Great white shark
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The great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), also known as the white shark, white pointer, or simply great white, is a species of large mackerel shark which can be found in the coastal surface waters of all the major oceans. It is the only known surviving species of its genus Carcharodon. The great white shark is notable for its size, with the largest preserved female specimen measuring Template:Cvt in length and around Template:Cvt in weight at maturity.<ref name=DMGO03 /> However, most are smaller; males measure Template:Cvt, and females measure Template:Cvt on average.<ref name="LGWS">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name=Smithsonian>Template:Cite web</ref> According to a 2014 study, the lifespan of great white sharks is estimated to be as long as 70 years or more, well above previous estimates, making it one of the longest lived cartilaginous fishes currently known.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> A year later another study found that male great white sharks take 26 years to reach sexual maturity, while the females take 33 years to be ready to produce offspring.<ref name=":0" /> Great white sharks can swim at speeds of 25 km/h (16 mph)<ref name=":1">Template:Cite journal</ref> for short bursts and to depths of Template:Cvt.<ref name="deep">Template:Cite news</ref>
The great white shark is arguably the world's largest-known extant macropredatory fish, and is one of the primary predators of marine mammals, such as pinnipeds and dolphins. The great white shark is also known to prey upon a variety of other animals, including fish, other sharks, and seabirds. It has only one recorded natural predator, the orca.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
The species faces numerous ecological challenges which has resulted in international protection. The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists the great white shark as a vulnerable species,<ref name="iucn" /> and it is included in Appendix II of CITES.<ref name=CITES>Template:Cite web</ref> It is also protected by several national governments, such as Australia (as of 2018).<ref name="au2013">Template:Cite report</ref> Due to their need to travel long distances for seasonal migration and extremely demanding diet, it is not logistically feasible to keep great white sharks in captivity; because of this, while attempts have been made to do so in the past, there are no aquariums in the world known to house a live specimen.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
The great white shark is depicted in popular culture as a ferocious man-eater, largely as a result of the novel Jaws by Peter Benchley and its subsequent film adaptation by Steven Spielberg. While humans are not a preferred prey,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> this species is nonetheless responsible for the largest number of reported and identified fatal unprovoked shark attacks on humans.<ref name="sharkAttackStats">Template:Cite web</ref> However, attacks are rare, typically occurring fewer than 10 times per year globally.<ref name="isaf">Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Etymology and naming
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The most common English names for the species include 'great white shark', 'white shark', and Australian variant 'white pointer'.<ref name=Compagno1997>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=FishBaseVernacular>Template:Cite web</ref> These names are thought to refer to its white underside, which is noticeable in dead sharks lying upside down.<ref name=GWSFloridaMuseum>Template:Cite web</ref> Colloquial use favours the name 'great white shark' or simply 'great white', with 'great' perhaps emphasizing the size and power of the species. Scientists typically use 'white shark', as there is no "lesser white shark" to be compared to,<ref name=ElasmoCommonName>Template:Cite web</ref> though some use 'white shark' to refer to all members of the Lamnidae.<ref name=FishBaseLamnidae />
The scientific genus name Carcharodon is a portmanteau of two Ancient Greek words: the prefix carchar- is derived from κάρχαρος (kárkharos), which means "sharp". The suffix -odon derives from ὀδών (odṓn), a which translates to "tooth". The specific name carcharias is from the καρχαρίας (karkharías), the Ancient Greek word for shark.<ref name=FishBase /><ref name=GWSFloridaMuseum/> The great white shark was one of the species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae and assigned the scientific name Squalus carcharias, Squalus being the genus that he placed all sharks in.Template:Sfn By the 1810s, it was recognized that the shark should be placed in a new genus, but it was not until 1838 when Sir Andrew Smith coined the name Carcharodon as the new genus.<ref name=JordanGenericName>Template:Cite journal</ref>
There have been a few attempts to describe and classify the white shark before Linnaeus. One of its earliest mentions in literature as a distinct type of animal appears in Pierre Belon's 1553 book De aquatilibus duo, cum eiconibus ad vivam ipsorum effigiem quoad ejus fieri potuit, ad amplissimum cardinalem Castilioneum. In it, he illustrated and described the shark under the name Canis carcharias based on the ragged nature of its teeth and its alleged similarities with dogs.Template:Efn Another name used for the white shark around this time was Lamia, first coined by Guillaume Rondelet in his 1554 book Libri de Piscibus Marinis, who also identified it as the fish that swallowed the prophet Jonah in biblical texts.<ref name=SmithsonainSeaDogs />
Taxonomy and evolution
The white shark is the sole recognized extant species in the genus Carcharodon, and is one of five extant species belonging to the family Lamnidae.<ref name=FishBase>Template:Cite web</ref> Other members of this family include the mako sharks, porbeagle, and salmon shark. The family belongs to the Lamniformes, the order of mackerel sharks.<ref name=FishBaseLamnidae>Template:Cite web</ref>
Phylogeny
The modern clade of the Lamnidae is estimated to have emerged between 65 and 46 million years ago (mya) based on a 1996 molecular clock using the mitochondrial DNA gene cytochrome b.<ref name=Martin1996>Template:Cite book</ref> Most phylogenetic analyses based on molecular data or anatomical features place the great white shark as the sister species to the mako shark clade with the Lamna clade as the most basal in the family.<ref name=StoneandShimada>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=LamnaMitogenome>Template:Cite journal</ref> Under this topology, the 1996 clock estimated the great white shark's divergence from the makos to have occurred between 60 and 43 mya.Template:Efn<ref name=Martin1996 /> A more recent 2024 clock using genome-wide autosomal single nucleotide polymorphisms estimated a later alternate divergence between the shortfin mako and great white shark at 41.6 mya.Template:Efn<ref name=Wagneretal>Template:Cite journal</ref> A minority of analyses recovered an alternate placement of the great white shark as the most basal member.<ref name=LamnaMitogenome /> A 2025 clock using the whole mitogenome with this topology estimated the divergence between the great white shark and other lamnids at 47.4 mya.<ref name=LasoJadartetal>Template:Cite journal</ref>
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Fossil history
