Klipspringer

The klipspringer (Template:IPAc-en; Oreotragus oreotragus) is a small antelope found in eastern and southern Africa. The sole member of its genus and subfamily/tribe, the klipspringer was first described by German zoologist Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann in 1783. The klipspringer is a small, sturdy antelope; it reaches Template:Convert at the shoulder and weighs from Template:Convert. The coat of the klipspringer, yellowish gray to reddish brown, acts as an efficient camouflage in its rocky habitat. Unlike most other antelopes, the klipspringer has a thick and coarse coat with hollow, brittle hairs. The horns, short and spiky, typically measure Template:Convert.

Typically nocturnal, the klipspringer rests during the middle of the day and late at night. A gregarious animal, the klipspringer is monogamous to a much greater extent than other antelopes; individuals of opposite sexes exhibit long-term to lifelong pair bonding. The mates tend to stay as close as within Template:Convert of each other at most times. Males form territories, Template:Convert, in which they stay with their partners and offspring. Primarily a browser, the klipspringer prefers young plants, fruits and flowers. Gestation lasts around six months, following which a single calf is born; births peak from spring to early summer. The calf leaves its mother when it turns a year old.

The klipspringer inhabits places characterised by rocky terrain and sparse vegetation. Its range extends from northeastern Sudan, Eritrea, Somaliland and Ethiopia<ref name= "Aerts2019">Template:Cite book</ref> in the east to South Africa in the south, and along coastal Angola and Namibia. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) classifies the klipspringer as Least Concern. There are no major threats to the survival of the klipspringer, as its habitat is inaccessible and unfavourable for hunting. Significant numbers occur on private farmlands. As of 2008, nearly 25% of the populations occur in protected areas throughout its range.

Taxonomy and etymology

The scientific name of the klipspringer is Oreotragus oreotragus Template:IPAc-en, from Greek ὄρος (óros), "mountain", and τράγος (trágos), "he-goat". It is the sole member of the genus Oreotragus and subfamily Oreotraginae or tribe Oreotragini,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and is classified under the family Bovidae. The species was first described by German zoologist Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann in 1783, who gave it the scientific name Antilope oreotragus, and it was only given its own separate genus in 1834.<ref name=MSW3>Template:MSW3 Artiodactyla</ref><ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref> The vernacular name "klipspringer" is a compound of the Afrikaans words klip ("rock") and springer ("leaper"). Another name for this antelope is "klipbok".<ref>Template:MerriamWebsterDictionary</ref>

In 1934, South African paleontologist Robert Broom studied a fossilized right maxillary bone from the cave deposits of Taung, South Africa, and believed they represent an extinct genus and species that lived during the Pliocene or Pleistocene epochs, which he assigned the name Palaeotragiscus longiceps.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Later in 1952, another South African paleontologist, Lawrence H. Wells, described an antelope skull found five years earlier in Swartkrans, and believed it represented a prehistoric species related to the klipspringer. He named this species Oreotragus major, believing it was distinguished from the modern klipspringer by its larger size.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> However, both Palaeotragiscus longiceps and Oreotragus major were later determined not to differ from the modern klipspringer in any significant aspects, so they are now considered to be junior synonyms of Oreotragus oreotragus.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

A 2012 phylogenetic study showed that the klipspringer is closely related to Kirk's dik-dik (Madoqua kirkii) and the suni (Neotragus moschatus). The klipspringer evolved nearly 14 million years ago. The cladogram below is based on this study.<ref name="johnston">Template:Cite journal</ref>

As many as 11 subspecies have been identified, though zoologists Colin Groves and Peter Grubb treat a few of them as independent species in a 2011 publication:<ref name=Kingdon/><ref name=Castello/><ref name="Groves2011">Template:Cite book</ref> Template:Div col

