History of the United States Senate

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Senators in the 110th Congress, January 2007

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Historical graph of party control of the Senate and House as well as the PresidencyTemplate:Sfn

The United States Senate is the upper legislative chamber of the U.S. Congress. The origins of the Senate trace back to the Constitutional Convention of 1787, where James Madison’s Virginia Plan proposed the establishment of a bicameral national legislature.

The Senate was conceived as a check on the House of Representatives, which was popularly elected. Therefore, in the Senate, each state, regardless of size or population, is equally represented.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> There are two senators per state, elected by the people for six-year terms.

The final structure of the Senate emerged from the Connecticut Compromise, a closely contested 5–4 vote, that granted smaller states equal representation regardless of population size in the Senate.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Apportionment showdown

1789-2015

Template:Multiple issues The Congress of the United States, established by the U.S. Constitution, met for the first time at New York City’s Federal Hall on 4 March 1789. In its early years, the Senate cultivated an aura of exclusivity and deliberation, originally meeting behind closed doors that allowed no spectators. For five years, no notes were published on its proceedings.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

A significant procedural issue of the early Senate was what role the vice president, as the president of the Senate, should have. The first vice president was allowed to craft legislation and participate in debates, but those rights were taken away relatively quickly. John Adams missed very few sessions, but later vice presidents normalized more infrequent Senate visits. Although the founding fathers intended the Senate to be the slower and more deliberate legislative body, in the early years of the Republic, it was the House that spent more time considering the passing of legislation. For instance, Alexander Hamilton's controversial Bank of the United States and Assumption Bill (he was then the Treasury Secretary) passed the Senate with little difficulty but faced significant opposition and lengthy debate in the House.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In 1797, Thomas Jefferson began the vice presidential tradition of only attending Senate sessions on special occasions. Despite his frequent absences, Jefferson did make his mark on the body with the Senate book of parliamentary procedure, authoring his 1801 Manual of Parliamentary Practice for the Use of the Senate of the United States, which is still used today.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The decades before the American Civil War are thought of as the "Golden Age" of the Senate, backed by public opinion and President Jefferson. In 1804, the House of Representatives, reflecting public and presidential sentiment against Federalist judges, voted to impeach Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase. The Senate, however, voted to acquit him, establishing a crucial precedent that impeachment should not be used merely for political disagreement.

Aaron Burr, as vice president, presided over the impeachment trial. After the trial, Burr said:

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Debate over Compromise of 1850 in the Old Senate Chamber. Digitally restored.

In the following decades, the Senate played an increasingly visible role in national political debates. John C. Calhoun, Daniel Webster, Thomas Hart Benton, Stephen A. Douglas, and Henry Clay played roles in national policy discussions. Sir Henry Maine called the Senate "the only thoroughly successful institution which has been established since the tide of modern democracy began to run." William Ewart Gladstone said the Senate was "the most remarkable of all the inventions of modern politics."Template:Sfn

The Webster–Hayne debate of January 1830 is often cited as a significant moment in Senate history, pitting the sectional interests of Daniel Webster's New England against Robert Y. Hayne's South.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Debates over slavery increasingly consumed the Senate. Unlike the House, where the more populous North held a firm anti-slavery majority, the Senate's equal representation of states gave the South a powerful veto. To preserve this balance of power between free and slave states, a series of compromises were necessary. The Missouri Compromise of 1820, brokered by Henry Clay, admitted Maine as a free state and Missouri as a slave state.The Compromise of 1850, brokered by Clay and Stephen Douglas, attempted to resolve the status of territories acquired from Mexico and included a stronger Fugitive Slave Law. The violent 1856 caning of abolitionist Senator Charles Sumner by a South Carolina congressman on the Senate floor itself illustrated how dangerously inflamed the sectional debate had become.

1865–1913

In the decades following the Civil War, the Senate addressed major national questions such as reconstruction and monetary policy. During the Third Party System, state legislatures—dominated by strong party organizations—determined Senate elections, ensuring that party leaders and influential figures could secure seats.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The era also coincided with rapid industrial expansion, when entrepreneurs and financiers gained prestige comparable to that of military leaders, and several entered the Senate.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

In 1870, Hiram Revels of Mississippi became the first African American senator. Chosen by state Republicans under pressure from Black legislators, Revels filled a short unexpired term and was seated after a 48–8 Senate vote following objections from some members. Revels used his brief tenure to advocate for civil rights and protest racial segregation.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Four years later, Mississippi’s legislature appointed Blanche Bruce, who served a full term from 1875 to 1881 and presided over the Senate in 1879. He was the last African American senator until 1967.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