The great white shark first unambiguously appears in the fossil record in the Pacific basin about 5.3 mya at the beginning of the Pliocene.<ref name=Long2014 /> Although there are few claims of fossils dated as early as 16 mya, their validity is doubted as mislabeled or misidentified.Template:Efn<ref name=Kent2018>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Cappetta2012>Template:Cite book</ref> Like all sharks, the great white's skeleton is made primarily of soft cartilage that does not preserve well. The overwhelming majority of fossils as a result are teeth.<ref name=JoshDavis>Template:Cite web</ref> Nevertheless, paleontologists have confidently traced the emergence of the great white shark and its immediate ancestry to a large extinct shark known as Carcharodon hastalis.<ref name=Ehret2012>Template:Cite journal</ref> This species appeared worldwide during the Early Miocene (~23 mya) and had teeth alike to the modern great white shark's, except that the cutting edges lacked serrations.<ref name=Kent2018 /><ref name=Cappetta2012 /> The form was probably derived from an ancient lineage of large white sharks<ref name=Trif>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=Underwood2011>Template:Cite journal</ref> that arose in the early Eocene (~56-48 mya) from a primitive mako-like shark.<ref name=Trif /> C. hastalis occupied a middle to high trophic position in its ecosystems<ref name=McCormack2022>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=McCormack2025>Template:Cite journal</ref> and was probably piscivorous (fish-eating)<ref name=Ehret2012 /><ref name=Collareta2017>Template:Cite journal</ref> with some addition of marine mammals to its diet.<ref name=Godfrey2025>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Around 8 mya, a Pacific stock of C. hastalis evolved into C. hubbelli. This divergent lineage, sometimes described as a chronospecies,<ref name=Kent2018 /><ref name=Ehret2012 /> was characterized by a gradual development of serrations over the next few million years. They were initially fine and sparse but a mosaic of fossils throughout the Pacific basin document an increase in quantity and coarseness over time,<ref name=Ehret2012 /> eventually becoming fully serrated as the great white shark's by 5.3 mya.<ref name=Long2014 /> Serrations are more effective at cutting prey than non-serrated edges, facilitating further specialization towards a mammal diet.<ref name=Long2014 /><ref name=Godfrey2025 /> It is likely the ancestral unserrated stock had already been regularly targeting marine mammals for millions of years, and therefore maintained an environment favoring rapid selection towards increasingly serrated teeth once a mutation for incipient serrations appeared.<ref name=Godfrey2025 /> Teeth from the same strata may exhibit significant variation in serration development and morphology, which may be indicative of persistent interbreeding with C. hastalis for at least some time.<ref name=JElasmo>Template:Cite web</ref> The great white shark dispersed as soon as it emerged, with fossils in the Mediterranean,<ref name=Collareta2023>Template:Cite journal</ref> North Sea Basin,<ref name=NorthSeaPliocene>Template:Cite journal</ref> and South Africa<ref name=Govender2021>Template:Cite journal</ref> occurring as early as 5.3-5 mya. Colonization of the northwestern Atlantic appeared to have delayed, with fossils absent until 3.3 mya.<ref name=Boessenecker2019>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=YorktownStratigraphy>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Appearance and anatomy
The great white shark has a stocky, torpedo-shaped body with a short, cone-shaped snout; long gill slits that do not reach around the head; a large triangular first dorsal fin, which partly lines up with the pectoral fins, and tiny second dorsal fin; a caudal fin with similarly sized lopes and one keel; and a tiny anal fin.<ref name=GWSFloridaMuseum/><ref name=princeton/> The species has a countershaded coloration; being dark on top, usually blue-gray or gray-brown, with a white underside. It also has black tips on the underside of the pectoral fins.<ref name=princeton>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn There is evidence that the species can change pigments, adding melanin to blotches of white.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The skin is covered in dermal denticles which are smaller than in other sharks, with a three ridged surface; each ridge having tips which point backwards.Template:Sfn
Size
The great white shark is considered to be the largest macropredatory shark and fish.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Sfn Females are generally larger than males; the former measure on average Template:Cvt in length while the latter average Template:Cvt in length.<ref name=princeton/> Similarly, females are recorded to weigh Template:Cvt compared to Template:Cvt for males.Template:Sfn The maximum size of the white shark has been debated. Its reputation has led to exaggerated and discredited claims of specimens up to Template:Convert during the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref>Castro, J. L. "A Summary of Observations on the Maximum Size Attained by the White Shark, Carcharodon carcharias" in Template:Harvnb pp. 85–89</ref> Biologists Richard Ellis and John E. McCosker wrote that "These giants seem to disappear or shrink when a responsible observer approaches with tape measure".Template:Sfn
According to shark expert J. E. Randall, the largest white shark reliably measured was a Template:Cvt specimen reported from Ledge Point, Western Australia in 1987.<ref name="SAWP">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=DMGO03/> He stated, "Undoubtedly Carcharodon carcharias exceeds Template:Convert in length, but as yet there is no authenticated record of such a size".<ref>Castro, J. L. "A Summary of Observations on the Maximum Size Attained by the White Shark, Carcharodon carcharias" in Template:Harvnb p. 89</ref> A 2014 study of white shark catch records in the northwest Pacific concluded that the longest reliably measured shark was Template:Convert in total length and the heaviest weighed Template:Convert.<ref name=Christiansen2014>Template:Cite journal</ref> A complete female great white shark specimen caught in the Mediterranean and displayed in the Museum of Zoology in Lausanne, Switzerland, measured Template:Cvt in total body length with the caudal fin in its depressed position, and is estimated to have weighed Template:Cvt making it the largest preserved specimen.<ref name=DMGO03>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Teeth and jaws
The triangular teeth are lined with serrations and can reach Template:Convert.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn They are broader on the upper jaw and overall more slender in juveniles.Template:Sfn The teeth are arranged in rows like a conveyor belt, with teeth in the back moving to replace those in front. An open mouth exposes roughly 26 and 24 front row teeth on the front row of the upper and lower jaw respectively, with a total of 300 teeth in the mouth.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The jaws are separate from the skull, and are connected to the body entirely by muscles and tendons; allowing them to project in and out.Template:Sfn The jaws can reach a gape of 150 degrees.Template:Sfn
A 2008 study using a computer scan of a Template:Convert long and Template:Convert juvenile white shark determined that the specimen could exert a bite force of Template:Convert in the front and Template:Convert in the back. From this, the researchers deduced that a specimen Template:Cvt long and massing Template:Cvt could exert a bite force of Template:Convert in the front and Template:Convert in the back.<ref name="GWB">Template:Cite journal</ref> The jaws are strengthened by mineralized cartilage; this is lacking in young white sharks which have to eat softer food.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Senses
