Lake Sevan
Template:Short description Template:Infobox body of water
Lake Sevan (Template:Langx) is the largest body of water in both Armenia and the Caucasus region. It is one of the largest freshwater high-altitude (alpine) lakes in Eurasia.Template:Sfn The lake is situated in Gegharkunik Province, at an altitude of Template:Convert above sea level. The total surface area of its basin is about Template:Convert, which makes up Template:Frac of Armenia's territory.Template:Sfn The lake itself is Template:Convert, and the volume is Template:Convert.Template:Sfn It is fed by 28 rivers and streams. Only 10% of the incoming water is drained by the Hrazdan River, while the remaining 90% evaporates.
Sevan has significant economic, cultural, and recreational value. Its sole major island (now a peninsula) is home to a medieval monastery. The lake provides some 90% of the fish and 80% of the crayfish catch of Armenia.Template:Sfn
Sevan was heavily exploited for irrigation of the Ararat plain and hydroelectric power generation during the Soviet period. Consequently, its water level decreased by around Template:Convert and its volume reduced by more than 40%. Later, two tunnels were built to divert water from highland rivers, which halted its decline and its level began rising. Before human intervention dramatically changed the lake's ecosystem, the lake was at an altitude of Template:Convert above sea level,Template:Sfn Template:Convert deep, covered an area of Template:Convert (5% of Armenia's entire area), and had a volume of Template:Convert.
Etymology
In the Middle Ages, Sevan was solely the name of the island (now peninsula) and the monastery built on it.<ref name="Lalayan">Template:Cite journal</ref> In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Russian and European sources sometimes referred to the lake as Sevanga or Sevang,Template:Refn Per folk etymology, Sevan is either a combination of sev ("black") and vank’ ("monastery"),<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> sev ("black") + Van (i.e., Lake Van),<ref>René Grousset. The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, Rutgers University Press, 1970, p. 348, Template:ISBN</ref>Template:Sfn or originates from the phrase sa ē vank'ə ("this is the monastery").<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The scholarly explanation, first suggested by Template:Ill in 1896,<ref>Клинообразные надписи Закавказья, исследование М. В. Никольского, 1896, p. 127</ref><ref name="Lalayan"/> is that Sevan originated from the Urartian word suinia, usually translated as "lake".Template:Refn It is attested on an 8th-century BC cuneiform inscription by the Urartian king Rusa I, found in Odzaberd, on the southern shore of the lake.Template:Sfn
The historical Armenian name of the lake, attested in early medieval texts, is Sea of Gegham<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> (classical Armenian: ծով Գեղամայ, tsov Geghamay).Template:Efn The historic Georgian name of the lake is Gelakuni (გელაქუნი), which is essentially the Georgian transcription of Armenian Gegharkuni.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web.</ref> In classical antiquity, the lake was known as Lychnitis (Template:Langx).<ref name="Bryce" /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book view online</ref> John Chardin, who visited the lake in 1673, called it the "Lake of Erivan" and wrote that it was called Deria-Shirin ("sweet lake") by Persians and Kiagar-couni-sou by Armenians.<ref>"The Travels of Sir John Chardin into Persia and the East Indies". London, 1686, pp247-248</ref>
The Turkic name Gokcha<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> or Gökche,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> which means "blue lake" was also used in Russian and British sources from the 17th to early 20th centuries.<ref>Template:Cite map</ref><ref name="EB1911" /><ref name="Massalski" /><ref name="Bryce">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Significance
Cultural
Along with Lake Van and Lake Urmia, Sevan is considered one of the three great "seas"<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> of historic Armenia.<ref>J. R. Russell. Zoroastrianism in Armenia. — Harvard University Press, 1987. — P. 1—2.</ref><ref>Encyclopaedia of Islam. — Leiden: BRILL, 1986. — Vol. I. — P. 634.</ref><ref>Robert H. Hewsen. The Geography of Armenia // The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century / Edited by Richard G. Hovannisian. — St. Martin's Press, 1997. — Vol. I. — P. 8—10.</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It is the only one within the boundaries of present-day Republic of Armenia, while the other two are located in Turkey and Iran, respectively. Lake Sevan is considered the "jewel" of Armenia<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and is "recognized as a national treasure" in the country.Template:Sfn The 2001 Law on Lake Sevan defines the lake as "a strategic ecosystem valuable for its environmental, economical, social, scientific, cultural, aesthetic, medical, climatic, recreational, and spiritual value."<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Chardin in 1673 noted the "extraordinary sweetness of the water", the "small Island in the middle of it; where stands a Monastery built about 600 years ago, of which the Prior is an Archbishop", and "nine sorts of fish which are there taken; the fairest trouts and carps which are eaten at Erivan being caught in this Lake".<ref>"The Travels of Sir John Chardin into Persia and the East Indies". London, 1686, pp247-248.</ref>
