except in some producers' markets in the producing regions. Frozen whole foie gras sometimes is sold in French supermarkets.

Whole foie gras is readily available from gourmet retailers in Canada, the United States, Hungary, Argentina and regions with a sizeable market for the product. In the US, raw foie gras is classified as Grade A, B or C. Grade A is typically the highest in fat and especially suited for low-temperature preparation because the veins are relatively few and the resulting terrine will be more aesthetically appealing because it displays little blood. Grade B is accepted for higher temperature preparation because the higher proportion of protein gives the liver more structure after being seared. Grade C livers are generally reserved for making sauces as well as other preparations where a higher proportion of blood-filled veins will not impair the appearance of the dish.Template:Citation needed

Production methods

Species, breeds, and sex used

Geese

Traditionally, foie gras was produced from special breeds of geese. However, by 2004, geese accounted for less than 10% of the total global foie gras production<ref name="Guémené">Template:Cite journal</ref> and by 2014 only 5% of total French production.<ref name="CIFOG">Template:Cite web</ref> Goose breeds used in modern foie gras production are primarily the grey Landes goose (Anser anser)<ref name="CIFOG" /> and the Toulouse goose.<ref name="Ravo">Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Toulouse Goose Template:Webarchive Pyrenees Biological Academy (in French)</ref>Template:Better source needed

In 2016, Hungary was producing 80% of the world's goose foie gras; however, production rates are likely to drop in 2017 due to outbreaks of bird flu.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Ducks

In 2014, ducks accounted for 95% of foie gras production.<ref name="CIFOG" /> The breeds primarily used are the Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata)<ref name="CIFOG" /> (also called the Barbary duck) and the hybrid cross of a male Muscovy duck and a female Pekin duck (Anas platyrhynchos domestica) called the Mulard duck.<ref name="CIFOG" /> This hybrid is sterile and is, therefore, sometimes referred to as a "mule" duck. Mulards are estimated to account for about 35% of all foie gras consumed in the US.<ref name="Skippon" /> About 95% of duck foie gras production from France comes from force-fed Mulards and the remaining 5% from the Muscovy duck.<ref name="Marie" />

After hatching, the Mulard ducklings are sexed. Males put on more weight than females, so the females are slaughtered. A new method has been recently developed, allowing to identify the sex of the duck in the egg, based on its eye colour.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> This new method should replace the slaughter of females after hatching within a few years.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Physiological basis

Collectives cages are the main housing system since the ban of individual cages ("épinettes") in Europe.

The basis of foie gras production is the ability that some waterfowl have to expand their esophagus and to gain weight, particularly in the liver,Template:Citation needed in preparation for migration.<ref>Template:Cite web Template:Small, section 4</ref> Wild geese may consume 300 grams of protein and another 800 grams of grasses per day. Farmed geese allowed to graze on carrots adapt to eating 100 grams of protein but may consume up to 2500 grams of carrots per day. The increasing amount of feed given before force-feeding and during the force-feeding itself cause the expansion of the lower part of the esophagus.<ref name="Skippon" /> However, the primary birds used for foie gras, the Mulard and Muscovy duck, cannot fly well and therefore do not migrate.

Pre-feeding phase

The pre-force feeding phase consists of three stages.<ref name="CIFOG" />

1. The first stage ("start-up") lasts from 1 to 28 days of age (0–4 weeks). During this stage, the young birds are housed in large, indoor groups (e.g. 2,100<ref name="Marie" />), usually on straw.
2. The second stage ("growth") lasts from 28 to 63 days of age (4–9 weeks). The birds are moved outside to feed on grasses ad libitum. The birds are given additional feed, but access to this is limited by time. This stage aims to take advantage of the natural dilation capacity of the esophagus of some wildfowl.<ref>Template:Cite web Template:Small EU Scientific Report, p19</ref>
3. The third stage ("pre-fattening") lasts from 63 to 81 days of age<ref name=":2">Template:Cite web</ref> (9–12 weeks). The birds are brought inside for gradually longer periods while introduced to a high-starch diet. This is a feeding transition where the food is distributed by meals, first in restricted amounts and time and, after that, greatly increased.