As with other sharks, white sharks use five senses when hunting; eyesight, hearing, olfaction (smell), electroreception (via pits called Ampullae of Lorenzini) and water movement detection (via a lateral line).<ref name=Demski/>Template:Sfn Analysis of the brain and cranial nerves suggest that sight and smell are the most developed.<ref name=Demski>Demski, L. S.; Northcutt, R. G. "The Brain and Cranial Nerves of the White Shark: An Evolutionary Perspective" in Template:Harvnb p. 129</ref> The eyes of the white shark can appear solid black but have blue irises, and the pupil is more horizontal than in other species.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The eyes have a relatively low ratio of rods to cones, indicating daytime vision.<ref name=Collin>Template:Cite journal</ref> They lack nictitating membranes but possess well developed muscles that allow them to roll around to keep track of prey and roll back to avoid attacks.<ref name=Collin/>Template:Sfn The white shark has a relatively large olfactory bulb, an adaptation for smelling across open ocean;<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> it can detect potential prey from Template:Convert.Template:Sfn The vomeronasal system, located in the roof of the mouth, also appears to play a role in olfactory sensing.<ref name=Marra/> It's lateral line can detect disruptions in the water from Template:Convert away.Template:Sfn
Internal physiology
The great white shark is an obligate ram ventilator; to breathe it must swim constantly so water flows through the gills.Template:Sfn Spiracles, extra breathing holes behind the eyes common in bottom dwelling sharks, is reduced or absent in this species.Template:Sfn It has a large, double-lobed, liver that can be almost 30% of its body weight, and stores lipids, fatty acids and oils.<ref name=DelRaye/><ref name=Pethybridge/>Template:Sfn The liver helps keep the shark from sinking, as the oil has six times the buoyancy of the surrounding water.Template:Sfn The lipids and fatty acids provide the shark energy for travel and fuel for reproduction and growth.<ref name=DelRaye>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=Pethybridge/> One study concluded that a white shark liver is more energy-rich than whale blubber.<ref name=Pethybridge>Template:Cite journal</ref> White sharks appear to have strong immune systems and can tolerate high amounts of toxic heavy metals in their blood, moreso than other vertebrates.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> They are also documented to heal relatively quickly from even serve wounds,<ref>Towner, A.; Smale, M. J.; Jewell, O. "Boat-Strike Wound Healing in Carcarodon carcharias" in Template:Harvnb p. 92</ref> and the species' genome shows "positive selection in key genes involved in the wound-healing process...".<ref name=Marra>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Unlike most other fish, white sharks are endothermic ('warm-blooded').Template:Sfn Their bodies can maintain temperatures warmer than the surrounding water, which allows them to be active and hunt in cool waters. One study found that stomach temperatures ranged from Template:Convert in waters Template:Convert.<ref name=Goldman>Template:Cite journal</ref> White sharks maintain a warm body temperature via a complex blood vessel system known as a rete mirabile, were warm blood generated from the dark slow-twitch muscles is constantly supplied to other parts of the body within a countercurrent exchange system.<ref name=Goldman/>Template:Sfn Heat is retained within the body rather than exiting via the gills.Template:Sfn Warm blood can also be redirected from the liver to the body core via a vascular shunt, which can open and close. In addition, the species has an enlarged, thickened heart and its blood contains more red-blood cells and hemoglobin than even most mammals and birds.<ref name=Goldman/>
Distribution and habitat
Great white sharks range from tropical to temperate and even colder waters around the world,<ref name=GWSFloridaMuseum/> with major populations in the northeastern Pacific, western North Atlantic, the Mediterranean, southern African waters, northwestern Pacific, Oceania and both the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of South America.<ref name=Christiansen2014/><ref name="O'Connell"/> Shark expert Greg Skomal lists the Farallon Islands, California, Guadalupe Island, Mexico, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, Western Cape, South Africa, Neptune Islands, Australia, and both Stewart Island and the Chatham Islands, New Zealand as major coastal feeding aggregations.Template:Sfn Researchers have also identified an offshore feeding aggregation between western North America and Hawaii dubbed the White Shark Café.<ref name=Jorgensen>Template:Cite journal</ref>
White sharks can be found both along the coast and in the open ocean, and may dive to depths of up to Template:Cvt but are typically closer to the surface.<ref name=GWSFloridaMuseum/><ref name=princeton/> Deeper dives are more common in the open ocean.<ref name=Bonfil/><ref name=Skomal2017/> Coastal habitats used include nearshore archipelagos, offshore reefs, banks and shoals, and headlands.<ref name=GWSFloridaMuseum/> A 2018 study indicated that white sharks will congregate in anticyclonic eddies in the open ocean.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Juvenile white sharks are more limited to shallow coastal waters with temperatures between Template:Cvt.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Increased observation of young sharks in areas they were not previously common, such as Monterey Bay on the central California coast, suggest climate change may be forcing juveniles towards the poles.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Migrations
White sharks go on vast migrations; one individual that was tagged off the South African coast swam to the southern coast of Australia and back within a year. Another white shark from South Africa was tracked and documented swimming to Australia's northwestern coast and back, a journey of Template:Cvt in under nine months.<ref name=Bonfil>Template:Cite journal</ref> In May 2024, a satellite tag was recovered from an Indonesian fisherman which was determined to have come from a subadult female great white shark tagged off the South African coast in May 2012 which swam to and got killed off the Indonesian coast in November 2016.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
In the northeastern Pacific, white sharks travel between the coastal US and Mexico and the Hawaiian Archipelago; they feed along the coast mostly during fall and winter, and farther out to sea during spring and summer.<ref name=Carlisle>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In the western North Atlantic, white shark congregate between the Gulf of Maine and Cape Hatteras during spring and summer, and shift farther south towards Florida and around to the Gulf of Mexico during the fall and winter. In fall, winter and spring, some sharks disperse widely across the ocean, reaching as far east as the Azores.<ref name=Skomal2017>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Behavior and ecology