Between 1871 and 1898, the Senate rejected or stalled numerous treaties, including reciprocal trade agreements and proposals to annex the Dominican Republic and the Danish West Indies. It also blocked an arbitration treaty with Britain and demanded renegotiation of The Panama Canal treaty. In 1898, the Senate came close to rejecting the treaty that ended the Spanish–American War.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

By the turn of the century, Senate leadership was dominated by a small group of Republicans, notably Nelson Aldrich of Rhode Island, Orville Platt of Connecticut, John Coit Spooner of Wisconsin, William Boyd Allison of Iowa, and national party figure Mark Hanna of Ohio. Aldrich in particular shaped federal tax and tariff policy and played a central role in establishing the Federal Reserve System. Among Democrats, Arthur Pue Gorman of Maryland emerged as a major figure.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

In 1907, Charles Curtis of Kansas became the first Native American senator. A registered member of the Kaw Nation with Osage and Potawatomi heritage, Curtis chaired the Indian Affairs Committee. He promoted assimilationist policies and sponsored legislation that limited tribal sovereignty, reflecting the federal government’s prevailing approach to Native American affairs at the time.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

1913–1945

The Senate underwent significant institutional changes during the presidency of Woodrow Wilson, beginning with the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The amendment established direct election of senators by popular vote, replacing the system of selection by state legislatures.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Another major reform involved the limitation of the filibuster. Although the filibuster had existed since the early Republic, it was rarely used before the 20th century. During World War I, a group of fewer than 20 senators, led by William Jennings Bryan, blocked legislation to arm merchant ships. In response, the Senate adopted the cloture rule in 1917, allowing debate to be ended by a two-thirds vote. President Wilson criticized the obstructionists as a “group of willful men.”<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The post of Senate Majority Leader was also created during this period. Prior to its establishment, Senate leadership was generally exercised by influential committee chairs or senior statesmen such as Daniel Webster or Nelson Aldrich. Initially, the new position carried little authority beyond priority of recognition from the presiding officer. Divisions within the Democratic Party—between northern liberals and southern conservatives—further limited the effectiveness of its leaders.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

On November 21, 1922, Rebecca Felton of Georgia became the first woman to serve in the Senate, though only for one day.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In 1928, Octaviano Larrazolo of New Mexico became the first Latino senator, filling a three-month unexpired term.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

From 1923 to 1937, Joseph T. Robinson of Arkansas served as Democratic leader of the Senate. He supported Calvin Coolidge and Herbert Hoover on measures such as the Muscle Shoals project and the Hoover Tariff, while later pushing through much of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal legislation. His loyalty was so pronounced that humorist Will Rogers quipped, “Congress doesn’t pass legislation any more, they just wave at the bills as they go by.”<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

In 1932, Hattie Caraway of Arkansas became the first woman elected to the Senate. Initially appointed after her husband’s death, she won re-election twice in her own right.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In 1935, Dennis Chávez of New Mexico became the first Latino elected to a full Senate term.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

In 1937, the Senate rejected Roosevelt’s proposed “court-packing” plan and called for reduced federal deficits, demonstrating its ability to counter presidential initiatives.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

That same year, the Senate strengthened the power of the majority leader by adopting the rule of first recognition, which gave the leader priority to be recognized by the presiding officer. This reform significantly increased the majority leader’s ability to shape the legislative agenda.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Since 1945

The early 1950's saw one of the Senate’s most controversial episodes with Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy’s investigations into alleged communists. After several years of influence, McCarthy’s power declined as his claims were increasingly unsupported and extended to questioning the leadership of the United States Army. The Senate formally censured McCarthy in 1954.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

During his tenure as Senate Majority Leader, Lyndon B. Johnson gained increased authority over committee assignments. Johnson, a Southerner and former member of the Senate’s conservative Southern caucus, leveraged this influence both as Majority Leader and later as President to advance civil rights legislation previously blocked by powerful Southern Democrats.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

In 1959, Hiram Fong of Hawaii became the first Asian-American senator. He advocated for civil rights and reforms to expand voting access for Asian Americans.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

In 1966, Edward W. Brooke of Massachusetts became the first African American popularly elected to the Senate since the Reconstruction era. A liberal Republican, Brooke served two terms and promoted civil rights and social reform.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

In 1971, Paulette Desell was appointed as the Senate’s first female page by Senator Jacob K. Javits.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

In 1992, Carol Moseley Braun of Illinois became the first African American woman elected to the Senate. She served one term as a Democrat, focusing on education reform and gun control.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

In 2009, Kathie Alvarez became the first female legislative clerk in the Senate.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In 2012, Tammy Baldwin was elected as the first openly gay senator.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In 2013, Mazie Hirono became the first Asian-American woman elected to the Senate, representing Hawaii.