Feeding phase

The next production phase, which the French call Template:Lang or Template:Lang, or "completion of fattening", involves forced daily ingestion of controlled amounts of feed for 10 to 12 days<ref name=":2" /> for ducks (10.5 on average<ref name=":3">Template:Cite web</ref>) and 15 to 18 days with geese. During this phase, ducks are usually fed twice daily, while geese are usually fed three times daily.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> To facilitate the handling of ducks during gavage, these birds are housed throughout this phase in one of the following systems:<ref name=":4">Template:Cite journal</ref>

• Elevated collective cages indoor
• Elevated collective pens indoor
• Ground pens indoor

Individual cages ("épinettes" in French) have been banned in Europe.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Typical foie gras production involves force-feeding birds more food than they would eat in the wild, and much more than they would voluntarily eat domestically.<ref>"Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese Template:Webarchive", p. 29</ref>

Modern Template:Lang feeding process

In modern production, the bird is typically fed a controlled amount of feed, depending on the stage of the fattening process, the bird's weight, and the amount of feed the bird last ingested.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> At the start of production, a bird might be fed a dry weight of Template:Convert of food per day and up to Template:Convert (in dry weight) by the end of the process. The actual amount of food force-fed is much greater because water is added to the dry feed. For pellets, the typical composition is about 53% dry and 47% liquid (by weight). This is the equivalent of around 1,900 grams per day in total mass.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> For whole grain, the cooked weight is about 1.4 times the dry weight.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The feed is administered using a funnel fitted with a long metal or plastic tube (20–30 cm long), which forces the feed into the bird's esophagus. If an auger is used, the feeding takes about 45 to 60 seconds, however, modern systems usually use a tube fed by a pneumatic pump with an operation time of 2 to 3 seconds per duck. During feeding, efforts are made to avoid damaging the bird's esophagus, which could cause injury or death, although researchers have found evidence of inflammation of the walls of the proventriculus after the first session of force-feeding.<ref>Serviere, J, Bernadet, MD and Guy, G. 2003. "Is nociception a sensory component associated with force-feeding? Neurophysiological approach in the mule duck". 2nd World Waterfowl Conference. Alexandria, Egypt</ref> There is also an indication of inflammation of the esophagus in the later stages of fattening.<ref name=autogenerated1>Template:Cite web</ref> Several studies have also demonstrated that mortality rates can be significantly elevated during the gavage period.<ref name="EU Report">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Koehl, PF and Chinzi, D. 1996. "Les resultats technico-economiques des ateliers de palmidpedes a foie gras de 1987 a 1994". 2eme journees de la recherche sur les palmipedes a foie gras. 75.</ref><ref>Chinzi, D and Koehl, PF. 1998. "Caracteristiques desateliers d'elevage et de gavage de canards et mulards. Relations avec les performances et techniques et economiques". Proceedings des 3eme journees de la recherche sur les palmipedes a foie gras. 107.</ref>

The feed, usually corn boiled with fat (to facilitate ingestion), deposits large amounts of fat in the liver, thereby producing the buttery consistency sought by some gastronomes.

Ducks reared for foie gras are typically slaughtered at 100 days of age, although modern production methods with shortened pre-feeding and force feeding phases allow for an earlier slaughter, around 93 days.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> For geese, slaughter typically takes place at 112 days.<ref name="Viva" /> The bird's liver is 6 to 10 times its ordinary size at this time.<ref>Template:Cite web Template:Small, p60</ref> Storage of fat in the liver produces steatosis of the liver cells.

Alternative production

Ethical concerns have driven a recent interest in alternative production methods that produce fattened liver without gavage, and, Template:As of, at least 16 producers offered a meat-based foie gras alternative.<ref name="4PList" /> The resulting products do not conform to the French legal standard for "foie gras", but can be labeled "fatty goose liver" inside France. Outside France, they may be marked as "ethical foie gras" or "humane foie gras", although these terms also describe gavage-based foie gras production tempered by concern with the animal's welfare (e.g., feeding through rubber hoses instead of steel pipes).