Great white sharks are more active during the daytime;Template:Sfn how they sleep is not well understood. At nighttime, one individual was recorded swimming slowly in one direction along a current with its mouth open.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> White sharks typically swim at around Template:Convert but can sprint up to Template:Convert.Template:Sfn One individual was recorded cruising at a sustained speed of Template:Convert while migrating, which is fast for a shark and more similar to fast-swimming tuna.<ref name=Bonfil/> White sharks display various surface behaviors, such as poking its head out or spyhop to observe an object above the water, as well as 'Repetitive Aerial Gaping' where a spy-hopping shark repeatedly gaping its mouths while belly-up, possibly as a sign of frustration after missing a bait.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
The white shark is generally considered to be a solitary species, though aggregations do occur. A 2016 study of sharks around Mossel Bay, South Africa concluded that white shark associations are generally random with few social interactions.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> By contrast, a 2019 study found that sharks around Neptune Islands gathered in non-random aggregations.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Similarly a 2022 study of white sharks at Guadalupe Island suggests that individuals may associate so that they can learn from others where to find prey or carcasses to scavenged.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> White shark aggregations can also differ in composition of individuals based on age and sex. At Neptune Islands, sightings of subadult females peak during April and May, subadult males in February and again in September, adult females in June and adult males in September.<ref>Robbins, R. L.; Booth, D. J. "Seasonal Sexual and Size Segregation of White Shark, Carcharodon carcharias, at the Neptune Islands, South Australia" in Template:Harvnb p. 292–293</ref>
Diet and feeding
The great white shark is an apex predator that opportunistically feeds on fish, cephalopods, marine mammals, sea birds and sea turtles. Diet differs based on size and age; individuals that have reached Template:Convert can feed on marine mammals, while juveniles are limited to smaller prey like fish and cephalopods.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Great white sharks are said to prefer prey with high fat content, but even large individuals are recorded to eat low-fat foods.<ref>Hammerschlag, N.; Martin, R. A.; Fallows, C.; Collier, R. S.; Lawrence, R. "Investigatory Behavior towards Surface Objects and Nonconsumptive Strikes on Seabirds by White Sharks, Carcharodon carcharias at Seal Island, South Africa (1997-2010) in Template:Harvnb pp. 96–97</ref> Template:Multiple image Marine mammals preyed on include pinnipeds and cetaceans.Template:Sfn They are also recorded to bite sea otters but do not usually consume them.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The seasonal availability of pinnipeds drives white shark migration to certain locations.Template:Sfn Targeted species include harbor seals, northern elephant seals and California sea lions off western North America; harbor seals and gray seals off eastern North America; Cape fur seals off South Africa; Cape fur seals (Australian subspecies), New Zealand fur seals, and Australian sea lions off Australia; and New Zealand fur seals off New Zealand.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn White sharks mainly hunt pinnipeds by ambush and often target newly weaned young as they have thick blubber but are still small, inexperienced and vulnerable.<ref name="NHmag">Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref name=Fallows2012/> Adults are more difficult to overpower and can injure the shark with their teeth and claws;<ref name=Fallows2012>Fallows, C.; Martin, R . A.; Hammerschlag, N. "Comparisons between White Shark-Pinniped Interactions at Seal Island (South Africa) with Other Sites in California" in Template:Harvnb pp. 111–112</ref> adult male elephant seals are particularly formidable as they can grow as massive as adult white sharks.Template:Sfn<ref name=AmericanScientist/> Some species will mob the shark.<ref>Fallows, C.; Martin, R . A.; Hammerschlag, N. "Comparisons between White Shark-Pinniped Interactions at Seal Island (South Africa) with Other Sites in California" in Template:Harvnb p. 106</ref><ref name=Martin>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Observations off California find that white sharks ambush pinnipeds near the surface from below, seizing and dragging them under. Earless seals, like elephant seals, are more likely to be struck in front of the hind flippers or the head—even leading to decapitation—while sea lions were more likely to be grabbed behind the torso. With their large fore-flippers, sea lions are usually able to break free from the first bite but are weakened and usually recaptured. Prey is released after it dies of blood loss, and the shark feeds on the carcass after it floats to the surface.<ref name=AmericanScientist>Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref>Klimley, A. P.; Pyle, P.; Anderson, S. D. "The Behavior of White Sharks and Their Pinniped Prey during Predatory Attacks" in Template:Harvnb pp. 181, 191</ref> In 1984, Tricas and McCosker suggested that white sharks bite pinnipeds, release them and then wait for them to bleed to death before eating,<ref name=Tricas1984/> though this has been refuted.<ref name=AmericanScientist/> Off South Africa, ambushes on Cape fur seals usually involve the shark leaping or breaching out of the water.<ref name=Martin/> To breach, a shark starts at around Template:Convert below the surface and ascends quickly towards its target, increasing its tail movements and pitch angle.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Sharks may breach partially or entirely out of the water at different angles, clearing up to Template:Convert when airborne. Missed seals may be chased after; such pursuits involve the prey using its speed and agility to escape as the shark employs various maneuvers to catch them. The longer the chase, the less likely the shark succeeds.<ref name=Martin/> Sharks commonly consume fur seals quickly after they are killed.<ref>Fallows, C.; Martin, R . A.; Hammerschlag, N. "Comparisons between White Shark-Pinniped Interactions at Seal Island (South Africa) with Other Sites in California" in Template:Harvnb p. 108</ref> White sharks in Cape Cod hunt seals in shallow water, relying on the murkiness of the water for concealment and striking them from the sides.Template:Sfn
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Cetacean species recorded as prey include small toothed whales like bottlenose dolphins, common dolphins, Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins, striped dolphins, Risso's dolphins and harbor porpoises.<ref>Long, D. J.; Jones, R. E. "White Shark Predation and Scavenging on Cetaceans in the Eastern North Pacific Oceans" in Template:Harvnb pp. 293</ref><ref name="Competition">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=Ferguson/> Bite wounds from white sharks have also been documented on dusky dolphins, dwarf sperm whales, pygmy sperm whales and even beaked whales. White sharks typically attack them from behind—beyond the prey's echolocation—and target the tail, underside or dorsal area.<ref name=Long1996>Long, D. J.; Jones, R. E. "White Shark Predation and Scavenging on Cetaceans in the Eastern North Pacific Ocean" in Template:Harvnb pp. 297, 305</ref> There are two records of white sharks managing to kill small humpback whales, one involved two sharks working as a pair. In both cases the whales were weakened by net entanglement, and the sharks employed strategic biting and as well as drowning.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> White sharks are more likely to scavenge large whales. Multiple sharks will gorge themselves on a single whale carcass, biting into it and ripping off chunks by shaking their heads side-to-side. They may spit out pieces, possibly judging them to be too low in energy using their teeth as mechanoreceptors. The sharks do not appear to act aggressively towards each other, but accidental bites can occur. Eventually, the sharks become lethargic, they can no longer lift their heads out of the water nor can they get in a good bite as they bump into the dead whale.<ref name="KrkosekFallows2013">Template:Cite journal</ref>
