Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant

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Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox dam Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant (Template:Langx {{#invoke:IPA|main}}), officially called Fljótsdalur Power Station<ref name="Landsvirkjun English">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> (Template:Langx {{#invoke:IPA|main}})<ref name="Landsvirkjun Icelandic">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> is a hydroelectric power plant in Fljótsdalshérað municipality in eastern Iceland, designed to produce Template:Convert annually for Alcoa's Fjarðaál aluminum smelter Template:Convert to the east in Reyðarfjörður. With the installed capacity of Template:Convert, the plant is the largest power plant in Iceland. The project, named after the nearby Kárahnjúkar mountains, involves damming the rivers Jökulsá á Dal and Jökulsá í Fljótsdal with five dams, creating three reservoirs. Water from the reservoirs is diverted through Template:Convert of underground water tunnels and down a Template:Convert vertical penstock towards a single underground power station. The smelter became fully operational in 2008 and the hydropower project was completed in 2009.<ref>Kárahnjúkar HEP – Landsvirkjun – September 2009 Template:Webarchive</ref>

The Kárahnjúkar Dam<ref name="Landsvirkjun English" /> (Template:Langx {{#invoke:IPA|main}})<ref name="Landsvirkjun Icelandic" /> is the centrepiece of the five dams and the largest of its type in Europe, standing Template:Convert tall with a length of Template:Convert and comprising Template:Convert of material.

The project has been heavily criticised for its environmental impact and its use of foreign workers.Template:Citation needed

Description

The hydroelectricity project harnesses the rivers Jökulsá á Dal and Jökulsá í Fljótsdal by creating three reservoirs with five concrete-face rock-filled embankment dams; three on the Jökulsá á Dal and two on the Jökulsá í Fljótsdal. After being used in the Fljótsdalur Power Station, all water used in electricity production is discharged into the river Jökulsá í Fljótsdal.

Kárahnjúkar Dam

Three dams on the Jökulsá á Dal—the Kárahnjúkar Dam (Template:Langx), the Desjará Dam<ref name="Landsvirkjun English" /> (Template:Langx),<ref name="Landsvirkjun Icelandic" /> and the Sauðárdalur Dam<ref name="Landsvirkjun English" /> (Template:Langx)<ref name="Landsvirkjun Icelandic" />—create the Hálslón Reservoir. At Template:Convert tall and Template:Convert long, the Kárahnjúkar Dam is the largest dam in the project and the largest of its type in Europe as well. The Template:Convert, Template:Convert Desjará Dam and the Template:Convert, Template:Convert Sauðárdalur Dam are saddle or auxiliary dams that maintain the desired height of the Hálslón Reservoir. Water from the Template:Convert, Template:Convert Hálslón Reservoir (about the size of Manhattan island in New York) is diverted down a Template:Convert, Template:Convert headrace tunnel towards the Fljótsdalur Power Station.<ref name="keyfig">Key Figures of the Kárahnjúkar Hydroelectric Project Template:Webarchive</ref><ref name="projov">The Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Project Overview Template:Webarchive</ref>

On the river Jökulsá í Fljótsdal, the Template:Convert, Template:Convert Kelduá Dam forms the Template:Convert Kelduárlón Reservoir. Downstream from the Kelduá Dam is the Template:Convert, Template:Convert Ufsarstífla dam which forms the Ufsarlón, a much smaller reservoir. Water from the Ufsarlón Reservoir is diverted down a Template:Convert, Template:Convert headrace tunnel where it joins the Hálslón Reservoir headrace tunnel.<ref name="keyfig"/><ref name="projov"/>

Before each of the headrace tunnels from the Hálslón Reservoir or Ufsarlón Reservoir reach the underground power station, they both join to form a single combined headrace tunnel. The single headrace tunnel later splits into two Template:Convert, Template:Convert steel-lined penstocks (tunnels) and the water makes a rapid descent down a final Template:Convert vertical penstock into the power station. The underground Fljótsdalur Power Station contains six vertical-axis Francis turbine generators rated at 115 MW each. The power station has a combined capacity of 690 MW and discharge of Template:Convert (averages Template:Convert) into the river Jökulsá í Fljótsdal via tailrace tunnels and canals. The power production of 4,600 GWh/year<ref name="keyfig" /> corresponds to a capacity factor of 76%, which is relatively high for a hydroelectric facility. Power produced is then transmitted to Alcoa's Fjarðaál aluminium smelter Template:Convert to the east in Reyðarfjörður.<ref name="keyfig"/><ref name="projov"/>

Fjarðaál aluminium smelter

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} The Fjarðaál aluminium smelter was completed June 2007 and reached full operation in April 2008. Construction began in 2004 and the facility contains a smelter, cast house, rod production, and deep-water port. The smelter employs 450 people and produces 940 tons of aluminium a day, with capacity of 346,000 metric tons of aluminium per year. Fjarðaál means "Fjords Aluminium" in Icelandic.<ref name="projov"/><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

