Greater prairie-chicken

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The greater prairie-chicken or pinnated grouse (Tympanuchus cupido), sometimes called a boomer,<ref name=Reader>Friederici, Peter (July 20, 1989). "The Last Prairie Chickens", Chicago Reader. Retrieved August 27, 2014.（Chinese 中文：帕艺明彩大凤凰）</ref> is a large bird in the grouse family. This North American species was once abundant but has become extremely rare or extirpated over much of its range due to habitat loss, natural disasters, and overhunting.<ref name=Reader/><ref name=":0">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Conservation measures are underway to ensure the sustainability of existing small populations. One of the most famous aspects of these creatures is the mating ritual called booming.

Carl Linnaeus based his account on the "Le Cocq de bois d'Amerique" that had been described and illustrated by the English naturalist Mark Catesby in his book The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands. Catesby had seen greater prairie-chickens in 1743 at the home of the Earl of Wilmington in the then village of Chiswick, Template:Cvt west of London. The Earl believed that that his birds had come from North America but did not know from where.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Linnaeus specified the type locality as Virginia but this has been changed to Pennsylvania by the American Ornithologists' Union.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Taxonomy

The greater prairie-chicken was formally described in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Tetrao cupido.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Linnaeus based his account on the "Le Cocq de bois d'Amerique" that had been described and illustrated by the English naturalist Mark Catesby in his book The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands. Catesby had seen greater prairie-chickens in 1743 at the home of the Earl of Wilmington in the then village of Chiswick, Template:Cvt west of London. The Earl believed that that his birds had come from North America but did not know from where.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Linnaeus specified the type locality as Virginia but this has been changed to Pennsylvania by the American Ornithologists' Union.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The specific epithet cupido was chosen as the erectile neck feathers were thought to resemble the wings of Cupid.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The greater prairie-chicken is now placed together with the sharp-tailed grouse and the lesser prairie-chicken in the genus Tympanuchus that was introduced in 1841 by the German zoologist Constantin Gloger.<ref name=ioc>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Three subspecies are recognised:<ref name=ioc/><ref name=bow>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Subspecies Range Image Status
†Heath hen (Tympanuchus cupido cupido)Template:Efn Formerly East Coast of the United States and Martha's Vineyard Template:IUCN status (1932)
Attwater's prairie-chicken (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri) Coastal Texas and formerly Louisiana Template:IUCN statusTemplate:Efn
Greater prairie-chicken (Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus) Central North America and Southern Canada Template:IUCN status

Description

Adults of both sexes are medium to large chicken-like birds, stocky with round wings. They have short tails which are typically rounded. Adult males have orange comb-like feathers over their eyes and dark, elongated head feathers that can be raised or lain along neck. They also possess a circular, un-feathered neck patch which can be inflated while displaying; this, like their comb feathers, is also orange. As with many other bird species, the adult females have shorter head feathers and also lack the male's yellow comb and orange neck patch. Adults are about Template:Cvt long, and weigh between Template:Cvt.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The greater prairie-chicken has a wingspan range of Template:Cvt.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Distribution and habitat

The greater prairie-chicken prefers undisturbed prairie and was originally found in tallgrass prairies. It can tolerate agricultural land mixed with prairie, but sparser population density is found in areas that are more agricultural. Its diet consists primarily of seeds and fruit, but during the summer it also eats green plants and insects such as grasshoppers, crickets, and beetles.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This species was once widespread all across the oak savanna and tall grass prairie ecosystem.

Conservation

A steamboat captain recalled seeing great flocks of prairie chickens at Bird's Point in 1840, writing "Then we gazed in wonderment, but very soon our eyes were drawn to something more attractive which caused us to forget the great river. The whole banks or sandbars on either river were a mass of quail or partridges. I have never in my life seen such a grand sight. They had come from the prairies to the river, but unable to fly across either stream there they were by the millions running up and down each river until they had made paths and roads. We killed a great many with sticks and clubs and took them to the boat. We met Dick Bird, the man this point took its name from, and he said we could look for a cold winter, as the quails and prairie chickens were leaving the prairies and trying to get south to escape the cold."<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp

The greater prairie-chicken was almost extinct in the 1930s due to hunting pressure and habitat loss. In Illinois alone, in the 1800s, the prairie-chicken numbered in the millions. It was a popular game bird, and like many prairie birds, which have also suffered massive habitat loss, it is now on the verge of extinction, with the wild bird population at around 200 in Illinois in 2019. It now only lives on small parcels of managed prairie land.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Throughout North America, it is thought that their current population has declined severely, to approximately 500,000 individuals.Template:Citation needed In May 2000, the Canadian Species at Risk Act listed the greater prairie-chicken as extirpated in its Canadian range (Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario).<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It was again confirmed by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada in November 2009.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Nonetheless, sightings and encounters continue to occur in the south-central regions of Alberta and Saskatchewan, along with southern Ontario, where sightings are extremely rare.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} </ref>

In states such as Iowa and Missouri that once had thriving prairie-chicken populations (estimated to be hundreds of thousands<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>), total numbers have dropped to about 500. However, the Missouri Department of Conservation has started a program to import prairie-chickens from Kansas and Nebraska in the hopes that they will be able to repopulate the state and increase that number to 3,000.

