Hunayn ibn Ishaq

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Hunayn ibn Ishaq al-Ibadi (808–873; also Hunain or Hunein; Template:Langx; Template:Transliteration; known in Latin as Johannitius) was an influential Arab Nestorian Christian translator, scholar, physician, and scientist. During the apex of the Islamic Abbasid era, he worked with a group of translators, among whom were Abū 'Uthmān al-Dimashqi, Ibn Mūsā al-Nawbakhti, and Thābit ibn Qurra, to translate books of philosophy and classical Greek and Persian texts into Arabic and Syriac.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Ḥunayn ibn Isḥaq was his era's most productive translator of Greek medical and scientific treatises. He studied Greek and became known as the "Sheikh of the Translators".<ref name=":0"/> He mastered four languages: Arabic, Syriac, Greek and Persian. Later translators widely followed Hunayn's method. He was originally from al-Hirah, previously the capital of the Lakhmid kingdom, but worked in Baghdad, the center of the Translation movement. His fame went far beyond the local community.<ref>Seleznyov, N. "Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq in the Summa of al-Muʾtaman ibn al-ʿAssāl" in VG 16 (2012) 38–45 [In Russian].</ref>

Overview

In the Abbasid era, a new interest in extending the study of Greek science had arisen. At that time, there was a vast amount of untranslated ancient Greek literature pertaining to philosophy, mathematics, natural science, and medicine.Template:Sfn<ref name="Lindberg">Lindberg, David C. The Beginnings of Western Science: Islamic Science. Chicago: The University of Chicago, 2007. Print.</ref> This valuable information was only accessible to a very small minority of Middle Eastern scholars who knew the Greek language; the need for an organized translation movement was urgent.

In time, Hunayn ibn Ishaq became arguably the chief translator of the era, and laid the foundations of Islamic medicine.Template:Sfn In his lifetime, ibn Ishaq translated countless works, including Plato's Timaeus, Aristotle's Metaphysics, and the Old Testament, into Syriac and Arabic.<ref name="Lindberg" /><ref name="Opth">Opth: Azmi, Khurshid. "Hunain bin Ishaq on Ophthalmic Surgery. "Bulletin of the Indian Institute of History of Medicine 26 (1996): 69–74. Web. 29 October 2009</ref> He personally translated 129 works of Galen himself, even travelling to find one, De demonstratione which he found half of in Damascus.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Ibn Ishaq also produced 36 of his own books, 21 of which covered the field of medicine.<ref name="Opth" /> His son Ishaq, and his nephew Hubaysh, worked together with him at times to help translate. Hunayn ibn Ishaq is known for his translations, his method of translation, and his contributions to medicine.<ref name="Lindberg" /> He has also been suggested by François Viré to be the true identity of the Arabic falconer Moamyn, author of De Scientia Venandi per Aves.<ref name="F. Viré">François Viré, Sur l'identité de Moamin le fauconnier. Communication à l'Académie des inscriptions et belles lettres, avril-juin 1967, Parigi, 1967, pp. 172–176</ref> Hunayn Ibn Ishaq was a translator at the House of Wisdom, Bayt al-Hikma, where he received his education. In the West, another name he is known by his Latin name, Joannitius.<ref name=":0"/> It was the translations that came from administrative and legal materials gathered that lead to understanding of how to build up Arabic as the new official language.<ref>El Khamloussy, Ahmed. "Commented Translation of an Excerpt from Hunayn Ibn Ishaq's Epistle to His Patron 'Ali Ibn Yahya on the Translations of Galen." Order No. MM07845 University of Ottawa (Canada), 1995</ref>