White sharks feed on numerous fish species, including other sharks.Template:Sfn One 2023 study found that juvenile and subadult white sharks off the east coast of Australia fed primarily on ray-finned fishes, particularly flathead grey mullets, Japanese scads and various species of porgies, mackrels and tuna.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Off California, white sharks will eat cobezons, white seabasses, lingcod, halibut, leopard sharks, smooth-hounds, spiny dogfishes, school sharks, stingrays, bat rays and skates.Template:Sfn In the Mediterranean, they consume Atlantic bluefin tunas, bullet tunas, Atlantic bonitos, swordfishes, blue sharks, shortfin makos and stingrays. An ocean sunfish was also recorded in a white shark stomach.<ref name=Ferguson/> Off the northeastern US, juveniles commonly eat bottom-dwelling fish like hake, while off South Africa they often prey on dusky sharks.Template:Sfn The remains of an adult whale shark was found in a white shark, though whether this is active hunting or scavenging could not be determined.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
They are also recorded to consume cephalopods as evidenced by beaks found in their stomachs. Off South Africa, white sharks under Template:Convert were found with remains of coastal and bottom-dwelling species like certain octopus species, as well as species of the genera Sepia and Loligo, while sharks over that length seem to prefer more open ocean species like those of the genera Ancistrocheirus, Octopoteuthis, Lycoteuthis, Ornithoteuthis, Chiroteuthis and Argonauta.<ref>Smhale, M. J.; Cliff, G. "White Sharks and Cephalopod Prey Indicators of Habitat Use? in Template:Harvnb p. 53</ref> Near Guadalupe, white sharks have been documented with scars which appear to have been caused by neon flying squids, jumbo squids and giant squids.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Both fish and cephalopods may be important food sources at the White Shark Café.<ref name=Jorgensen/>
Other animals recorded as prey include sea turtles. The shells of green sea turtles and loggerhead sea turtles have been found in white shark stomachs in the Mediterranean,<ref name=Ferguson>Template:Cite journal</ref> and bites have been recorded on leatherback sea turtles off central California.<ref>Long, D. J. "Records of White Shark-Bitten Leatherback Sea Turtles along the Central California Coast" in Template:Harvnb pp. 317–319</ref> Around Seal Island, South Africa, white sharks are recorded to attack and kill seabirds like Cape cormorants, kelp gulls, Cape gannets, brown skuas, African penguins, sooty shearwaters, and white breasted cormorants, but rarely consume them.<ref>Hammerschlag, N.; Martin, R. A.; Fallows, C.; Collier, R. S.; Lawrence, R. "Investigatory Behavior towards Surface Objects and Nonconsumptive Strikes on Seabirds by White Sharks, Carcharodon carcharias at Seal Island, South Africa (1997-2010) in Template:Harvnb pp. 93, 96</ref>
Social communication
Great white sharks communicate with each other through a complex array of body language. Most behaviors have been observed at aggregations around seal rookeries shortly after peak hunting periods, where sharks then engage in extensive socializing.<ref name=SociableKillers>Template:Cite magazine</ref> At least 20 unique forms of body language are known, most of which consist of two sharks swimming with or around each other in passing, parallel, or in circles to examine the other in a ritualized manner.<ref name=SociableKillers /><ref name=Sperone2010>Template:Cite journal</ref> Occasionally one shark will openly show off its body in a lateral display to the other.<ref name=SociableKillers /> It is hypothesized that the main purpose of these interactions is to establish social rank by size to avoid competition.<ref name=SociableKillers /><ref name=Sperone2010 /> Indeed, observations by Sperone and colleagues in 2010 found display behaviors to be more common between individuals of similar size where differences are not immediately obvious. There is no evidence that sex is a significant factor in behavioral patterns.<ref name=Sperone2010 /> With dominance established, the smaller shark then acts submissively towards the larger shark by yielding during subsequent encounters or simply avoiding confrontation.<ref name=SociableKillers /><ref name=Sperone2010 /> Body language is less frequent in California and Australia compared to Dyer Island in South Africa. It is thought that this is because the former locations are less densely populated, and so sharks there are more readily familiar with each other's hierarchy.<ref name=Sperone2010 />
Direct violence is extremely rare, as individuals typically end conflicts through peaceful means.<ref name=SociableKillers /> Splash fights appear to be the most common way of resolving ownership disputes over prey. Here, one shark slaps the surface with its tail to splash water at the competing shark. The competitor either withdraws or responds with a tail splash of its own. Usually one or two splashes are exchanged per shark, though individuals will sometimes persist with more.<ref name=Klimley1996TailSlap>Klimley, A. P.; Pyle, P.; Anderson, S. D. "Tail Slap and Breach: Agonistic Displays among White Sharks?" in Template:Harvnb pp. 241–255</ref><ref name=Klimley2023>Template:Cite journal</ref> The contest is "won" by the shark that compels the other to concede via the most tenacious splashing, which appears to be determined by a cumulative signal strength of vigor and strength. Larger body size does not always secure superior signal strength, on occasion the smaller shark emerges victorious. Great white sharks have also been observed employing tail splashing to intimidate tiger sharks around a whale carcass, and even against boats and shark cages which were likely perceived as competitors.<ref name=Klimley2023 />
Reproduction and growth
Little is known of the reproductive behavior of the great white shark. There are two anecdotal accounts of the species possibly mating, one in 1991 and a second one in 1997, both off New Zealand. These testimonies both report belly to belly rolling during copulation. It is assumed that the male bites onto the female's head or fin while inserting one of his claspers, as is the case in other shark species. The accounts also suggest that that white sharks mate in shallow water away from feeding areas.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>Template:Sfn Females at Guadalupe and Cape Cod have been seen with scarring that may have been the result of copulation, possible evidence that these areas are used for mating.Template:Sfn Conversely other studies have concluded that white sharks may mate offshore; males were found to gather in the White Shark Café during spring and where followed by some females, suggesting a lek mating system where females move through and choose their partners.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In 2013, it was proposed that whale carcasses are an important location for sexually mature sharks to meet for mating.<ref name="KrkosekFallows2013"/>
