Francs-Tireurs et Partisans

The Francs-tireurs et partisans françaisTemplate:Efn ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}; FTPF), or commonly the Francs-tireurs et partisans (FTP), was an armed resistance organization created by leaders of the French Communist Party during World War II (1939–45). The communist party was neutral at first, following the Soviet Union's official view that the war was a struggle between imperialists, but changed to a policy of armed resistance against the German occupation of France after Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Three groups were formed, consisting of party members, young communists and foreign workers. Early in 1942 they were merged to form the FTP, which undertook sabotage and assassinations of the occupation. The FTP became the best organized and most effective of the French Resistance groups. In March 1944, before the Allied forces returned to Normandy, the FTP was theoretically merged with the other Resistance groups. In practice, it retained its independence until the end of the war.

Background

Germany attacked the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 in Operation Barbarossa. With this, the policy of the French Communist Party (Parti communiste français, PCF) switched to support for armed struggle against the German occupiers.Template:Sfn The National Front (Front national de l'indépendance de la France) was created as a French Resistance movement in the northern area in June 1941.Template:Sfn The Front national was theoretically independent of the PCF, but in reality it was dominated by the PCF.Template:Sfn At first the objectives were mainly political, taking advantage of the unstable situation under the occupying German army.Template:Sfn Charles Tillon was put in charge of military matters.Template:Sfn

On 2 August 1941 Albert Ouzoulias was put in charge of the Bataillons de la Jeunesse, fighting groups that were being created by the Jeunesses Communistes.Template:Sfn Soon after, Arthur Dallidet introduced him to Eugène Hénaff, who was responsible for the armed struggle under the direction of Tillon.Template:Sfn In October 1941 the PCF decided to unify its armed groups into the Organisation spéciale.Template:Sfn Hénaff joined the leadership of the PCF's Organisation Spéciale, where he was responsible for coordinating between the various armed units. He was a member of the Comité militaire national, which became the Francs-tireurs et partisans français (FTPF).Template:Sfn

FTP fighters at the camp of Roche-Saint-Secret-Béconne in May 1943

Formation

Rather than limit armed action to Communists, it was decided to create a non-Communist organization, the Francs-Tireurs et Partisans (FTP), under the Front national.Template:SfnTemplate:Failed verification The FTP was open to non-communists but operated under communist control.Template:Sfn The FTP movement was seen as a way to increase the political influence of the Communist Party in the future government of France.Template:Sfn A special issue of L'Humanité in February 1942 confirmed the existence of "partisans et de francs-tireurs" (partisans and free-shooters) to whom patriots should give aid and assistance. Another special issue in March 1942 urged people to form such groups to conduct guerrilla war and help the population defend itself against the "boches".Template:Sfn

The FTP was created in April 1942, led by Charles Tillon.Template:Sfn On 3 April 1942 L'Humanité used the expression "Francs-Tireurs et Partisans" for the first time, and in following weeks reported acts of sabotage of war production and attacks against German soldiers and French collaborators. The paper began using the initials FTP in July 1942.Template:Sfn The FTP's mandate was to sabotage railways and factories, punish collaborators and assassinate German soldiers.Template:Sfn

Organization

A captured Resistance fighter in 1944. The German caption says "This communist leader is on the wanted list ... his papers prove his affiliation with terrorist groups."

The FTP unified three Communist organizations, the Bataillons de la Jeunesse, the Organisation Spéciale and the Main-d'œuvre immigrée (MOI).Template:Sfn The FTP national committee was headed by Charles Tillon, commander in chief.Template:Sfn Eugène Hénaff was political commissioner of the force until May 1943, when he was replaced by Template:Interlanguage link. Albert Ouzoulias was in charge of operations, and Georges Beyer was responsible for armaments and recruitment.Template:Sfn Template:Interlanguage link, a captain of the reserve, was Chief of Staff. He wrote some of the manuals on tactics and armament, but his main role was to act as liaison between the FTP and the Gaullist resistance groups.Template:Sfn