Early life

Hunayn ibn Ishaq was a Syriac Christian and Church of the East follower, born in 808, during the Abbasid period, in al-Hirah, to an ethnic Syriac family.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Esposito, John L. (2000). The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 160.:"The most famous of these translators was a Nestorian (Christian) Arab by the name of Hunayn ibn Ishaq al-Ibadi (808–73)."</ref><ref>Porter, Roy (2001). The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine. Cambridge University Press. p. 67."The major ninth-century medical figure in Baghdad was a Christian Arab, Hunain ibn Ishaq, an amazingly accurate and productive scholar, who traveled to the Greek Byzantine empire in search of rare Galenic treatises."</ref><ref>Corbin, Henry (2014). History of Islamic Philosophy. Routledge. p. 16.:"The latter was succeeded by one of his students, the famous and prolific Hunayn ibn Ishaq (194/ 809—260/ 873), who was born at al-Hirah into a family belonging to the Christian Arab tribe of the 'Ibad."</ref><ref>Grmek, Mirko D.; Fantini, Bernardino (1998). Western Medical Thought from Antiquity to the Middle Ages. Harvard University Press. p. 145.:"Hunayn ibn Ishaq was able to satisfy their needs. Of Christian Arab descent, he had spent many years of his life in Byzantine territory, in pursuit of his studies, most probably in Constantinople."</ref> Hunayn in classical sources is said to have belonged to the ʿIbad, thus his nisba "al-Ibadi.<ref>Selin, Helaine (2013). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Westen Cultures. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 399.:"The family nickname, al-'Ibadi, is derived from "al-'Ibad," a Christian Arab tribe."</ref><ref>Sarton, George (1927). Introduction to the History of Science. Carnegie Institution of Washington. p. 611:"The nisba is derived from 'Ibad, the name of a Christian tribe of Arabs, established near Hira"</ref> The ʿIbad was an Arab community composed of different Arab tribes that had once converted to Nestorian Christianity and lived in al-Hira.<ref>Ohlig, Karl-Heinz; Puin, Gerd-R. (2010). The hidden origins of Islam: new research into its early history. Prometheus Books. p. 32. :"The 'Ibad are tribes made up of different Arabian families that became connected with Christianity in al-Hira."</ref><ref>Template:Cite web:"Ḥira became renowned for its literate population of Arab Christians, or ʿEbād [al-Masiḥ] "devotees [of Christ]". "</ref> They were known for their literacy and multilingualism, being fluent in Syriac, their liturgical and cultural language, in addition to their native Arabic.<ref>Yarshater, E. (1983). The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge University Press. p. 598."The population of Hira comprised its townspeople, the 'Ibad "devotees", who were Nestorian Christians using Syriac as their liturgical and cultural language, though Arabic was probably the language of daily intercourse."</ref><ref>Milani, Milad (2014). Sufism in the Secret History of Persia. Routledge. p. 150."Hira was also home to the 'Ibad ("devotees"), who were Nestorian Christians using Syriac as their liturgical and cultural language, but Arabic for common daily use."</ref><ref>Angelelli, Claudia V. (2014). The Sociological Turn in Translation and Interpreting Studies. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 45."Hunayn was most likely trilingual from his youth; Arabic was the vernacular of his native town, Persian a frequently-used tongue in his region, and Syriac the language of the liturgy and of higher Christian education."</ref>

As a child, he learned the Syriac and Arabic languages. Although al-Hira was known for commerce and banking, and his father was a pharmacist, Hunayn went to Baghdad in order to study medicine. In Baghdad, Hunayn had the privilege to study under renowned physician Yuhanna ibn Masawayh; however, Hunayn's countless questions irritated Yuhanna, causing him to scold Hunayn and forcing him to leave. Hunayn promised himself to return to Baghdad when he became a physician. He went abroad to master the Greek language. On his return to Baghdad, Hunayn displayed his newly acquired skills by reciting the works of Homer and Galen. In awe, ibn Masawayh reconciled with Hunayn, and the two started to work cooperatively.<ref name="Dictionary">"Hunayn Ibn Ishaq". The Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. XV. 1978. Print.</ref>

Hunayn was extremely motivated in his work to master Greek studies, which enabled him to translate Greek texts into Syriac and Arabic. The Abbasid Caliph al-Mamun noticed Hunayn's talents and placed him in charge of the House of Wisdom, the Bayt al Hikmah. The House of Wisdom was an institution where Greek works were translated and made available to scholars.Template:Sfn (At least one scholar has argued that there is no evidence of Hunayn being placed in charge of the Bayt al Hikmah.<ref>S. Gougenheim: Aristote au Mont-Saint-Michel, 136–137 Nemira Publishing House, Bucharest 2011, (Romanian edition)</ref>) The caliph also gave Hunayn the opportunity to travel to Byzantium in search of additional manuscripts, such as those of Aristotle and other prominent authors.<ref name="Dictionary"/>

Accomplishments

In Hunayn ibn Ishaq's lifetime, he devoted himself to working on a multitude of writings; both translations and original works.<ref name="Dictionary"/>

As a writer of original work

Hunayn wrote on a variety of subjects that included philosophy, religion and medicine. In "How to Grasp Religion", Hunayn explains the truths of religion that include miracles not possibly made by humans and humans' incapacity to explain facts about some phenomena, and false notions of religion that include depression and an inclination for glory. He also worked on Arabic grammar and lexicography,<ref name="Dictionary"/> writing a unique grammar of the Arabic language titled "The Rules of Inflexion According to the System of the Greeks."<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Ophthalmology

File:Cheshm manuscript.jpg
The eye according to Hunain ibn Ishaq. From a "Book of the Ten Treatises of the Eye" manuscript dated Template:Circa.