Some pregnant females have been caught and have provided information on the species' reproductive biology. The great white shark is ovoviviparous; fertilized eggs hatch within the female, and the embryos continue to develop within each uterus.Template:Sfn Their nourishment comes in three stages; they first feed on their yolk sacs, followed by a milky substance secreted by the uterus known as lipid histotrophy, and finally switch to consuming unfertilized eggs.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> After around 12 months, the female gives live birth to two–to–ten pups. Birth intervals last two or three years.<ref name=princeton/> A 2024 metastudy concluded that white sharks give birth during spring and summer in shallow waters surrounding islands with temperatures of Template:Cvt.<ref name="O'Connell">Template:Cite journal</ref> White sharks are born at a length of Template:Convert. In July 2024, a possible newborn white shark was filmed for the first time, off the coast of southern California (just off Carpinteria), measuring an estimated Template:Convert and with a pale complexion, originally attributed to histotrophy.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> A follow-up study confirmed the Carpinteria shark being a newborn, but suggests that the paleness is embryonic epithelium that covers the shark's skin denticles, known to exist in the related salmon shark, and rubs off shortly after birth.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Bands in the shark's vertebrate are used to determine the animal's age and growth. Early studies determined that the species grows relatively quickly; a 1985 study concluded that white sharks reach maturity nine to ten years of age at a length of Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Conversely, a 2015 study concluded that white sharks are a slow growing and long lived species. Males were found to reach maturity at around 26 years at a length of around Template:Convert while females take 33 years to reach maturity at a length of around Template:Convert. Their growth rate levels off after the age of 40 and their total lifespan is estimated to reach over 70 years.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Mortality and health
Great white sharks are sometimes preyed on by orcas, which they also likely compete with for food.<ref name="Competition"/> The first recorded orca predation occurred at the Farallon Islands in 1997 when an estimated Template:Cvt female orca killed an estimated Template:Cvt white shark.<ref name="POWS">Template:Cite journal</ref> Another similar attack apparently occurred there in 2000, but its outcome is not clear.<ref name="Turner">Template:Cite journal</ref> Subsequently, orca predation on white sharks would be documented off South Africa and Australia.<ref name=Reeves>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=Towner>Template:Cite journal</ref> Around South Africa, orcas typically hunt white sharks in groups of two–to–six.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> These cetaceans consume the energy-rich liver of the sharks<ref name="POWS"/> and dead white sharks washed ashore are found with these organs removed.<ref name=Reeves/><ref name=Towner/> In 2017, a live white shark was seen with purported orca teeth marks, the first piece of evidence for the species surviving an attack.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The arrival of orcas in an area can cause white sharks to flee and forage elsewhere for the rest of the year, as has been documented both off South Africa and California.<ref name=Towner/><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In addition to orcas, white sharks may also fall prey to other sharks as pups and juveniles, including older white sharks.<ref name="O'Connell"/>
There are two recorded instances of the ectoparasitic cookiecutter shark targeting subadult white sharks off Guadalupe. However, the relative dearth of predation records indicates that white sharks are not a common food source for them.<ref name=Hoyos-Padilla2013>Template:Cite journal</ref> The great white shark is the definitive host of two species of tapeworms from the genus Clistobothrium, these being Clistobothrium carcharodoni and Clistobothrium tumidum.<ref name="Ruhnke1993">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Caira2020"/> The former is believed to be transmitted to great whites through the consumption of infected cetacean prey which serve as intermediary or paratenic hosts of the tapeworm.<ref name="Randhawa2011">Template:Cite journal</ref> The latter species of tapeworm's transmission vector is currently unknown.<ref name="Caira2020">Template:Cite journal</ref> The intensity of C. carcharodoni infestations in affected great whites is extremely high; in one case, up to 2,533 specimens were recovered from the spiral intestine of a single individual.<ref name="Randhawa2011"/>
Relationship with humans
Prior to the 1970s, the great white shark as a species was known mostly to biologists and fishermen. The release of the 1971 documentary Blue Water, White Death is crediting with bringing the shark to public attention. The white shark's popularity would increase further with the 1974 novel Jaws written by Peter Benchley, and its 1975 film adaptation directed by Steven Spielberg.Template:Sfn The novel and film helped create the image of the species as a dangerous maneater. Benchley would later express regret stating "I cannot rewrite Jaws, nor make an ignoble monster of this magnificent animal.".Template:Sfn
Compared to other fish, the great white shark was not an important species for fishermen. Their meat was considered tasty but was it was not considered worth it due to the difficulty of hauling them in. Nevertheless, their reputation and size made them targets for sport fishing. The species was lured by chumming, and them presented with a hooked bait. Port Lincoln, South Australia was an epicenter of white shark fishing starting in the 1950s. In 1959, a fisherman named Alf Dean caught a Template:Convert shark, and was given the record for being the largest fish caught by rod and reel. A larger white shark was caught in Streaky Bay but was disqualified based on the bait used.Template:Sfn
Bites
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Of all shark species, the great white shark is responsible for the largest number of recorded shark bite incidents on humans, with 351 documented unprovoked bite incidents on humans since 1580 as of 2024. The majority of them have been non-fatal, while 59 have been fatal.<ref name="isaf"/> White sharks do not appear to find humans suitable as prey, though cases of humans being consumed have been reported.<ref name=RMartin>Template:Cite web</ref>