These alternative methods are controversial,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> in part because substitutes for gavage do not produce the same results.<ref>Template:Cite report</ref>

The current method, developed in Extremadura, Spain, involves timing the slaughter to coincide with the winter migration, when the livers naturally fatten. Prior to slaughter, the birds are allowed to eat freely, termed Template:Lang.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name=Barber>

• Template:Cite news Excerpted from The Third Plate, Little, Brown & Co.
• Template:Cite speech</ref> For this innovation, the producer, Patería de Sousa, won the Template:Lang award at the Template:Lang 2006.<ref name=Barber /><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Because gavage fattens goose livers to substantially larger than their natural size, de Sousa's technique is less efficient at producing a fixed mass of foie gras, and composes a small fraction of the market.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

To achieve similar efficiency per mass to gavage, the British supermarket chain Waitrose sells a product which it calls Template:Lang (but see Template:Slink), made from free-range British goose or duck liver blended with additional fat.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Subsequently, researchers at the German Template:Ill and the company GMT developed a process to apply additional fat to duck liver meat at high pressure. Even trained chefs struggle to distinguish the result from traditional foie gras.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

More radical approaches are possible. A duck or goose with damaged ventromedial nucleus in the hypothalamus will feel less satiety after eating and therefore eat more. In lesioning experiments, this effect more than doubled the bird's Template:Lang food consumption.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Alternatively, human microbiome studies on obesity led French researchers at Aviwell develop a probiotic preparation that produces fatty livers in geese over six months without gavage.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Vegan alternatives

Vegan foie gras on a cracker

A Spanish company began selling a vegan alternative to foie gras called Fuah, in 2022. The product is made from cashew nuts, coconut oil, and beetroot.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The American product Faux Gras is a vegan, nut-based spread.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> In Template:As of, an animal welfare non-governmental organization found at least 14 producers of vegetarian or vegan alternatives to foie gras.<ref name="4PList">Template:Cite web</ref>

Preparations

Foie gras with shallots and figs

Generally, French preparations of foie gras are made over low heat, as fat melts faster from the traditional goose foie gras than the duck foie gras produced in most other parts of the world. American and other New World preparations, typically employing duck foie gras, have more recipes and dish preparations for serving foie gras hot rather than cool or cold.

In Hungary, goose foie gras is traditionally fried in goose fat, which is then poured over the foie gras and left to cool; it is also eaten warm, after being fried or roasted, with some chefs smoking the foie gras over a cherry wood fire.

In other parts of the world, foie gras is served in dishes such as foie gras sushi rolls, in various forms of pasta or alongside steak tartare or atop a steak as a garnish.

Cold preparations

Traditional low-heat cooking methods result in terrines, pâtés, parfaits, foams, and mousses of foie gras, often flavored with truffle, mushrooms, or brandy such as cognac or armagnac. These slow-cooked forms of foie gras are cooled and served at or below room temperature.

In a very traditional form of terrine, au torchon ("in a towel"), a whole lobe of foie is molded, wrapped in a towel and slow-cooked in a bain-marie. For added flavor (from the Maillard reaction), the liver may be seared briefly over a fire of grape vine clippings (sarments) before slow-cooking in a bain-marie; afterwards, it is pressed and served cold, in slices.

Raw foie gras is also cured in salt ("cru au sel") and served slightly chilled.<ref name="Au Pied de Cochon">Au Pied de Cochon. Menu. Montreal. 15 June. 2006.</ref>

Strasbourg pie

A pastry containing fatty goose liver and other ingredients is known as the "Strasburg pie" since Strasbourg was a major producer of foie gras.<ref>The New Encyclopædia, ed. Daniel Coit Gilman, Harry Thurston Peck and Frank Moore. (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1903): Vol. XIII, 778.</ref>

The Strasburg pie is mentioned in William Makepeace Thackeray's novel Vanity Fair as being popular with the diplomatic corps.<ref>William Makepeace Thackeray, Vanity Fair, Ch. 9.</ref>

T. S. Eliot's poem "The Ad-Dressing of Cats", part of Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats and also the last song in its musical adaptation Cats, contains the line "And you might now and then supply/Some caviar or Strasbourg pie".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Capt. Aubrey and Dr. Maturin enjoy a "Strasburg pie" in Patrick O'Brian's 1988 Napoleonic sea adventure The Letter of Marque.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Hot preparations

Given the increased internationalization of cuisines and food supply, foie gras is increasingly found in hot preparations in the United States, France, and elsewhere. Duck foie gras ("foie gras de canard") has a slightly lower fat content and is generally more suitable in texture to cooking at high temperatures than goose foie gras ("foie gras d'oie"), but chefs have been able to cook goose foie gras employing similar techniques developed for duck, albeit with more care.