• O. o. aceratos Noack, 1899 : Noack's or southern Tanzanian klipspringer. Occurs in eastern and southern Africa, between rivers Rufiji and Zambezi.
• O. o. aureus Heller, 1913 : Golden klipspringer. Occurs in Kenya.
• O. o. centralis Hinton, 1921 : Zambian klipspringer. Occurs in central and southern Africa.
• O. o. oreotragus (Zimmermann, 1783) : Cape klipspringer. Occurs in the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa.
• O. o. porteousi Lydekker, 1911 : Occurs in central Africa.
• O. o. saltatrixoides (Temminck, 1853) : Ethiopian klipspringer. Occurs in the highlands of Ethiopia.
• O. o. schillingsi Neumann, 1902 : Maasai klipspringer. Occurs in eastern Africa.
• O. o. somalicus Neumann, 1902 : Somali klipspringer. Occurs in northern Somalia.
• O. o. stevensoni Roberts, 1946 : Stevenson's klipspringer. Occurs in western Zimbabwe.
• O. o. transvaalensis Roberts, 1917 : Transvaal klipspringer. Occurs in South African highlands and Drakensberg.
• O. o. tyleri Hinton, 1921 : Angolan klipspringer. Occurs in Namibia.

Description

The klipspringer is a small, sturdy antelope reaching Template:Convert at the shoulder. The head-and-body length is typically between Template:Convert. It weighs from Template:Convert.<ref name=Kingdon/> The klipspringer is sexually dimorphic; females are slightly larger and heavier than the males.<ref name="Castello">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Stuart">Template:Cite book</ref> The tail measures Template:Convert.<ref name="Kingdon">Template:Cite book</ref> Prominent facial features include the brown forehead, short ears marked with black, prominent preorbital glands near the eyes, and white lips and chin. The horns, short and spiky, present only on males, typically measure Template:Convert; the maximum recorded horn length is Template:Convert.<ref name=Castello/><ref name=Stuart/>

The coat of the klipspringer, yellowish gray to reddish brown, acts as an efficient camouflage in its rocky habitat; the underbelly is white.<ref name="Spoor">Template:Cite book</ref> Unlike most other antelopes, the klipspringer has a thick and coarse coat with hollow, brittle hairs.<ref name="Mills">Template:Cite book</ref> The incisors might even get damaged by the hairs while grooming.<ref name=Hart/> However, the coat is a significant adaptation that saves the animal during steep falls and provides effective insulation in the extreme climates characteristic of its mountain habitat.<ref name=Mills/> A study showed that ticks occur in larger numbers on the underbelly, where the hair is less coarse.<ref name="Hart">Template:Cite journal</ref> The hair often turns erect, especially if the animal is ill or if its temperature increases.<ref name=Kingdon/> Another feature unique to the klipspringer is its gait; it walks on the tips of its cylindrical, blunt hooves.<ref name=Stuart/><ref name=Spoor/> This enhances the grip on the ground, enabling the animal to deftly climb and jump over rocky surfaces.<ref name=Mills/>

The subspecies vary in coat colour – from golden yellow in the Cape klipspringer, Ethiopian klipspringer, golden klipspringer and Transvaal klipspringer to ochre or rufous in the Maasai klipspringer, Stevenson's klipspringer and Zambian klipspringer. Cape klipspringer populations tend to have the largest males, while Maasai klipspringer exhibit the largest females.<ref name=Groves2011/>

Ecology and behaviour

File:Klipspringer pair.jpg

Klipspringers demonstrating typical lookout (rear) and feeding (front) pair behaviour

Typically nocturnal (active mainly at night), the klipspringer rests during the midday and at late night; the animal tends to be more active on moonlit nights. It basks in the morning sunlight to warm itself.<ref name=Kingdon/> A gregarious animal, the klipspringer, like the dik-diks and the oribi, exhibits monogamy to a much greater extent than other antelopes; individuals of opposite sexes form pairs that might last until one dies.<ref name=Dunbar/><ref name=Dunbar1980/> The mates tend to stay as close as within Template:Convert of each other at most times; for instance, they take turns at keeping a lookout for predators while the other feeds, and face any danger together. The klipspringer will hop a few metres away from the danger.<ref name="Dunbar">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Dunbar1980">Template:Cite journal</ref> Other social groups include small family herds of eight or more members or solitary individuals. Klipspringer greet one another by rubbing cheeks at social meetings.<ref name="Dunbar1974">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Males form territories, Template:Convert large (the size depends on rainfall patterns), in which they stay with their partners and offspring.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Males are generally more vigilant than females. Klipspringer form large dung heaps, nearly Template:Convert across and Template:Convert deep, at the borders of territories; another form of marking is the secretion of a thick, black substance, measuring Template:Convert across, from the preorbital glands onto vegetation and rocks in the territories.<ref name=Mills/><ref name=Apps>Template:Cite book</ref> A study revealed that the tick Ixodes neitzi detects and aggregates on twigs marked by the klipspringer.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Another study showed that plants near the borders with neighbouring territories are particularly preferred for marking.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The main vocalisation is a shrill whistle, given out by the klipspringer pair in a duet, as a means of communication or anti-predator response. Predators include the baboon, black-backed jackal, caracal, crowned eagle, leopard, martial eagle, serval, spotted hyena and Verreaux's eagle.<ref name=Kingdon/><ref name=Skinner/> Birds such as familiar chats, pale-winged starlings, red-winged starlings and yellow-bellied bulbuls have been observed feeding on ectoparasites of klipspringer.<ref name=Skinner/>