In 2017, Catherine Cortez Masto of Nevada became the first Latina and Mexican-American woman senator.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In the 119th Congress , two African American women, Lisa Blunt Rochester (Delaware) and Angela Alsobrooks (Maryland), served simultaneously in the Senate for the first time, doubling the total number of Black women ever elected to the chamber. That same cycle marked additional milestones: Andy Kim became New Jersey’s first Asian American and the first Korean American senator, while Sarah McBride became the first openly transgender person elected to the U.S. Congress, serving in the House.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Smith, John. “Historic Firsts Mark the 119th Congress.” Congressional Quarterly, January 2025.</ref>

See also

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Bibliography

Notes

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References linked to notes

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References not linked to notes

References

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  • Barone, Michael, and Grant Ujifusa, The Almanac of American Politics 1976: The Senators, the Representatives and the Governors: Their Records and Election Results, Their States and Districts (1975); new edition every 2 years, informal practices, and member information)
  • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 2001–2004: A Review of Government and Politics: 107th and 108th Congresses (2005); summary of Congressional activity, as well as major executive and judicial decisions; based on Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report and the annual CQ almanac.
    • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1997–2001 (2002)
    • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1993–1996 (1998)
    • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1989–1992 (1993)
    • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1985–1988 (1989)
    • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1981–1984 (1985)
    • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1977–1980 (1981)
    • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1973–1976 (1977)
    • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1969–1972 (1973)
    • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1965–1968 (1969)
    • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 1945–1964 (1965), the first of the series

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Institutional studies

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  • Brady, David W. and Mathew D. McCubbins, eds. Party, Process, and Political Change in Congress: New Perspectives on the History of Congress (2002)
  • Cooper, John Milton, Jr. Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations. (Cambridge U. Press, 2001).
  • Feinman, Ronald L. Twilight of progressivism: the western Republican senators and the New Deal (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981)
  • Feldman, Gabe. "Death of a senator: Life expectancy and causes of death in 20th-century US senators." American journal of public health 93.5 (2003): 771-771. online
  • Finley, Keith M. Delaying the Dream: Southern Senators and the Fight Against Civil Rights, 1938-1965 (LSU Press, 2008).
  • Goodwin, George. "The seniority system in Congress." American Political Science Review 53.2 (1959): 412-436.
  • Gould, Lewis L. The Most Exclusive Club: A History Of The Modern United States Senate (2005) the latest full-scale history by a scholar
  • Harmon, F. Martin. Presidents versus Senators: Conflicts and Rivalries That Shaped America (2021) excerpt
  • Hernon, Joseph Martin. Profiles in Character: Hubris and Heroism in the U.S. Senate, 1789–1990 (Sharpe, 1997).
  • Hoebeke, C. H. The Road to Mass Democracy: Original Intent and the Seventeenth Amendment. (Transaction Books, 1995).
  • Hunt, Richard. (1998). "Using the Records of Congress in the Classroom," OAH Magazine of History, 12 (Summer): 34–37.
  • Johnson, Robert David. The Peace Progressives and American Foreign Relations. (Harvard U. Press, 1995). in 1920s and 1930s
  • Koger, Gregory. "Cloture reform and party government in the Senate, 1918–1925." Journal of politics 68.3 (2006): 708-719.
  • Malsberger, John W. From Obstruction to Moderation: The Transformation of Senate Conservatism, 1938–1952. (Susquehanna U. Press 2000).
  • Paulos, Michael Harold and Konden Smith Hansen. The Reed Smoot Hearings: The Investigation of a Mormon Senator and the Transformation of an American Religion (2022) the first Mormon Senator
  • Ritchie, Donald A. Press Gallery: Congress and the Washington Correspondents. (Harvard UP, 1991).
  • Ritchie, Donald A. The Congress of the United States: A Student Companion (Oxford UP, 2001).
  • Ritchie, Donald A. Reporting from Washington: The History of the Washington Press Corps (Oxford UP, 2005).
  • Rothman, David J. Politics and power; the United States Senate, 1869-1901 (Harvard UP, 1966) richly detailed scholarly history online
  • Swift, Elaine K. The Making of an American Senate: Reconstitutive Change in Congress, 1787–1841. U. of Michigan Press, 1996.
  • Wirls, Daniel and Wirls, Stephen. The Invention of the United States Senate (Johns Hopkins UP, 2004) excerpt
  • Zelizer, Julian E. On Capitol Hill: The Struggle to Reform Congress and its Consequences, 1948–2000 (2006) online