Naturalist and traveler Friedrich Parrot, best known for ascending Mount Ararat in 1829 for the first time in history, wrote: Template:Quote frame
Economic
It is important for the Armenian economy: being the main source of irrigation water, Sevan provides low-cost electricity, fish, recreation, and tourism.Template:Sfn
Origin
Sevan originated during the early Quaternary when tectonic formation created a Palaeo-Sevan, ten times larger than the present lake.<ref name="Lakes Handbook" /> The current lake was formed some 25 to 30 thousand years ago.Template:Sfn
Human intervention
Exploitation and reduction
Background
Sevan was recognized as being a major potential water resource in the 19th century. Its high altitude location relative to the fertile Ararat plain and limited energy resources attracted engineers to explore ways of usage of the lake's water. In his 1910 booklet, Armenian engineer Sukias Manasserian proposed using Sevan's water for irrigation and hydroelectric power generation. He proposed draining the lake by Template:Convert. Major Sevan would completely dry out, while Minor Sevan would have a surface area of Template:Convert.Template:Sfn
Implementation
Manasserian's proposal was adopted by the Soviet authorities in the 1930s when, under Joseph Stalin, the country was undergoing rapid industrialization. Works on the project started in 1933. The riverbed of Hrazdan was deepened through excavation. A tunnel was bored around Template:Convert under the lake's surface. The tunnel was completed in 1949 and thereafter the Sevan's level began to drop significantly, at a rate over Template:Convert per year. The water was used for irrigation and the Sevan–Hrazdan Cascade of six hydroelectric power stations on Hrazdan River.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
| Indices | 1936 | 2000 | Decrease |
|---|---|---|---|
| Height above sea level, m | 1915.97 | 1896.65 | -19.32 |
| Lake surface, km2 | 1416.2 | 1238.8 | 12.5% |
| Mean depth, m | 41.3 | 26.8 | 35% |
| Maximum depth, m | 98.7 | 79.7 | 19% |
| Water amount, km3 | 58.48 | 33.20 | 43.2% |
Effects
During the second half of the 20th century, the ecological condition of Lake Sevan underwent tangible changes and vast degradation due to reduced water level, increased eutrophication, and detrimental impact of human activity on the biological diversity of the lake. According to Babayan et al. the lake level dropped by Template:Convert by 2002, while the volume decreased by 43.8% (from Template:Convert). Due to the water level decrease, the quality of the water deteriorated, natural habitats were destroyed that meant loss of biodiversity.Template:Sfn Vardanian wrote that drop of the lake level and the economic development in the basin brought about the change in hydro-chemical regime of the lake. The quality of the water deteriorated, water turbidity increased. The inner circulation of the water constituents as well as the circulation of the biological substances altered.Template:Sfn
Reversal and recovery
Arpa–Sevan tunnel
By the time of the Khrushchev Thaw, "it had become evident that the ecological and economic consequences of extensive exploitation of the water of Lake Sevan were too undesirable to continue in the same way."Template:Sfn Soviet Armenian leaders soon agreed that "the best way to solve the issue would be to construct a canal to divert water from Armenia's Arpa River into the lake."Template:Sfn To support this project, Yerevan needed assistance from the all-union budget. On Victory Day (9 May) 1961, Armenian officials, led by First Secretary Yakov Zarobyan, together with Marshal Ivan Bagramyan, met with Nikita Khrushchev at the lake to discuss the Arpa-Sevan proposal.Template:Sfn Guided by advice from Khrushchev's close ally Anastas Mikoyan, the Armenian leadership managed to persuade Khrushchev to support the project, "estimated to be 480 million rubles (in old price values)."Template:Sfn
