Japanese opium policy in Taiwan (1895–1945)
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Taiwan (also known as Formosa) is an island located off the coast of Fujian in mainland China.<ref name=":0">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Chinese and Taiwanese people have a long history together, with the first Han Chinese settlers arriving in Taiwan in the seventeenth century.<ref name=":1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Japanese empire acquired Taiwan (also known as Formosa) following its cession from Qing dynasty China in the Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895) at the conclusion of the First Sino-Japanese War.<ref name=":9">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This period of Japanese rule of Taiwan lasted until the surrender of Japan.<ref name=":9" /> During this period the colonial government of Japan initiated major policies to reduce the consumption of opium and opium derived products with much regarded success from contemporary sources both from the Japanese Colonial government and international sources.<ref name=":10">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":11">Template:Cite book</ref>
There is a long history of opium use in Taiwan dating back to the arrival of the Han Chinese settlers in the 18th Century.<ref name=":1" /> The opium habit in Taiwan grew as a result of the Opium Wars in China, which inevitably led to the forced legalisation of opium in 1890.<ref name=":1" /> Between 1890 and 1891 the amount of legal opium imported into Taiwan increased from sixty kilos to four hundred thousand kilo.<ref name=":1" /> In 1892 alone the opium trade made up half of Taiwan's revenue sources, resulting in the widespread presence of opium throughout Taiwan.<ref name=":1" />
Opium
Opium is a highly addictive type of depressant drug which dates back to 3400BC.<ref name=":0" /> The opium poppy pods contain a milky substance called latex, which is made up of a number of chemicals such as morphine and codeine.<ref name=":0" /> The Latex from the pods is boiled and dried to become opium.<ref name=":3">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Opium has been used throughout history recreationally and as medicine, with historians predicting that opium was likely introduced throughout East Asia in the sixth century A.D. along the Silk Road trade route.<ref name=":3"/> The First and Second Opium Wars of the 19th century between the British Empire and Qing Dynasty saw the continued spread of opium throughout East Asia.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite book</ref> While opium presented the opportunity for a lucrative trading market to many countries, the devastating impact of the addictive substance caused havoc across East Asia as well as throughout the US and Europe.<ref name=":2"/>
Japanese views on opium
The Meiji Japanese held a negative view of opium and regarded it as an uncivilized and lazy practice.<ref name=":12">Template:Cite book</ref> These fears may have stemmed from their observation of its effects on the Chinese population as well as aggression from western powers to force its export.<ref name=":13">Template:Cite book</ref>
These fears were exacerbated by American diplomats such as Townsend Harris that described opium as "the one great enemy of China" and that it "injures like the most deadly poison".<ref name=":13"/> The Meiji government strictly prohibited importation, possession and usage of opium except for medicinal purposes until 1868.<ref name=":10"/> Opium smoking in Japan was a rare occurrence and the punishment of the practice strict.<ref name=":12"/><ref name=":10"/>
At the time Taiwan was ceded to Japan, opium smoking was regarded as one of the "Three vices" along with foot binding and the queue hairstyle that should be abolished.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Prime Minister at the negotiation of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, Itō Hirobumi expressed that "There have been people living in Taiwan long before the arrival of opium,” <ref name=":1"/> and that "The Japanese government will definitely prohibit opium after occupying Taiwan".<ref name=":12"/> However, there were fears that the practice may spread to Japan from Taiwan and also concerns that punishing opium usage could lead to anti-Japanese sentiment from Taiwanese locals.<ref name=":7"/><ref name=":11"/>
Itō Hirobumi also expressed the contemporary Japanese view that that widespread opium usage was factor in Qing China's decline, stating "Opium smokers are rather lazy, and therefore soldiers cannot be at their best".<ref name=":12"/>
Annexation of Taiwan from China
In 1894 the Sino-Japanese War began over Japan's invasion of Korea.<ref name=":4">Template:Cite journal</ref> The Qing dynasty was underprepared for the war and was overwhelmed by the power and force of the Japanese fleet.<ref name=":3"/> China was left humiliated by their defeat and in 1895 signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> which conceded Taiwan to Japanese rule in perpetuity.<ref name=":2"/> Taiwan was officially named Formosa under Japanese rule.<ref name=":2"/> The Taiwanese rebelled against the promise of Japanese rule and on 25 May 1895 established the ‘Republic of Formosa’.<ref name=":3"/> On 29 May over 12,000 Japanese troops arrived in Taiwan and begun disbanding the Taiwanese movement for independence.<ref name=":3"/> The 'Republic of Formosa was officially defeated in October 1895 and Japanese occupation of Taiwan commenced. The Japanese government viewed Taiwan as a resource for Japan's industries and saw an opportunity for a colonial market of Japanese goods and services which could improve the Japanese economy.<ref name=":3"/> The Japanese government's opium policies throughout 1895 to 1945 were highly controversial given Taiwan's long history with opium smoking. As well as the innate political and economic motivations of the Japanese government in interfering with the practice.<ref name=":3"/> Taiwan's long history with opium is strongly associated with Taiwan's close relationship with China throughout history.<ref name=":4"/>
Formosa