Hunayn ibn Ishaq enriched the field of ophthalmology. His developments in the study of the human eye can be traced through his innovative book, "Book of the Ten Treatises of the Eye". This textbook is the first known systematic treatment of this field and was most likely used in medical schools at the time. Throughout the book, Hunayn explains the eye and its anatomy in minute detail; its diseases, their symptoms, and their treatments. Hunayn repeatedly emphasizes that he believes the crystalline lens to be in the center of the eye, and may have been the originator of this idea, which was widely believed from his lifetime through the late 1500s.<ref name="Clinical Ophthalmology">Template:Cite journal</ref> He discusses the nature of cysts and tumors, and the swelling they cause. He discusses how to treat various corneal ulcers through surgery, and the therapy involved in repairing cataracts. The book is evidence of the skills Hunayn ibn Ishaq had not just as a translator and a physician, but also as a surgeon.<ref name="Opth"/>

As a physician

Hunayn ibn Ishaq's reputation as a scholar and translator, and his close relationship with Caliph al-Mutawakkil, led the caliph to name Hunayn as his personal physician, ending the exclusive use of physicians from the Bukhtishu family.<ref name="Dictionary"/> Despite their relationship, the caliph became distrustful; at the time, there were fears of death from poisoning, and physicians were well aware of its synthesis procedure. The caliph tested Hunayn's ethics as a physician by asking him to formulate a poison, to be used against a foe, in exchange for a large sum. Hunayn ibn Ishaq repeatedly rejected the Caliph's generous offers, saying he would need time to develop a poison. Disappointed, the caliph imprisoned his physician for a year. When asked why he would rather be killed than make the drug, Hunayn explained the physician's oath required him to help, and not harm, his patients.Template:Sfn He completed many different medical works that pushed the idea of treating medicine with the practice and art of physic treatments. Some of his medical works were pulled from Greek sources such as, Fi Awja al-Ma'idah (On Stomach Ailments) and al-Masail fi'l-Tibb li'l-Muta'allimin (Questions on Medicine for Students) and having these sources to drawn on keeps the original text clear.<ref name=":2">Template:Citation</ref>

As a translator

With the construction of the House of Wisdom, the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun wanted to have a place to gather world knowledge from Muslim and non-Muslim educators. Hunayn ibn Ishaq was one of the most well-known translators at the institution and was called the sheikh of the translators, as he mastered the four principal languages of the time: Greek, Persian, Arabic, and Syriac. He was able to translate compositions on philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, medicine, and even in subjects such as magic and oneiromancy.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref> Nonetheless, none of his extant translations credit the House of Wisdom, which questions the legitimacy of whether this place actually was the origin of the Translation Movement.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> He laid down the basis of accurate translating techniques, which was extremely important for the accurate transmission of knowledge.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="books.google.com">Template:Cite book</ref>

Some of Hunayn's most notable translations were his rendering of "De Materia Medica", a pharmaceutical handbook, and his most popular selection, "Questions on Medicine",<ref name="Lindberg" /> a guide for novice physicians. Information was presented in the form of questions taken from Galen's "Art of Physic" and answers, which are based on "Summaria Alexandrinorum". For instance, Hunayn explains what the four elements and the four humors are and that medicine divides into therapy and practice and also defines health, disease, neutrality, and as well as the natural and the contranatural, and the six necessary conditions of living healthily.<ref name="Dictionary" />

Hunayn translated writings on agriculture, stones, and religion and also some of Plato's and Aristotle's works, in addition to commentaries. He also translated many medicinal texts and summaries, mainly those of Galen, such as Galen's "On Sects" and "On the Anatomy of the Veins and Arteries".<ref name="Dictionary"/> His translations are some of the only remaining documents of Greek manuscripts, and he helped influence the art of medicine, and through his book al-'Ashar Maqalat fi'l-Ayn (The Ten Treatises on the Eye) he helped to expand the science of ophthalmology through theory and practice.<ref name=":0"/>

Many R. Duval's published works on chemistry represent translations of Hunayn's work.<ref>Wright. Catalogue, pp. 1190–1191, MV Coll' orient, 1593</ref> Also in Chemistry a book titled ['An Al-Asma'] meaning "About the Names", did not reach researchers but was used in "Dictionary of Ibn Bahlool" of the 10th century.