The inter-regional and departmental military committees reported to the central organization in groups of three, a basic principle in the communist Resistance. In the field, each group would consist of two groups of three or four men under a commander and his assistant.Template:Sfn For as long as possible they would continue to work in their normal occupations, only coming together to undertake an operation and then if possible returning to their normal daily life.Template:Sfn Ouzoulias was a proponent of quick strikes against carefully studied targets by small groups of fighters, who would then rapidly withdraw. He also drew up guidelines for urban warfare in which FTP units could attack greatly superior German forces and be protected while they withdrew.Template:Sfn Tillon called this a strategy of "drops of mercury", through which the group could use surprise and mobility to achieve transient superiority before disappearing.Template:Sfn

The FTP-MOI (Francs-tireurs et partisans – main-d'œuvre immigrée) was created in the spring of 1942 with four detachments made up of communists of "immigrant" origin. Most of its fighters were Jews from France, Hungary, Romania or elsewhere in Europe. Some were former volunteers in the International Brigades of the Spanish Civil War (1936–39). Leaflets and publications were issued in Yiddish.Template:Sfn Although integrated with the FTP, the FTP-MOI groups retained their autonomy, which caused problems at times.Template:Sfn The FTP-MOI were aroused to violent reprisals against the Germans by the Vel' d'Hiv Roundup in July 1942 in which Jews in Paris and other parts of France were arrested, detained and then deported to be killed in the Auschwitz concentration camp.Template:Sfn The violence of the FTP-MOI in their struggle for survival did not always coincide with the interests of the French people. They received little recognition in France after the war.Template:Sfn

The FTP-MOI were the target of the notorious Affiche Rouge poster campaign, which emphasised the composition of the group's membership in an attempt to discredit the Resistance as not "French" enough.<ref>Film documentary Archived 2016-01-28 at the Wayback Machine on the website of the Cité nationale de l'histoire de l'immigration (in French)</ref> The campaign seems to have had the effect of highlighting their feats to the general public as freedom fighters.

History

French résistants firing in a skirmish during the battle for Paris

The military strength of the communists was still relatively feeble at the end of 1941, but the rapid growth of the FTP ensured that French communists regained their reputation as an effective anti-fascist force.Template:Sfn Arthur Dallidet was placed in charge of security.Template:Sfn Dallidet was recognized talking to a woman in a cafe beside the Reuilly metro station on the evening on 28 February 1942. He was arrested, taken to La Santé Prison, chained, handcuffed and severely beaten. He did not reveal any information, but had been carrying a long list of names and addresses. This led to other arrests including "Betty" (Madeleine Passot), his most important liaison officer. Further names and addresses were found in Betty's apartment.Template:Sfn

Gradually the FTP developed a more military organization, with sections, companies and battalions, each containing three lower-level groups. There were often gaps in this paper organization.Template:Sfn The FTP complained that the British and Gaullists were deliberately depriving them of arms, although more likely the problem was that they did not have the necessary contacts to arrange delivery.Template:Sfn

In November 1943 Joseph Epstein, the FTP Chief of Staff, was arrested and subjected to extreme torture, but revealed nothing.Template:SfnTemplate:Efn This was followed by a major police operation that largely destroyed the FTP's Paris organization.Template:Sfn From the end of 1943 the national organization began to intensify preparation for a national uprising to support the expected Allied landings in Europe.Template:Sfn

Postcard depicting an FTP member sending Pétain with a kick in the behind to the other bank of the Rhine river, 1944.