History

Using the rivers Jökulsá á Dal and Jökulsá í Fljótsdal along with other resources in eastern Iceland has been on the drawing board since the 1970s. From 1975 to 2002, several international companies had planned or attempted to build a metal plant at Reyðarfjörður that would be powered by a hydroelectricity project similar to the Kárahnjúkar. All failed because of opposition to the project until Alcoa along with the Government of Iceland and Landsvirkjun, Iceland's national power company committed to the massive project in 2002.<ref>Large-scale industry in East Iceland Template:Webarchive</ref>

Construction

Construction of Kárahnjúkar Dam, concrete-face backside
The end of the tunnel at Skriðuklaustur leading water from Kárahnjúkar Dam to the power plant.

The project is funded by Landsvirkjun, which operates the dams and Fljótsdalur Power Station. The Italian company Impregilo is the largest contractor working on the dams.<ref>The Icelandic contractor Suðurverk hf was the main contractor working on Desjará Dam and Sauðárdalur Dam Karahnjúkar website – Impregilo Template:Webarchive</ref> The total cost of the hydropower project is US$1.3 billion. The penstock was built in place by the German company DSD-NOELL (Würzburg) whereas ATB Riva Calzoni of Italy provided intake structures, wheels gates, and sliding gates. In total, more than 4,000 tons of steel were used for the steel liner.

Preparatory work on the project began in August 2002 and construction on the Kárahnjúkar Dam and headrace tunnels for the Hálslón Reservoir began in April 2003. In September of the same year, construction began on the underground power station. Construction on both the Desjará Dam and the Sauðárdalur Dam began in April 2004. In June 2006, construction of the Kelduá Dam and Ufsarstífla Dam began and in September, the Hálslón Reservoir began to fill. In mid-2008, the Kelduá and Ufsarstífla Dams were complete and the Ufsarlón Reservoir headrace tunnel was ready.<ref name="projov"/><ref>Kárahnjúkar Construction Schedule Template:Webarchive</ref>

Construction on the headrace tunnels was done by three full-face tunnel boring machines, while remaining areas were drilled and blasted.<ref name="projov"/> This was the first time that tunnel boring machines were used in Iceland.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

There were several workplace fatalities during the construction process, including Arni Thor Bjarnason, Eilifur Gopi Hammond, Ludvik Alfred Halldorsson, and Kresimir Durinic.<ref>Veal, Lowana (2007) ICELAND: Dam Proves Fatal for Workers, IPS http://www.ipsnews.net/2007/01/iceland-dam-proves-fatal-for-workers/ Template:Webarchive</ref>

Criticism

The dams have been the frequent subject of protests by environmentalists for many reasons.<ref>"Iceland be Damned", Radio Netherlands Archives, February 8, 2003</ref> The area is within the second largest (formerly) unspoiled wilderness in Europe and covers about Template:Convert in total and the rivers that supply water to the project are part of Europe's largest glacier, Vatnajökull. About 70% of the workforce was composed of foreign workers.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> For the construction of Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant in East Iceland, five dams in two glacial rivers created three reservoirs, that together flooded over 440,000 acres of unspoilt Highland territory. The megastructure is on a scale like nothing the nation has seen before or since and, as such, has been a constant source of protest and controversy due to the landscapes irretrievably lost.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The total affected area according to the environmental impact assessment, outlines that a total of Template:Convert were affected by the project's construction. That is approximately 3% of Iceland's total landmass.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Representation in film and literature

The project as a whole was criticised heavily in the 2006 book Draumalandið<ref>Andri Snær Magnason, Dreamland: A Self-Help Manual for a Frightened Nation. Translated by Nicholas Jones. London: Citizen Press, 2008. Originally published as Draumalandið: Sjálfshjálparbók handa hræddri þjóð. Reykjavík: Mál og menning, 2006.</ref> and subsequent 2009 documentary Dreamland.<ref>Þorfinnur Guðnason and Andri Snær Magnason, dir., Draumalandið [Dreamland], Ground Control Productions, 2009.</ref> The project was documented in a MegaStructures program of the National Geographic Channel, and the Discovery Channel's Extreme Engineering, along with mention in the 2006 Sigur Rós rockumentary Heima (At Home), where the band played at a protest against the building of the dam.<ref>Nicola Dibben, 'Music and Environmentalism in Iceland', in: Holt, F. and Kärjä, A-V. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Popular Music in the Nordic Countries. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017: 163-84 (pp. 167-69); ISBN 9780190603908.</ref> The dam has been read as an inspiration for a mysterious dam in Steinar Bragi's horror novel Hálendið.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

See also

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References

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