In 1984, Tricas and McCosker proposed that white sharks attack humans out of mistaken identity; surfboards in particular may have a similar silhouette to seals and sea lions.<ref name=Tricas1984/> A 2021 study concludes that the sharks are likely colorblind and cannot see in fine enough detail to determine whether the silhouette above them is a pinniped or a swimming human, potentially vindicating the hypothesis.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Other studies have disputed the 'mistaken identity' hypothesis and have instead proposed that shark bites are actually exploratory bites. A 2016 study finds that most shark bites on surfers are too superficial to kill a pinniped and compares them to the test bites they make on different objects.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Similarly, a 2023 paper criticized the 'mistaken identity' hypothesis for focusing too much on vision and not considering the shark's other senses. The authors conclude that "sharks don't make 'mistakes' but instead continually explore their environments and routinely investigate novel objects as potential prey by biting them".<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Great white sharks infrequently bite boats. Tricas and McCosker's underwater observations suggest that sharks are attracted to boats by the electrical fields they generate, which are picked up by the ampullae of Lorenzini.<ref name=Tricas1984>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Captivity
The great white shark is difficult keep in captivity due to its large size and migratory nature.<ref>Ezcurra, J. M.; Lowe, C. G.; Mollet, H. F.; Ferry, L. A.; O'Sullivan, J. B. "Captive Feeding and Growth of Young-of-the-Year White Shark, Carcharodon carcharias, at the Monterey Bay Aqurarium" in Template:Harvnb p. 4</ref> Attempts had been made since 1955, in facilities in North America, Hawaii, Australia and South Africa. The sharks survived only for days during the earliest attempts, while the early 1980s, aquariums like Steinhart Aquarium, Sea World San Diego, and Marineland of the Pacific were able to keep juvenile white sharks for weeks before releasing them.<ref name=captivity>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn A major contributor to the morality of captive white sharks was the poor transport; many were accidentally captured by commercial gillnets and kept on fishing lines or in a tank before being handed over to aquarium staff, causing them stress.<ref>Weng, K. C.; O'Sullivan, J. B.; Lowe, C. G.; Winkler, C. E.; Blasius, M. E.; Loke-Smith, K. A.; Sippel, T. J.; Ezcurra, J. M.; Jorgensen, S. J.; Murray, M. J. "Back to the Wild: Release of Juvenile White Sharks for the Monterey Bay Aquarium in Template:Harvnb p. 443</ref> One famous shark named 'Sandy, who measured Template:Convert, was kept at Steinhart for five days in August 1980 and was released for bumping into the walls.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
The most successful attempts at keeping the species occurred at the Monterey Bay Aquarium (MBA), where six white sharks were displayed between 2004 and 2011.<ref name=captivity/> Researchers at universities in California attributed the aquarium's success at exhibiting white sharks to the use of a Template:Convert net pen, which gave the sharks time to recover from capture prior to transport. A Template:Convert portable tank used to transport the fish to the exhibit allowed the sharks to swim continuously.<ref name=SF>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The sharks started at Template:Convert but grew too big and had to be released;Template:Sfn one shark was kept for 198 days and attracted one million visitors.<ref name=SF/> Having gained enough information on the species, MBA discontinued keeping white sharks.Template:Sfn
Tourism
Areas were white sharks gather have been sites for ecotourism; operators allow guests to view them from boats or from inside shark cages. Most operators allow chumming to attract the sharks. Cited benefits of ecotours include education, funding for research and increasing the value of living sharks.Template:Sfn One study in southern Australia found that shark tours had positive effects on the participants knowledge and awareness of the animals and support for their conservation.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
There is some fear that interactions with tourists could affect the sharks' behavior. At Neptune Islands, it was found that white sharks used more energy during encounters with cage divers. The researchers note, however, that cage-diving can have a minimal effect on shark populations as long as they limit interactions with individual sharks.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In the same area, excessive boats drove away many sharks, though the implementation in 2012 of new regulations on the number of licensed boat operators and number of operating days per week allowed for the population to recover.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> There is also no strong evidence that chumming alters the feeding behavior of white sharks or habituates them to being fed by humans.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In January 2023, the Mexican government banned white shark tourism at Guadalupe; due to reports of swimming outside cages, mishandling chum, littering and two incidents of sharks getting stuck and harmed by the cages, one of which may have resulted in death.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
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Putting chum in the water
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A great white shark approaches divers in a cage off Dyer Island, Western Cape, South Africa
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A great white shark approaches a cage
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Tourists in a cage near Gansbaai
Conservation
As of 2025, the great white shark is classified as vulnerable worldwide by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), due to a population decline of 30–49% over the past 159 years. It was also given a green status of "moderately depleted" with a recovery score of 59%. The biggest threat to white shark populations is accidental catching in fishing nets and, in Australia and South Africa, beach protection programs, where are caught in protective drum-lines and gillnets. They nevertheless have a high survival rate when released from nets.<ref name="iucn"/> The species is included in Appendix II of CITES,<ref name=CITES /> meaning that international trade in the species (including parts and derivatives) requires a permit.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The great white shark is also considered to be critically endangered in Europe<ref name="IUCN – Europe" /> and the Mediterranean.<ref name="IUCN – Mediterranean">Template:Cite iucn</ref>
South Africa
The species has been protected in South Africa since 1991; the law bans both deliberate killing and selling.Template:Sfn The province of KwaZulu-Natal, via the KwaZulu-Natal Sharks Board (KZN), allows for the use of nets around protected beaches to reduce the risk of shark attacks but not at major aggregation sights.<ref>Curtis, T. H.; Bruce, B. D.; Cliff, G.; Dudley, S. F. J.; Klimley, A. P.; Kock, A.; Lea, R. N.; Lowe, C. G. "Responding to the Risk of White Shark Attack Updated Statistics, Prevention, Control Methods, and recommendation in Template:Harvnb p. 492</ref> A 1996 study estimated the average population size between 1989 and 1993 to be 1,279, while a 2004 estimated 1,953 individuals post-protection.<ref name=Gennari2024>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Cliff, G.; Van Der Elst, R. P.; Govender, A.; Witthuhn, T. K.; Bullen, E. M. "First estimates of mortality and population size of white sharks on the South African coast" in Template:Harvnb p. 399</ref> A 2023 study concluded that white shark numbers off South Africa have remained stable since 1991. While sightings of sharks at major aggregation sites in Western Cape have declined since the early 2010s, the researchers have attributed this to shifting their distribution further east, possibly in response to attacks by orcas.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The results of this study are disputed; in 2024 it was noted that catches of white sharks in KZN have declined since 2010, suggesting they have not moved eastward.<ref name=Gennari2024/>