By 1944, the FTP had an estimated strength of 100,000 men and women.Template:Sfn In March 1944 General Charles de Gaulle placed all the French Forces of the Interior (Forces françaises de l'intérieur, FFI) under the authority of General Marie-Pierre Kœnig, but the FTP retained its de facto independence. During the Allied Normandy Campaign the FTP conducted delaying actions in the center and southwest of France against the German troops who had been recalled to the battle zone.Template:Sfn

Liberation of Paris

From June to August 1944 Ouzoulias coordinated the FTP's military action in the Paris region.Template:Sfn Ouzoulias and Colonel Henri Rol-Tanguy, who led the Île-de-France Resistance movement, planned a major rising in Paris which played a vital role during the August 1944 Liberation of Paris.Template:Sfn

The FFI in Paris led by Alexandre Parodi and Jacques Chaban-Delmas urged patience while Tanguy wanted to start a revolt, being deterred only by the fact that the Resistance in Paris had about 15,000 men, but only 600 guns, mostly rifles and machine guns.<ref name=":0">Ousby, Ian (2000) [1999]. Occupation: The Ordeal of France, 1940–1944. New York: Cooper Square Press. pp. 291-292. Template:ISBN</ref> On 19 August 1944, the Paris police, until then still loyal to Vichy, went over to the Resistance as a group of policemen hosted the tricolore over the Préfecture de Police on the Ile de la Cité, which was the first time the tricolor had flown in Paris since June 1940. Emboldened, Tanguy and his men started to attack German forces on the Boulevard Saint-Michel and Boulevard Saint-Germain, leading to a mass insurrection as Parisians started to build barricades in the streets. By the end of the day, about 50 Germans and 150 résistants had been killed and not wanting the Communists to have the credit for liberating Paris, the Gaullist Parodi sanctioned the uprising.<ref name=":0" />

Faced with an urban uprising that he was unprepared for, the city's German commander Dietrich von Choltitz arranged a truce with Parodi via the Swedish consul Raoul Nordling, marking the first time that the Germans had treated the resistance as a legitimate opponent.<ref name=":0" /> But they skirmished on 22 August, when some German units tried to leave their fortifications. On 23 August, under Choltitz's orders, the Germans opened fire on the Grand Palais, an FFI stronghold, and German tanks fired at the barricades in the streets. Hitler gave the order to inflict maximum damage on the city.<ref>Libération de Paris: Balises 1944, L'Humanité, 23 August 2004.</ref>

Among those participating in the fighting were those resisters freed on 19 August Four in a Nordling negotiated prisoner exchange. These included 19 year-old Madeleine Riffaud who on 23 August led the FTP operation that trapped a train carrying loot and munitions from the city in the Buttes-Chaumont tunnel and secured the surrender of the 80 German soldiers aboard.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

On the 25 August, after an advance unit of General Leclerc's 2nd Armored Division, "La Nueve" (160 men, most of whom were Spanish Republicans) had broken into the city and reached the Hotel de Ville,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> von Choltitz capitulated. The last FTP operation in the city (in which Riffaud also participated) was on the 26th, an attack on the barracks on Place de la République, whose garrison who refused to accept von Choltitz's order to surrender.<ref name=":9">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Demobilisation

On 28 August 1944 de Gaulle put Ouzoulias in charge of the FTP and the FFI.Template:Sfn In the autumn of 1944 Ouzoulias was charged by de Gaulle with integrating the FTP members with the regular French army.Template:Sfn In October 1944 the communist militias were dissolved and the FTP was integrated into General de Lattre's army.Template:Sfn

In 2019, a surviving member of FTP, Edmond Réveil, revealed details of the June 1944 execution of up to 40 Nazi occupiers, taken during the Tulle uprising, along with a woman collaborator, at Template:Lang, near Meymac. After delay due to the COVID-19 pandemic, forensic examination of the likely burial site only began in May 2023, initially using ground-penetrating radar.<ref name="BBC-65613900">Template:Cite news</ref> 11 bodies had been found at the site in 1967; by August 2023 artefacts had been unearthed, but no further bodies.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

See also

• Free France
• Lille during World War II
• Maquis (World War II)
• Military history of France during World War II
• Organisation de résistance de l'armée
• Resistance during World War II
• Zone libre

Sources

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