Raw foie gras can be roasted, sauteed, pan-seared (poêlé), or (with care and attention) grilled. As foie gras has high-fat content, contact with heat needs to be brief and, therefore, at a high temperature, lest it burns or melts. Optimal structural integrity for searing requires the foie gras to be cut to a thickness between 15 and 25 mm (½ – 1 inch), resulting in a rare, uncooked center. Some chefs prefer not to devein the foie gras, as the veins can help preserve the integrity of the fatty liver. It is increasingly common to sear the foie gras on one side only, leaving the other side uncooked. Practitioners of molecular gastronomy such as Heston Blumenthal of The Fat Duck restaurant first flash-freeze foie gras in liquid nitrogen as part of the preparation process.<ref name=cryo>Template:Cite news</ref>

Hot foie gras requires minimal spices, typically black pepper, paprika (in Hungary) and salt. Chefs have used fleur de sel as a gourmet seasoning for hot foie gras to add an "important textural accent" with its crunch.<ref name=sel>Nation's Restaurant News, 2004.</ref>

Consumption

Foie gras is regarded as a gourmet luxury dish.<ref>Serventi 1993, cover text.</ref> In France, it is mainly consumed on special occasions, such as Christmas or New Year's Eve réveillon dinners, though the recent increased availability of foie gras has made it a less exceptional dish.<ref name="telegraph.co.uk">Template:Cite newsTemplate:Cbignore</ref> In some areas of France, foie gras is eaten year-round.

Duck foie gras is the slightly cheaper<ref name="telegraph.co.uk"/> and, since a change of production methods in the 1950s to battery, by far the most common kind, particularly in the US. The taste of duck foie gras is often referred to as musky with a subtle bitterness. Goose foie gras is noted as less gamey and smoother, with a more delicate flavour.<ref>... goose liver is more delicate and less gamey tasting that its duck equivalent France: World Food By Stephen Fallon, Michael Rothschild Template:ISBN, Template:ISBN page 49</ref>

Animal welfare

Gavage feeding

Gavage-based foie gras production is controversial due to the animal welfare consequences of the force-feeding procedure, intensive housing and husbandry, an enlarged liver and the potential for being detrimental to human health. Some countries find foie gras to be "morally objectionable".<ref name="DeSoucey">Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Which One EU committee report noted that up to 1998, there was only a small number of scientific studies on the welfare of birds used for foie gras production; however, the Committee found sufficient evidence to conclude that "force-feeding, as currently practised, is detrimental to the welfare of the birds".<ref name="EU" /> The industry repeatedly faces accusations of torture and cruelty.<ref name="DeSoucey2016">Template:Cite book</ref>

Suitability of breeds and species

The production of foie gras occurs on the argument that migrating wildfowl seasonally eat such that their liver naturally enlarges. However, the bird used predominantly in foie gras production is a hybrid of a male Muscovy duck and a female Pekin duck. It has been noted that the Muscovy duck is non-migratory,<ref name="Hoffmann, 1992a">Template:Cite journal</ref> and both the Pekin and the mulard hybrid cannot fly.<ref name="Hoffmann, 1992b">Template:Cite journal</ref> Domestic ducks (including the Pekin) are derived from the mallard duck, which is sometimes migratory and sometimes not. Therefore, although the domestic goose might be adapted to store food before migration, it is less likely that the Mulard hybrid duck has the same potential.<ref name="EU" />

Force-feeding procedure

Fear

Geese and ducks show avoidance behaviour (indicating aversion) toward the person who feeds them and the feeding procedure.<ref name="EU" /><ref name="AVMA" /> The AVMA (Animal Welfare Division) when considering foie gras production stated "The relatively new Mulard breed used in foie gras production seems to be more prone than its parent breeds to fear of people".<ref name="AVMA" /> Although in 1998 the EU Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare reported seeing this aversion, they noted that at the time, there was no "conclusive" scientific evidence on the aversive nature of force-feeding.<ref name="EU">Template:Cite web Template:Small</ref>