The plan for the Arpa-Sevan tunnel was approved on 12 August 1961 by the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union.Template:Sfn It envisioned diverting water from a reservoir of the Arpa River near Kechut through a Template:Convert long tunnel to the lake near Artsvanist.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Armenian authorities "moved to begin the implementation of the project" on 29 August 1961.Template:Sfn The tunnel was eventually completed in 1981 and continues to bring up to Template:Convert of water to Sevan per year.Template:Sfn However, it is estimated that due to climate change, the outflow of the Arpa river will decrease by 22% by 2030.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Vorotan–Arpa tunnel
Since the water level in the lake did not rise as fast and as much, on 20 April 1981 the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union made a decision for the construction of the Vorotan–Arpa tunnel.<ref name="azg 2004" /> This Template:Convert long tunnel was begun from the Spandarian Reservoir on the Vorotan River further south from Kechut.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Due to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and the 1988 earthquake in northwestern Armenia construction was halted. The tunnel was inaugurated on 26 April 2004.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The Vorotan–Arpa tunnel brings an additional Template:Convert to the lake annually.Template:Sfn<ref name="azg 2004" />
Increase in water level
After the construction of the two tunnels the water level began rising significantly since the mid-2000s. In 2007 it was reported that the water level had risen by Template:Convert in the previous six years.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> It reached Template:Convert in October 2010. The government committee on Sevan forecasts that the level will reach Template:Convert by 2029.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
Water level stood at 1900.44 m in November 2019.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Population
The Gegharkunik Province, which roughly corresponds to the lake's basin, had a de facto population of 211,828 according to the 2011 Armenian census. The largest settlements in the province are: Gavar (20,765), Sevan (19,229), Martuni (12,894), Vardenis (12,685), Vardenik (9,880), Yeranos (6,119), Chambarak (5,660), Lchashen (5,054), Tsovagyugh (4,189).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Tourism
Beaches
Lake Sevan has the only beaches in Armenia.<ref name="Holding" /> They are a popular destination for the Armenians.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Sevan's beaches provide a unique experience within the landlocked country for Armenians. The beaches adjacent to hotels are usually privatized.<ref name="Holding">Template:Cite book</ref> Numerous beaches are located along the entire lake shore. The most popular of them is a Template:Convert stretch on the northern shore, extending northwest from the peninsula. Resorts include Harsnaqar Hotel, Best Western Bohemian Resort, and numerous smaller facilities. Activities include swimming, sunbathing, jet skiing, windsurfing, and sailing. The area also includes numerous campgrounds and picnic areas for daytime use. A less-developed beach destination stretches along the eastern shore from Tsovagyugh to Shorzha, with numerous small cabins at Shorzha. The Avan Marak Tsapatagh Hotel, a Tufenkian Heritage Hotel, is a luxury resort on the undeveloped southeastern shore of the lake near Tsapatagh.
The Armenian government pledged to "reduce the growing commercialization of rest at Lake Sevan that makes it unaffordable for most citizens struggling to find other beach options during hot Armenian summers."<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> In 2011 the government established public beaches in the Sevan National Park's recreational zone. The first two public beaches were opened in July. Some 100,000 people visited the public beaches in summer of 2011. The beaches have free parking space, children's and sports playgrounds, toilets, medical aid stations, and rescue services. They are also equipped with beach couches.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> By 2014, the number of public beaches reached 11. Some 200,000 people took holiday there in 2014.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
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Tufenkian Avan Marak Tsapatagh Hotel (Tsapatagh) -
Best Western Bohemian Resort -
The beach of Sevan town -
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The Harsnaqar Hotel Complex
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View from the northeastern shore near the city of Sevan
Sites of interest
The most famous cultural monument is the Sevanavank monastery located on the peninsula, which was until the mid-20th century an island. Another prominent monastery at the western shore is Hayravank, and further south, in the village of Noratus, is a field of khachkars; a cemetery with about 900 khachkars of different styles. Additional khachkars are found at Nerkin Getashen on the south coast.
