Khepera mobile robot
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The Khepera is a small (5.5 cm) differential wheeled mobile robot that was developed at the LAMI laboratory of Professor Jean-Daniel Nicoud at EPFL (Lausanne, Switzerland) in the mid-1990s. It was developed by Edo. Franzi, Francesco Mondada, André Guignard and others.
Small, fast, and architectured around a Motorola 68331, it has served researchers for 10 years, widely cited by more than 8000 scientific papers<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Development history
The Khepera project began in 1991 at EPFL's Microcomputing Laboratory (LAMI), led by Jean-Daniel Nicoud.<ref name="Mondada1994"/> Kaspar Suter completed the first working prototype by December 1991, featuring a two-board stack architecture with differential-drive wheels, Teflon ball castors, DC micromotors, and infrared sensors for obstacle detection.<ref name="Mondada1994"/> Concurrently, Francesco Mondada and Edoardo Franzi required a compact, autonomous robot to test artificial neural network controllers during a Swiss national research program (PNR23).<ref name="Mondada1999"/> This collaboration resulted in the production of the Khepera I, employing a Motorola 68331 32-bit microcontroller at 16 MHz, 256 KB RAM, and 512 KB ROM for firmware and user code.<ref name="Mondada1999"/>
In 1995, Mondada, Franzi, and colleagues founded the spin-off company K-Team to commercialize the robot line.<ref name="Mondada1999"/> By 1999, over 700 Khepera I robots had been distributed globally, necessitating regular production and support by K-Team.<ref name="Mondada1999"/>
Technical specifications
Mechanical design
The Khepera I features a circular chassis 55 mm in diameter and 30 mm tall, fabricated from plastic and metal layers. It uses differential-drive locomotion with two DC gearmotor–driven wheels and ball castors for balance. Wheel encoders provide approximately 600 counts per revolution, enabling precise odometry.<ref name="Mondada1999"/>
Sensors
Eight infrared transceiver sensors (SFH900 series) are arranged around the perimeter (six frontal and two rear), operating in active mode for proximity sensing (up to 10 cm) and passive mode for ambient light measurement.<ref name="Mondada1999"/> The platform includes analog inputs for additional sensors and battery monitoring.
Processor and electronics
The main processor is a Motorola 68331 microcontroller at 16 MHz, with 256 KB RAM and 512 KB ROM for user programs. The robot runs a real-time multitasking firmware, interfacing via RS-232 serial communications for program upload and telemetry.<ref name="Mondada1999"/> Cross-compilation on a host PC is used to develop and download C-based controller code.
Expandability
Khepera's modular design allows stacking of extension turrets on top of the main body, connecting via parallel and serial busses. Turrets developed include gripper modules, linear CCD camera turrets, wireless communication packs, prototyping boards, and advanced sensor modules with dedicated microcontrollers.<ref name="Mondada1999"/>
Successors and versions
Khepera II
Released in 1998, Khepera II retained the original form factor but upgraded to a 25 MHz Motorola 68331 CPU, 512 KB RAM, 512 KB Flash, and NiMH batteries for up to 1 hour of operation.<ref>Template:Cite tech report</ref> Backward compatibility ensured continued use of Khepera I turrets and accessories.
Khepera III
Launched in 2005, Khepera III expanded to a 120 mm diameter chassis to incorporate additional sensors, including nine perimeter IR sensors, two ground-facing IR sensors, and five ultrasonic rangefinders (up to 4 m range). It introduced a modular embedded Linux module (KoreBot) based on an Intel XScale PXA-255 at 400 MHz, providing Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connectivity, hot-swappable Li-ion batteries, and advanced onboard processing for SLAM and swarm robotics research.<ref name="Martinoli2004"/><ref name="Soares2015"/>
Khepera IV
Released in 2014, Khepera IV features a 140 mm diameter chassis with 12 IR sensors, five ultrasonic sensors, an inertial measurement unit, wheel encoders, an integrated front-facing color camera (752×480), and audio input. It uses a Gumstix Overo COM module (TI OMAP3530 Cortex-A8 at 800 MHz) running embedded Linux, with 512 MB RAM and LiPo batteries for several hours of operation.<ref name="Soares2015"/>
Technical details
Original version
Source:<ref name="Mondada1999"/>
- Diameter: 55 mm
- Height: 30 mm
- Empty weight: 80 g
- Speed: 0.02 to 1.0 m/s
- Autonomy: 45 minutes moving
- Motorola 68331 CPU @ 16 MHz
- 256 KB RAM
- 512 KB EEPROM
- Running μKOS RTOS
- 2 DC brushed servo motors with incremental encoders
- 8 infrared proximity and ambient light sensors (SFH900)
2.0 Version
- Motorola 68331 CPU @ 25 MHz
- 512 KB RAM
- 512 KB Flash
- Improved batteries and sensors
3.0 Version
- 800 MHz ARM Cortex-A8 Processor