Injury

That same EU Scientific Committee <ref name="EU"/> also reported that there was usually clear evidence of tissue damage in the esophagus of birds which had been gavage fed, although one 1972 study cited by the report observed no alteration of the esophageal tissue. More recent scientific studies have shown that the esophagus of birds can be injured or inflamed by gavage feeding.<ref name="Skippon" /><ref name="AVMA" /><ref name="Kozák">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Servière">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Stress

After measuring a range of physiological parameters in male Mulard ducks, it was concluded in one study that the acute stress caused by force-feeding is similar at the beginning and end of the commercial production of foie gras.<ref name="Flaments">Template:Cite journal</ref> A similar study on Muscovy ducks found that gavage feeding was related to an increase in panting behaviour and serum corticosterone levels, indicating increased stress attributable to this feeding method.<ref name="Mohammed">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Housing and husbandry

In France, at the end of 2015, individual cages were prohibited to improve animal welfare. They were to be replaced by cages housing 4 to 5 birds.<ref name="Marie" />

Behavioural restriction

During the force-feeding period, the birds are kept in individual cages with wire or plastic mesh floors or sometimes in small groups on slatted floors. Individual caging restricts movements and behaviours by preventing the birds from standing erect, turning around, or flapping their wings. Birds cannot carry out other natural waterfowl behaviours, such as bathing and swimming.<ref name="Skippon"/> Ducks and geese are social animals, and individual cages prevent such interactions.<ref name="EU" /> According to a 2023 European food safety authority (EFSA) report, even the collective cages and pens currently in use in Europe do not offer enough space to the birds for them to express their natural behaviour.<ref name=":4" />

During the force-feeding period, when the birds are not being fed, they are sometimes kept in near-darkness; this prevents normal investigatory behaviour and results in poor welfare.<ref name="EU" />

Injury

Lesions can occur on the sternum of the birds due to necrosis of the skin. This is observed more frequently in birds reared in cages rather than on the floor. The prevalence is higher in Mulard ducks (40–70%) compared to under 6% in Muscovy ducks. This is due to the larger pectoralis profundus major and minor muscles in Muscovy ducks compared to Mulards.<ref name="EU" /> The relatively new Mulard breed used in foie gras production seems more prone to developing lesions in the area of the sternum when kept in small cages and to bone breakage during transport and slaughter.<ref name="AVMA" />

Where ducks are fattened in group pens, it has been suggested that the increased effort required to capture and restrain ducks in pens might cause them to experience more stress during force-feeding. Injuries and fatalities during transport and slaughter occur in all types of poultry production; fattened ducks are more susceptible to conditions such as heat stress.

Enlarged liver

Foie gras production results in the bird's liver being swollen. In some ducks, liver size changes seasonally, increasing by as much as 30% to 50%, with more pronounced changes in females. However, foie gras production enlarges the livers ten times their normal size.<ref name="Skippon" /><ref name="AVMA" /> This impairs liver function due to the obstruction of blood flow and expands the abdomen, making it difficult for the birds to breathe.<ref name="AVMA">Template:Cite web</ref> Death occurs if the force-feeding is continued.<ref name="Viva">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="EU" />

Mortality rates

The mortality rate in force-fed birds varies from 2% to 4%, compared with approximately 0.2% in age-matched, non-force-fed drakes.<ref name="Skippon">Template:Cite journal</ref> Mortality rates do not differ between the force-feeding period and the previous rearing phase, with both being approximately 2.5%.<ref name="Marie">Template:Cite web</ref>

Controversy

The controversial nature of foie gras production was identified in a paper that juxtaposed the views of "foie gras production as the apotheosis of murderous meat production, and those who consider it to be a co-production between humans and animals".<ref name="Heath">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Animal rights and welfare advocates such as Animal Equality,<ref name="auto">Template:Cite web</ref> PETA,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Viva!,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> the Humane Society of the United States,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and FOUR PAWS<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> contend that foie gras production methods, and force-feeding in particular, constitute cruel treatment of animals.