In 2017, a Wikipedia globe was submerged in the lakeTemplate:Where to create an artificial reef.<ref name="MetaReef">Template:Cite web</ref>
Island
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Sevan Island -
Sevan Island -
Sevan Island
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Sevan peninsula (formerly an island) in Lake Sevan
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Sevan peninsula in 2015
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Fauna
Fish
Sevan trout (Salmo ischchan) is an endemic species of the lake, but it is endangered as some competitors were introduced into the lake, including common whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus) from Lake Ladoga, goldfish (Carrasius auratus), and crayfish (Astacus leptodactylus). If the Sevan trout is likely to become extinct in its "home" lake, it seems that it will survive in Issyk-Kul Lake (Kyrgyzstan), where it was introduced in the 1970s.
Due to anthropogenic impact, changes have occurred in all the biological components of the lake, including bacteria, benthos, and of course fish. Thus, the benthic mass increased tenfold in 1940, due to oligochaetes and chrinomices. Today, the former prevail and multiply the oxygen-rich residue at the bottom of the lake.
The bojak and winter bakhtak species of the Sevan-endemic trout have already disappeared. The summer bakhtak occurs rarely; the gegharkuni is still capable of reproducing naturally. In 1980s, the quantity of Sevan koghak significantly decreased. Numerous reasons for this have been identified:
- The level of the water was lowered, the paths of rivers changed, and the trout (gegharkuni and Aestivalis species) lost their natural spаwning places. Changes in the areas near the shore (mossing, disappearance of macrophyte plants) also had a negative impact on the trout lays. The trout spawn only in certain areas, with oxygen-rich underground water at the depth of Template:Convert.
- Deoxidization of the bottom is extremely detrimental for salmon, which are used to more than 4 mg/L of O2.
- In the last 10 years, poaching rapidly increased, which significantly reduced the number of fish in the lake.
Birds
The bird fauna of the lake and its vicinity makes over 200 species, out of which 95 species are breeding.<ref>Aghababyan K., Khanamirian G. 2017. Baseline study of the Birds at Lake Sevan for further monitoring. Lake Sevan National Park.</ref> The lake is an important breeding ground for the Armenian gull (Larus armenicus) with about 4,000–5,000 pairs. During migration the Lake is visited by wide variety of birds including raptors, such as Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus) and steppe eagle (Aquila nipalensis), waterbirds such as red-crested pochard (Netta rufina) and ferruginous duck (Aythya nyroca), while during the wintering period the lake hosts another set of species such as Bewick's swan (Cygnus columbianus) and great black-headed gull (Larus ichthyaetus). Sometimes the lake is visited by lesser white-fronted goose (Anser erythropus), a very rare migrant in Armenia.
Culture
There are a lot of historical monuments located on the coast of Sevan, ranging from prehistoric petroglyphs to various monasteries. The monasteries include Sevanavank, Vanevan, Kotavank and others. There are also many historical castles and fortresses on the coast, including Berdkunk Fortress, Odzaberd, and others.
Gallery
Pollution
The rivers feeding Lake Sevan flow through densely populated settlements which produce agricultural, domestic, and industrial waste. It significantly changes the lake's ecosystem. According to a 2017 study the lake's water contains concentration of metals such as aluminium, nickel, arsenic, cobalt, and lead.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
According to Armenian environmental organization EcoLur, the lake is in a critical condition because of the presence of vanadium. Environmental Impact Monitoring Center, an agency of the Armenian Ministry of Nature Protection, reported in 2012 that the average annual concentration of vanadium (64 μg/L) in the samples taken from Lake Sevan exceeded the maximum permissible concentration (MPC) by 6.4 times, while selenium (26 μg/L) exceeded MPC 2.6 times, copper (21 μg/L) 2.1 times, magnesium (60 μg/L) 1.2 times.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> A 2016 study found that mining and metallurgical industrial activities—namely the Sotk gold mine on the southeastern shore of the lake—caused significant heavy metal, especially vanadium, pollution of the Sotk and Masrik rivers in the Lake Sevan catchment basin. According to the researchers it "may have posed health risks to aquatic life as well as to humans (at least in the case of river water used for drinking purposes)."<ref>Template:Cite journal PDF</ref>
References
- Notes
- Citations
Bibliography
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