Diet

Primarily a browser, the klipspringer prefers young plants, fruits and flowers. Grasses, eaten mainly in the wet season, form a minor portion of the diet. Some plants, such as Vellozia, may be preferred seasonally. Klipspringer depend mainly on succulent plants, and not on water bodies, to meet their water requirement.<ref name=Kingdon/><ref name=Castello/> They can stand on their hindlegs to reach tall branches up to Template:Convert above the ground; some individuals in Namibia were observed climbing Faidherbia albida trees up to a height of Template:Convert.<ref name=Skinner>Template:Cite book</ref>

Reproduction

The klipspringer is a seasonal breeder; the time when mating occurs varies geographically. Females become sexually mature by the time they are a year old; males take slightly longer to mature. Mating behaviour has not been extensively observed.<ref name=Kingdon/><ref name=Castello/> Gestation lasts around six months, following which a single calf, weighing slightly more than Template:Convert, is born; births peak from spring to early summer. Births take place in dense vegetation. The newborn is carefully hidden for up to three months to protect it from the view of predators; the mother suckles it three to four times a day, the visits gradually lengthen as the offspring grows. Males are protective of their offspring, keeping a watch for other males and predators.<ref name=Kingdon/><ref name=Castello/> The calf is weaned at four to five months,<ref name=Skinner/> and leaves its mother when it turns a year old. The klipspringer lives for around 15 years.<ref name=Kingdon/><ref name=Castello/>

Habitat and distribution

File:Oreotragus oreotragus.jpg

Klipspringers inhabit mountainous regions with sparse vegetation.

The klipspringer inhabits places characterised by rocky terrain and sparse vegetation. It migrates to lowlands at times of food scarcity. The klipspringer occurs at altitudes as high as Template:Convert on Mount Kilimanjaro.<ref name=Kingdon/><ref name="East">Template:Cite book</ref> The klipspringer can occur at high population densities in favourable habitats extending over a large area; 10 to 14 individuals occur per square kilometre in the Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. However, the habitat is typically rocky over long stretches and grassy terrain is discontinuous; consequently the population density is typically between 0.01 and 0.1 individual per square kilometre.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" />

The antelope occurs in significant numbers across eastern and southern Africa; its range extends from northeastern Sudan, Eritrea, northern Somalia and Ethiopia in the east to South Africa in the south, and along coastal Angola and Namibia. Smaller populations occur in the northern and western highlands of Central African Republic, southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Jos Plateau and east of Gashaka Gumti National Park in Nigeria. It is feared to be extinct in Burundi.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /><ref name=East/>

Threats and conservation

File:Klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus) feet.jpg

The hooves seen close-up

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) classifies the klipspringer as Least Concern.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> The klipspringer is hunted for its meat, leather and hair.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> However, there are no major threats to the survival of the klipspringer, as its habitat is inaccessible and unfavourable for hunting. Moreover, the antelope does not have to compete with livestock, that do not frequent montane areas. However, populations at lower altitudes are more vulnerable to elimination.<ref name=East/>

In 1999, Rod East of the IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group estimated the total population of klipspringer at 42,000. Significant numbers occur on private farmlands. As of 2008, nearly 25% of the populations occur in protected areas such as the Simien and Bale Mountains National Parks (Ethiopia); Tsavo East and West National Parks (Kenya); North and South Luangwa National Parks (Zambia); Nyika National Park (Malawi); Namib-Naukluft National Park (Namibia); and Matobo National Park (Zimbabwe).<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /><ref name=East/>

External links

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• Template:Cite EB1911