Translation techniques

In his efforts to translate Greek material, Hunayn ibn Ishaq was accompanied by his son Ishaq ibn Hunayn and his nephew Hubaysh. Hunayn would translate Greek into Syriac, and then he would have his nephew finish by translating the text from Syriac to Arabic, after which he then would seek to correct any of his partners' mistakes or inaccuracies he might find.<ref name="Lindberg"/><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Unlike many translators in the Abbasid period, he largely did not try to follow the text's exact lexicon. Instead, he would try to summarize the topics of the original texts and then in a new manuscript paraphrase it in Syriac or Arabic.<ref name="Lindberg"/> He also edited and redacted the available texts of technical works by comparing the information included therein with other works on similar subjects.<ref name="Dictionary"/> Thus, his renditions may be seen as interpretations of medical, astronomical, and philosophical texts after researching the topics over which they range.<ref name="Lindberg"/><ref>Template:Citation</ref> Some scholars argue Hunayn's approach differed from previous translators through his commentaries on the subject and was influenced by Galen's ideas along the way.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Hunayn says:<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="books.google.com"/>

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Galen's works were translated before me by a certain Bin Sahda ... When I was young I translated them from a faulty Greek manuscript. Later when I was forty, my pupil Hubaish asked me to correct the translation. Meanwhile a number of manuscripts had accumulated in my possession. I collated these manuscripts and produced a single correct copy. Next I collated the Syriac text with it and corrected it. I am in the habit of doing this with everything I translate.{{#if:|

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Selected translations

Works

  • Kitab Adab al-Falasifa, original Arabic lost, known in medieval translation.
  • Libro de Los Buenos Proverbios (Castilian Spanish).
  • Sefer Musré ha-Filosofim (Book of the Morals of the Philosophers), Hebrew translation of the Judeo-Andalusian poet, Juda ben Shlomo Al-Jarisi (1170–1235).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
  • Template:Lang [On how to discern the truth of religion].<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite web Translated from Template:Cite journal</ref>

Fragments from various books interpolated or adapted

  • General History of Alfonso el Sabio (Castilian Spanish).
  • Llibre de Saviesa of James of Aragon (Castilian Spanish).
  • The Pseudo Seneca (Castilian Spanish).
  • La Floresta de Philosophos (Castilian Spanish).
  • El Victorial (Castilian Spanish).
  • Bocados de Oro, taken directly from Adab al-Falasifa (Spanish).

Other translated works

  • Plato's Republic (Siyasah).
  • Aristotle's Categories (Maqulas), Physics (Tabi'iyat) and Magna Moralia (Khulqiyat).
  • Seven books of Galen's anatomy, lost in the original Greek, preserved in Arabic.
  • Arabic version of the Old Testament from the Greek Septuagint did not survive.
  • "Kitab al-Ahjar" or the "Book of Stones".

See also

Citations

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References

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Further reading

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  • Brock, Sebastian P., Changing Fashions in Syriac Translation Technique: The Background to Syriac Translations under the Abbasids, Journal of the Canadian Society for Syriac Studies 4 (2004): 3–14.
  • Brock, Sebastian P., The Syriac Background to Hunayn's Translation Techniques, ARAM 3 (1991 [1993]): 139–162.
  • Cooper, Glen M., Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq's Galen Translations and Greco-Arabic Philology: Some Observations from the Crises (De crisibus) and the Critical Days (De diebus decretoriis), Oriens 44 (2016): 1–43.
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  • Eksell, Kerstin, Pragmatic Markers from Greek into Arabic: A Case Study on Translations by Isḥāq ibn Ḥunayn, Studia graeco-arabica 5 (2015): 321–344.
  • Faiq, Said. "Medieval Arabic translation: A cultural consideration." Mediaevalia 26.2 (2005): 99–110.
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  • Healy, J. "The Syriac-Speaking Christians and the Translation of Greek Science into Arabic." Muslim Heritage (2006).
  • Johna, Samir. "Marginalisation of ethnic and religious minorities in Middle East history of medicine: the forgotten contributions to Arabian and Islamic medicine and science." Acta Medico-Historica Adriatica 8.2 (2010): 203–210.
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  • Osman, Ghada. "The sheikh of the translators." The Sociological Turn in Translation and Interpreting Studies 66 (2014): 41.
  • Rashed, Roshdi. "Problems of the transmission of Greek scientific thought into Arabic: Examples from mathematics and optics." History of science 27.2 (1989): 199–209.
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