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Biographical

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  • American National Biography (1999) 24 volumes plus 2 supplements; contains scholarly biographies of all politicians no longer alive; online
  • Baker, Richard A.. and Roger H. Davidson, eds. First Among Equals: Outstanding Senate Leaders of the Twentieth Century (1992).
  • Ashby, LeRoy and Gramer, Rod. Fighting the Odds: The Life of Senator Frank Church. (Washington State U. Press, 1994). Chair of Foreign Relations in the 1970s; Democrat of Idaho
  • Barnard, Harry. Independent Man: The Life of Senator James Couzens (Wayne State University Press, 2002), of Michigan.
  • Becnel, Thomas A. Senator Allen Ellender of Louisiana: A Biography. (Louisiana State U. Press, 1995). Democrat online
  • Caro, Robert A. Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson Vol. 3 (Vintage, 2009).
  • Farrell, John A. Ted Kennedy: A Life (2022) Democrat of Massachusetts
  • Fite, Gilbert. Richard B. Russell, Jr., Senator from Georgia (1991) powerful Democrat; online
  • Garraty, John A. Henry Cabot Lodge, a biography (1953), Republican of Massachusetts online
  • Goldberg, Robert Alan. Barry Goldwater (1995), Rep;ublican of Arizona
  • Herman, Arthur. Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator (Simon and Schuster, 2000), Republican of Wisconsin.
  • Houston, G. David. "A Negro Senator." Journal of Negro History 7.3 (1922): 243-256. online; Blanche Bruce Republican of Mississippi
  • Johnson, Claudius O. Borah of Idaho (1936) online, Republican
  • Johnson, Marc C. Political Hell-Raiser: The Life and Times of Senator Burton K. Wheeler of Montana (University of Oklahoma Press, 2019); Democrat
  • Keith, Caroline H. For Hell and a Brown Mule: The Biography of Senator Millard E. Tydings (Madison Books, 1991), Democrat of Maryland
  • Laymon, Sherry. Fearless: John L McClellan, United States Senator (2022), Democrat of Arkansas
  • Lower, Richard Coke. A Bloc of One: The Political Career of Hiram W. Johnson (Stanford University Press, 1993); Republican of California.
  • McFarland, Ernest W. The Ernest W. McFarland Papers: The United States Senate Years, 1940–1952. (Prescott, Ariz.: Sharlot Hall Museum, 1995). Democratic majority leader 1950–1952; of Arizona
  • Mann, Robert. The Walls of Jericho: Lyndon Johnson, Hubert Humphrey, Richard Russell and the Struggle for Civil Rights. (Harcourt Brace, 1996).
  • Miller, G. Wayne. An Uncommon Man: The Life & Times of Senator Claiborne Pell (UPNE, 2011) Democrat of Rhode Island.
  • Norris, George W. Fighting Liberal: The Autobiography of George W. Norris (U of Nebraska Press, 1992) Republican of Nebraska. online
    • Fellman, David. "The Liberalism of Senator Norris." American Political Science Review 40.1 (1946): 27-51. online
  • Palermo, Joseph A. In His Own Right: The Political Odyssey of Senator Robert F. Kennedy (Columbia UP, 2002) Democrat of New York.
  • Patterson, James T. Mr. Republican; a biography of Robert A. Taft (1972) online
  • Price, Christopher. "Peace and Progress: The Life and Political Contributions of Senator Jennings Randolph." West Virginia History: A Journal of Regional Studies 14.2 (2020): 1-27. Democrat of West Virginia
  • O'Brien, Michael. Philip Hart: The Conscience of the Senate. (Michigan State U. Press 1995) Democrat of Michigan.
  • Rice, Ross R. Carl Hayden: Builder of the American West (U. Press of America, 1993). Chair of Appropriations in the 1960s and 1970s; Democrat of Arizona.
  • Stephenson, Nathaniel W. Nelson W. Aldrich: A Leader in American Politics (1930), powerful Republican from Rhode Island
  • Valeo, Frank. Mike Mansfield, Majority Leader: A Different Kind of Senate, 1961–1976 (Sharpe, 1999). Senate majority leader. Democrat Of Montana.
  • Weller, Cecil Edward, Jr. Joe T. Robinson: Always a Loyal Democrat. U. of Arkansas Press, 1998. Majority leader in the 1930s; of Arkansas.
  • Winston, Mitch. Senator Daniel Inouye: WW II Hero and America Finest Senator (2022), Democrat of Hawaii

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Official Senate histories (and reviews)

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