Formosa was a Japanese colony for over 50 years, from 1895 to the end of WWII in 1945.<ref name=":5">Template:Cite journal</ref> During the first three years of Japan's colonial rule, the Japanese military governed the island. However, in 1898 Tōkyō began appointing Japanese Governors to oversee Taiwan.<ref name=":5"/> As Taiwan was Japan's first colony, many resources were used to ensure the success of the colony Formosa.<ref name=":3"/> Japan had widespread success in establishing order throughout the colony by working to eradicate diseases as well as improve the colonies infrastructure and overall economy.<ref name=":5"/> Japanese rule modernised Taiwan following the ‘Meiji’ restoration processes.<ref name=":6">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Their initial policies focused on growing the agricultural industry by working to improve production outputs and farming techniques.<ref name=":3"/> The Japanese also built highways and improved the existing infrastructure of railway tracks which aimed to increase access to isolated areas the island and stimulate the economy.<ref name=":3"/> Taiwan Initially had 50 km of railway track when the Japanese first took control of the colony and worked to develop upwards of 500 km of railway tracks.<ref name=":3"/> The Japanese also constructed schools, hospitals and other key infrastructure such as roads, productive farms and trade ports.<ref name=":3"/> The Japanese government intended to propel Taiwan into a modern economy, and as a result became of the most advanced countries in East Asia.<ref name=":3"/>
Formosa experienced a shift in cultural identity as a result of Japanese rule.<ref name=":8">Template:Cite journal</ref> Although Formosa was not technically assimilated with Japanese culture, the local Taiwanese populations were forced to speak Japanese instead of their native language resulting in the loss of local culture.<ref name=":3"/> The Japanese ruled the Taiwanese people strictly, dictating policies which represented Japanese interests.<ref name=":3"/> A key aspect of the policies which were created to benefit Japanese interests at the time, involved control of the opium trade and strict regulation of its presence throughout Taiwanese and Japanese society.<ref name=":3"/> Japan's desire to "civilise" Formosa and the "savages" which occupied the land extended past infrastructure and education, and focussed largely on opium usage.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The practise of smoking opium was seen as primitive and dangerous by the Japanese hick as a threat to their ideology and their perception in the global world.<ref name=":2"/>
Taiwan Opium Edict of 1897
In 1895 the short-lived 'Republic of Formosa' resistance leaders created fake 'Japanese issued propaganda' stating that opium would be banned in the hope it would drive supporters to their cause.<ref name=":5"/> In response, the Japanese government made it temporarily legal to continue smoking opium for the local Taiwanese residents, while stating it was punishable by death to supply opium to any Japanese individual.<ref name=":1"/> After the Republic of Formosa was defeated, the Japanese government took great issue with the prevalence of opium through Taiwan, fearing it would spread to Japan if not monitored correctly.<ref name=":1"/>
On 21 January 1897 the Japanese government issued the Taiwan Opium Edict which established a new opium policy for Taiwan.<ref name=":1" /> The Edict outlined the Japanese government's monopoly over the trade of opium and the restricted sale of the drug to "proven addicts" with the necessary licences.<ref name=":1"/> The process of 'Licensed opium usage' took three years to complete and resulted in just under 200,000 licences.<ref name=":1"/> Japan's opium policy was conducted under the administration and leadership of the East Asia Development Board (Kōain) in operation from December 1938 to November 1942.<ref>Template:Cite book </ref> The policy meant Taiwanese nationals who already addicted to opium could continue to smoke under government regulation. However, by the 1920s there were as many unregistered opium users as registered opium users. The imbalance between the number of registered and unregistered opium smokers demonstrated that the policy was ineffective at keeping nonusers from taking up smoking.<ref name=":5"/> Opium dens were common place throughout Southeast Asia. They were establishments where opium was sold and smoked and were frequented by locals and foreigners who were looking to access opium.<ref name=":2"/>
Opium trade as a revenue source and the eventual eradication of opium smoking
The 'Opium Edict' is viewed by some historians as the initial demonstration by the Japanese government of their intentions to profit from the opium trade.<ref name=":7">Template:Cite journal</ref> The government was in the process of making the opium trade a monopoly for their individual gain, whilst simultaneously developing policies which permitted users to continue smoking and prohibited people from starting to smoke.<ref name=":7"/> In 1896, 1 year after the Japanese began establishing a monopoly, opium revenue made up 60% of Taiwan's total yearly revenue, which continued to grow throughout the 1900s, until opium smoking was effectively eradicated by the end of the Japanese era.<ref name=":2"/> The monopoly initially led to an increase in revenue achieved by inflated prices of opium and an overall decrease of smokers.<ref name=":2"/> The outcome of the Opium Edict suggests that the Opium policy had a twofold function, in that, revenue was needed to fund Japan's occupation of Formosa and that controlling opium usage in Taiwan was a direct method of controlling the population.<ref name=":2"/>
Nevertheless, the Japanese colonial government implemented a program of opium eradication. In 1930 it established the Government Center Hospital for Opium Addicts. Professor Tsungming Tu, the first Taiwanese to earn a medical doctorate, was appointed as its head. He devised a method for testing the presence of opium in patients' urine and a treatment method based on the substitution of opium with decreasing dosage of morphine. By the time Taiwan reverted to Chinese control in 1945, the number of opium smokers in Taiwan had become negligible. The eradication of opium smoking was seen as one of the most significant medical accomplishments during the Japanese colonial era.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>