- Weight: 540g
- 256 MB RAM
- 512 MB plus additional 8GB for data
- Battery: 7.4V Lithium Polymer, 3400mAh
Extensions
Several extension turrets exist for the Khepera, including:
- Gripper
- 1D or 2D camera, wire or wireless
- Radio emitter/receiver, low and high speed
- I/0
Research applications
Khepera has been instrumental in founding the field of evolutionary robotics. Floreano and Mondada (1996) evolved neural network controllers for obstacle avoidance and homing behaviors on physical Kheperas.<ref name="Floreano1996"/> Miglino et al. (1995) demonstrated robust transfer of evolved controllers from simulation to real robots.<ref name="Miglino1995"/> Floreano and Mondada (1998) further refined evolutionary neurocontrollers for autonomous behavior.<ref name="Floreano1998"/>
In behavior-based control, Sugihara et al. (2001) applied competitive-cooperative neural architectures for trajectory smoothing.<ref name="Sugihara2001"/> Khepera's modular turrets enabled early vision-based navigation studies using CCD sensors.<ref name="Mondada1994"/>
Swarm robotics research employed multiple Kheperas in collaborative tasks. Martinoli et al. (2004) rigorously compared swarm control models with physical experiments on stick-pulling tasks.<ref name="Martinoli2004"/> Collective foraging and communication protocols were validated on Khepera teams with wireless modules.<ref name="Verschure2003"/>
Khepera also served as a testbed for neuromorphic control systems. Verschure et al. (2003) used a cortical model to mediate perception and action in Khepera, publishing results in *Nature*.<ref name="Verschure2003"/>
Educational use
Since the 1990s, Khepera has been adopted in university courses on robotics, embedded systems, control theory, and AI, offering hands-on experience in sensor integration, controller development, and real-time programming.<ref name="Mondada1994"/> It has featured in undergraduate lab assignments (e.g., maze solving, line following) and advanced projects (e.g., robot soccer, multi-robot coordination). Khepera's compatibility with simulation tools like Webots allows seamless transfer of code from virtual to real robots.<ref name="Soares2015"/>
Commercialization
Khepera's commercialization by K-Team established one of the first standardized research robots, enhancing experimental reproducibility across labs.<ref name="Mondada1999"/> The platform's success spurred the development of related robots such as the Koala and e-puck series, and the Webots simulator originated as a Khepera simulator.<ref name="Mondada1999"/><ref name="Soares2015"/> Its influence extends to modern swarm and mini-robot research, demonstrating that significant robotics research can be conducted on small-scale autonomous platforms.<ref name="Verschure2003"/>
See also
- Koala robot- a following model developed by the same company
- E-puck - a following model developed by part of the original team who developed Khepera
- Webots – software that simulates and allows cross-compilation and remote control of the Khepera and other robots
- K-Team - The company selling Khepera
References
<references> <ref name="Mondada1994">Template:Cite book</ref> <ref name="Mondada1999">Mondada, F.; Franzi, E.; Guignard, A. (1999). The Development of Khepera. Proceedings of the 1st International Khepera Workshop, Paderborn, Switzerland, 10–11 Dec 1999.PDF</ref> <ref name="Soares2015">Soares, J. M.; Navarro, I.; Martinoli, A. (2015). The Khepera IV mobile robot: Performance evaluation, sensory data, and software toolbox. EPFL Distributed Intelligent Systems and Algorithms Laboratory (Technical report).</ref> <ref name="Verschure2003">Verschure, P. F. M. J.; Voegtlin, T.; Douglas, R. J. (2003). Environmentally mediated synergy between perception and behaviour in mobile robots. Nature, 425 (6958): 620–624.</ref> <ref name="Miglino1995">Miglino, O.; Lund, H. H.; Nolfi, S. (1995). Evolving mobile robots in simulated and real environments. Artificial Life, 2 (4): 417–434.</ref> <ref name="Floreano1996">Floreano, D.; Mondada, F. (1996). Evolution of homing behavior in a real mobile robot. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part B, 26 (3): 396–407.</ref> <ref name="Floreano1998">Floreano, D.; Mondada, F. (1998). Evolutionary neurocontrollers for autonomous mobile robots. Neural Networks, 11 (7–8): 1461–1478.</ref> <ref name="Sugihara2001">Sugihara, K.; Tabuse, M.; Shinchi, T.; Kitazoe, T. (2001). Control system for the Khepera robot by a neural network with competition and cooperation. Artificial Life and Robotics, 5 (3): 159–164.</ref> <ref name="Martinoli2004">Martinoli, A.; Easton, K.; Agassounon, W. (2004). Modeling swarm robotic systems: a case study in collaborative distributed manipulation. The International Journal of Robotics Research, 23 (4): 415–436.</ref> </references>
External links
- Homepage – K-Team, the company which sells the Khepera robots