In Australia
The great white shark was declared vulnerable by the Australian Government in 1999 because of significant population decline and is currently protected under the Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act.<ref name="epbc">Template:Cite web</ref> The causes of decline prior to protection included mortality from sport fishing harvests as well as being caught in beach protection netting.<ref name="au2002">Template:Cite report</ref>
The national conservation status of the great white shark is reflected by all Australian states under their respective laws, granting the species full protection throughout Australia regardless of jurisdiction.<ref name="epbc" /> Many states had prohibited the killing or possession of great white sharks prior to national legislation coming into effect. The great white shark is further listed as threatened in Victoria under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act, and as rare or likely to become extinct under Schedule 5 of the Wildlife Conservation Act in Western Australia.<ref name="epbc" />
In 2002, the Australian government created the White Shark Recovery Plan, implementing government-mandated conservation research and monitoring for conservation in addition to federal protection and stronger regulation of shark-related trade and tourism activities.<ref name="au2002" /> An updated recovery plan was published in 2013 to review progress, research findings, and to implement further conservation actions.<ref name="au2013" /> A study in 2012 revealed that Australia's white shark population was separated by Bass Strait into genetically distinct eastern and western populations, indicating a need for the development of regional conservation strategies.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Presently, human-caused shark mortality is continuing, primarily from accidental and illegal catching in commercial and recreational fishing as well as from being caught in beach protection netting, and the populations of great white shark in Australia are yet to recover.<ref name="au2013" />
In spite of official protections in Australia, great white sharks continue to be killed in state "shark control" programs within Australia. For example, the government of Queensland has a "shark control" program (shark culling) which kills great white sharks (as well as other marine life) using shark nets and drum lines with baited hooks.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="shark_culling">Template:Cite web</ref> In Queensland, great white sharks that are found alive on the baited hooks are shot.<ref name="onegreenplanet">Template:Cite web</ref> The government of New South Wales also kills great white sharks in its "shark control" program.<ref name="shark_culling" /> Partly because of these programs, shark numbers in eastern Australia have decreased.<ref name="decline">Template:Cite journal</ref>
The Australasian population of great white sharks is believed to be in excess of 8,000–10,000 individuals according to genetic research studies done by CSIRO, with an adult population estimated to be around 2,210 individuals in both Eastern and Western Australia. The annual survival rate for juveniles in these two separate populations was estimated in the same study to be close to 73 per cent, while adult sharks had a 93 per cent annual survival rate. Whether or not mortality rates in great white sharks have declined, or the population has increased as a result of the protection of this species in Australian waters is as yet unknown due to the slow growth rates of this species.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In New Zealand
The great white shark is one of the most commonly found in the waters of New Zealand.<ref name="Secrets">Template:Cite Q</ref> As of April 2007, great white sharks were fully protected within Template:Cvt of New Zealand and additionally from fishing by New Zealand-flagged boats outside this range. The maximum penalty is a $250,000 fine and up to six months in prison.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In June 2018 the New Zealand Department of Conservation classified the great white shark under the New Zealand Threat Classification System as "Nationally Endangered". The species meets the criteria for this classification as there exists a moderate, stable population of between 1000 and 5000 mature individuals. This classification has the qualifiers "Data Poor" and "Threatened Overseas".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In the United States
California
In addition to existing federal regulations, great white sharks have been protected under California state law since January 1, 1994.<ref name="CDFW FAQ">Template:Cite web</ref> Under this law, catching, hunting, pursuit, capturing, and/or killing of great whites in California waters is strictly prohibited up to Template:Cvt offshore,<ref name="CDFW SAAG">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="MontereyHerald2018">Template:Cite news</ref> though exceptions exist for great whites caught for scientific research or unintentionally caught as bycatch. In both cases, a special permit is required in order to legally take them.<ref name="Quan2013">Template:Cite magazine</ref>
In 2013, great white sharks were added to California's Endangered Species Act. From data collected, the population of great whites in the North Pacific was estimated to be fewer than 340 individuals. Research also reveals these sharks are genetically distinct from other members of their species elsewhere in Africa, Australia, and the east coast of North America, having been isolated from other populations.<ref name="Quan2013"/>
A 2014 study estimated the population of great white sharks along the California coastline to be approximately 2,400.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
In September 2019, California governor Gavin Newsom signed Assembly Bill 2109 into law, banning the use of shark bait, shark lures, and chumming to attract great whites in California waters, and prohibiting their usage within one nautical mile of any shoreline, pier, or jetty when a great white is visible or known to be present in the area.<ref name="CDFW2022">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="Cohen2023">Template:Cite web</ref>
Massachusetts
In June 2015, Massachusetts banned catching, cage diving, feeding, towing decoys, or baiting and chumming for its significant and highly predictable migratory great white population without an appropriate research permit. However, these restrictions apply to only activities within state waters, which extend three miles from shore. Therefore, there are over a dozen tour operators offering cage diving and some do bait and/or chum.<ref name=":1" />
See also
Books
- The Devil's Teeth by Susan Casey
- Close to Shore by Michael Capuzzo about the Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916
- Twelve Days of Terror by Richard Fernicola about the same events
- Chasing Shadows: My Life Tracking the Great White Shark by Greg Skomal
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
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