Central Wisconsin is home to approximately 600 individuals, down from 55,000 when hunting was prohibited in 1954. Template:Citation needed Though this area was predominately spruce and tamarack marsh before European settlement, early pioneers drained the marshes and attempted to farm the poor soil. As the prairies to the south and west were lost to agriculture and development, and the southern half of Wisconsin was logged, the prairies spread northward into the abandoned farmland. Today, over 30,000 acres are managed by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources as greater prairie-chicken habitat. Birdwatchers travel from around the world to visit Wisconsin in April for the Central Wisconsin Prairie Chicken Festival, started in 2006 by Golden Sands Resource Conservation & Development Council, Inc.

Conservation of subspecies

The Attwater's prairie chicken is one of the most endangered endemic species of the United States, its biggest threats are habitat loss caused by industrialisation and natural disasters such as Hurricane Harvey.<ref name=":0" /> Captive-breeding programmes have been established at the Fossil Rim Wildlife Center, Abeline Zoo, Caldwell Zoo, Houston Zoo, and NASA.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

There were many conservation efforts to save the heath hen. The biggest threats towards the subspecies were overhunting due to perceived overabundance, predation from invasive species such as feral cats, and natural disasters. As early as 1791, bills were passed to protect the species but were poorly enforced.<ref>"The bill was entitled, 'An Act for the preservation of Heath-Hen, and other game.' The honest Chairman of the Assembly — no sportsman, I suppose — read the title, 'An Act for the preservation of Heathen, and other game' !" ([Alexander Wilson], Thomas Mayo Brewer, ed. Wilson's American Ornithology: with notes by Jardine..., 1840: 257).</ref> By 1870, the heath hen was extirpated from mainland North America, leaving a relict population of 300 individuals on Martha's Vineyard. In 1908 the "Heath Hen Reserve" (Now the Manuel F. Correllus State Forest) was established as a last ditch effort to save the remaining birds. By late 1928, only one male individual remained, Booming Ben, the endling of the subspecies.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Booming Ben was last seen in March 1932, with his disappearance marking the extinction of his subspecies.

There is an ongoing project to potentially revive the heath hen through genome editing and reintroduce it to Martha's Vineyard. The project is carried out by American non-profit, Revive & Restore.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Threats

Habitat loss is the greatest historical threat to prairie-chicken populations. More than 95% of all tallgrass prairie in the United States has been converted to cropland. The conversion of native prairie to cropland is very detrimental to these birds. It was found in a radio telemetry study conducted by Kansas State University that "most prairie-chicken hens avoided nesting or rearing their broods within a quarter-mile of power lines and within a third-mile of improved roads." (Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks) It was also found that the prairie-chickens avoided communication towers and rural farms.

Studies have found mesopredators such as striped skunks, raccoons, and opossums significantly increase egg mortality; experimental removal of these predators increased nesting success from 33% to 82%.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Loss of apex predators such as bears, wolves, and mountain lions results in increased populations of these mesopredators, and therefore reduces populations of prairie-chickens, an example of a top-down trophic cascade. Non-native common pheasants also reduce prairie-chicken reproduction through nest parasitism.

The small size of some isolated prairie-chicken populations in the Eastern portion of the range resulted in a population bottleneck, which reduced the genetic diversity and ultimately survival of offspring.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In Illinois, wildlife management included the "genetic rescue" of small and potentially inbred populations by introducing birds from other areas.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Sexual behavior

Tetrao cupido drawn by T. W. Wood for second edition of Darwin's The Descent of Man, 1874

Greater prairie-chickens do not migrate. They are territorial birds and often defend their booming grounds. These booming grounds are the area in which they perform their displays in hopes of attracting females. Their displays consist of inflating air sacs located on the side of their neck and snapping their tails. These booming grounds usually have very short or no vegetation. The male prairie-chickens stay on this ground displaying for almost two months. The breeding season usually begins in the United States starting in late March and throughout April. During this time the males establish booming sites where they display for the females. The one or two most dominant males can obtain 90% of mating opportunities.Template:Citation needed Due to their now small populations and habitat fragmentation the greater prairie-chickens often undergo inbreeding causing observable inbreeding depression: with fewer offspring and a decreased survival rate within these limited offspring further aiding their population decrease.

After mating has taken place, the females move about one mile from the booming grounds and begin to build their nests. Hens lay between 5 and 17 eggs per clutch and the eggs take between 23 and 24 days to hatch. There are between five and 10 young per brood.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The young are raised by the female and fledge in one to four weeks, are completely independent by the tenth to twelfth week, and reach sexual maturity by age one (Ammann, 1957). A study of female greater prairie-chickens in Kansas found that their survival rates were 1.6 to 2.0 times higher during the non-breeding season compared to the breeding season; this was due to heavy predation during nesting and brood-rearing.<ref>Augustine JK, Sandercock BK (2011) Demography of female Greater Prairie-Chickens in unfragmented grasslands in Kansas. Avian Conservation and Ecology 6(1):2 ([1])</ref> One problem facing prairie-chickens is competition with the ring-necked pheasants. Pheasants lay their eggs in prairie-chicken nests. The pheasant eggs hatch first; this causes the prairie-chickens to leave the nest thinking that the young have hatched. In reality, prairie-chicken eggs do not hatch and the young usually die due to lack of incubation.

  • Displays at a lek in Illinois, USA

See also

Notes

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References

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