An Ipsos MORI poll found that 63% of the UK population would like to see a complete ban on the sale of foie gras in the UK.<ref name="Milne">Template:Cite news</ref>

In 2011 and 2012, Animal Equality conducted investigations inside four foie gras farms in France and five in Spain, exposing the cruelty of force-feeding.<ref name="auto"/> The footage collected reveals ducks covered in blood with broken and torn beaks, birds kept in small metal cages with no room to turn around, and ducks and geese desperately struggling to avoid force-feeding.

In April–May 2013, an investigator from Mercy for Animals recorded an undercover video at Hudson Valley Foie Gras farm in New York state. The footage showed workers forcefully pushing tubes down ducks' throats. One worker said of the force-feeding process: "Sometimes the duck doesn't get up, and it dies. There have been times that 20 ducks were killed." Hudson Valley operations manager Marcus Henley replied that the farm's mortality statistics are not above average for the poultry industry.<ref name=Tepper2013>Template:Cite news</ref> Because Hudson Valley provides foie gras to Amazon.com, Mercy for Animals began a campaign urging Amazon to stop selling foie gras, a move that has already been made by Costco, Safeway, and Target.<ref name=Zara2013>Template:Cite news</ref>

In November 2013, the Daily Mirror published a report based on the video they obtained depicting cruelty towards ducks in a farm owned by French firm Ernest Soulard, which is a supplier to celebrity chef Gordon Ramsay's restaurants. The restaurant chain suspended purchasing from the supplier following the exposé.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Animal research

The process of force-feeding can make animals sick by stressing the liver. If the stress is prolonged, excess protein may build up and clump together as amyloids, consumption of which has been found to induce amyloidosis in laboratory mice. It has been hypothesized this may be a route of transmission in humans too, and so be a risk for people with inflammatory complaints such as rheumatoid arthritis.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Legislation and bans

Several countries and regions have laws against force-feeding or the sale or importation of foie gras; even where it is legal, some retailers have ceased selling it.<ref name="AmazonUKban">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="FortnumMason">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="harveynichols">Template:Cite news</ref>

In Switzerland, foie gras production has been prohibited since 1978<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and force-feeding is explicitly banned since 2008.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In Europe, force-feeding is only legal in 5 of the 27 member states:<ref>Standing Committee of the European Convention for the protection of animals kept for farming purposes. Recommendations concerning domestic ducks (anas platyrhynchos). 1999 [accessed 2023 Mar 22]. https://search.coe.int/cm/Pages/result_details.aspx?ObjectID=090000168052fac6</ref> France, Belgium,<ref name="Feedblix">Template:Cite web</ref> Hungary, Bulgaria, Spain. In 2017, foie gras production was banned in Brussels, a largely symbolic measure because of the small number of producers within the city limits.

In 2019, New York City instituted a foie gras ban but was struck down in 2022 by an order from the New York's Agriculture and Markets Department stating in the order that the ban was "unusual", "unreasonabl[e]", and "legislative overreach".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

In November 2022, the Buckingham Palace household wrote to the PETA campaign group that foie gras was not bought or served in royal residences.<ref name="Telegraph">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="bbc">Template:Cite news</ref>

Force-feeding is also prohibited in Israel,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Turkey<ref name=":6">Template:Cite web</ref> and Australia.<ref name=":6" /> Foie gras import is prohibited in India.<ref name=":6" /> Foie gras production and sale is prohibited in California.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

See also

• List of delicacies
• List of duck dishes
• Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, with homologous pathophysiologic aspects
• Ortolan bunting
• Shen Zhu – the fattening of pigs in a manner similar to gavage
• Specialty foods

References

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• Larousse Gastronomique, by Prosper Montagne (Ed.), Clarkson Potter, 2001. Template:ISBN.
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Articles

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External links

• Video of foie gras production.

Scientific studies

• Report of the EU Scientific Template:Cite web Template:Small

Alternatives

• Foie Gras without force-feeding
• Faux Gras – "Foie Gras Without The Cruelty"
• Foie Gras history and using microbiome manipulation without forced feeding Template:Webarchive
• Chef Dan Barber tells the story of a small farm in Spain that has found a humane way to produce foie gras
• Can Ethical Foie Gras Happen in America? TIME, 12 August 2009