Lancaster House Agreement
Template:Short description Template:Reflist Template:For Template:Infobox treaty Template:EngvarB Template:Use dmy dates Template:Campaignbox Rhodesian Bush War The Lancaster House Agreement is an agreement signed on 21 December 1979 in Lancaster House, following the conclusion of a constitutional conference where different parties discussed the future of Zimbabwe Rhodesia, formerly known as Rhodesia.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The agreement effectively concluded the Rhodesian Bush War. It also marked the nullification of Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence, as British colonial authority was to be restored for a transitional period to internationally recognised independence, during which free elections under supervision by the British government would take place. Crucially, ZANU and ZAPU, the political wings of ZANLA and ZIPRA (who had been waging an escalating insurgency since 1964), would be permitted to stand candidates in the forthcoming elections. This was however conditional to compliance with the ceasefire and the verified absence of voter intimidation.<ref>Template:Cite report</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
Negotiations
Following the meeting of Commonwealth heads of government held in Lusaka from 1–7 August 1979,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn the British government invited Bishop Abel Muzorewa, the recently installed prime minister of the (unrecognized) Zimbabwe Rhodesia government, along with the leaders of the Patriotic Front (the name of the ZANU-ZAPU coalition), to participate in a constitutional conference at Lancaster House.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite web HL Deb 14 April 1980 vol 408 cc70-107</ref> The purpose of the conference was to discuss and reach agreement on the terms of an post-independence constitution, to agree on the holding of elections under British authority, and to enable Zimbabwe Rhodesia to proceed to lawful and internationally recognised independence, with the parties settling their differences by political means.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The conference formally began on 10 September 1979.Template:Sfn
Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington, foreign and Commonwealth secretary of the United Kingdom, chaired the conference.<ref name="chair">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The conference took place from 10 September to 15 December 1979 with 47 plenary sessions. In late September 1979, president Jimmy Carter, in a letter to Senator John Stennis, praised the conference for making "some important first steps," but argued that "many difficult negotiations lie ahead."<ref>Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977–1980, Volume XVI, Southern Africa, eds. Myra F. Burton and Adam M. Howard (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2016), Document 243.</ref>
During the negotiations, the British delegation was headed by Antony Duff.Template:Sfn It included over 20 other members, such as Lord Carrington,<ref name="doc252">Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977–1980, Volume XVI, Southern Africa, eds. Myra F. Burton and Adam M. Howard (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2016), Document 252.</ref> Ian Gilmour,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Michael Havers,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> David Ormsby-Gore,Template:Citation needed Richard Luce,Template:Citation needed Michael Palliser,<ref name="citezw" /> Derek Day.Template:Citation needed Other delegates included Robin Renwick,<ref name="historyuk2019" /> Nicholas Fenn of the Foreign Office,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> George Walden,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and Charles Powell.<ref name="historyuk2019" /> Andrew Novak wrote that Shridath Ramphal, the head of the Commonwealth of Nations, acted as a "shadow mediator" for the conference, restraining Carrington from hard-line positions, and ensuring Carrington and the Patriotic Front received "private concessions" during the negotiations.Template:Sfn
The Patriotic Front delegation was led by Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo.<ref name="doc252" /><ref name="fcdo2023" />Template:Sfn ZAPU leaders Josiah Mushore Chinamano and Joseph Msika,<ref name="fourwarboer">Template:Cite book</ref> ZANLA general Josiah Tongogara,Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and ZAPU members Ernest R Kadungure<ref name="fourwarboer" /> and T George SilundikaTemplate:Citation needed were also delegates. Additional delegates included Edgar Tekere,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Dzingai Mutumbuka,Template:Citation needed Josiah Tungamirai,Template:Citation needed Edson Zvobgo,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Simbi Mubako,Template:Sfn Walter Kamba,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and John Nkomo.<ref>Template:Cite interview</ref>
The delegation which represented Zimbabwe Rhodesia was led by Bishop Abel Muzorewa.<ref name="doc252" /><ref name="fcdo2023">Template:Cite web</ref> This delegation also included Ian Smith (minister without portfolio),<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Sfn Ndabaningi Sithole,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Kayisa Ndiweni,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Rowan Cronjé,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Harold Hawkins,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Kayisa Ndiweni,Template:Sfn Simpson Mutambanengwe,Template:Citation needed and Gordon Chavunduka<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In the course of its proceedings the conference reached agreement on a post-independence constitution, arrangements for the post-independence period, and a cease-fire agreement signed by all the parties.Template:Sfn In concluding this agreement and signing its report, the parties agreed to accept the authority of the governor, abide by the independence constitution (later called the "Lancaster Constitution"<ref name="Radio VOP">Template:Cite news</ref>) and ceasefire agreement,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> comply with the pre-independence arrangements, campaign peacefully and without intimidation, renounce the use of force for political ends, and accept the outcome of the elections and to instruct any forces under their authority to do the same.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Under the constitution, 20 per cent of the seats in the country's parliament were to be reserved for whites. This provision was set for seven years, remaining in the constitution until 1987.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
In November 1979, U.S. secretary of state Cyrus Vance recommended that President Jimmy Carter not lift sanctions on Rhodesia, arguing that doing so would "jeopardize the negotiations" and undermine U.S. ability to urge "flexibility on...external parties and...Front Line states."<ref>Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977–1980, Volume XVI, Southern Africa, eds. Myra F. Burton and Adam M. Howard (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2016), Document 244.</ref> The next month, Stephen Solarz argued that lifting sanctions before the end of the conference could be "cited as a reason for its collapse".<ref>Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977–1980, Volume XVI, Southern Africa, eds. Myra F. Burton and Adam M. Howard (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2016), Document 249.</ref>
The Lancaster House Agreement was signed on 21 December 1979.<ref name="lancaster">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Sfn Lord Carrington and Sir Ian Gilmour signed the agreement on behalf of the United Kingdom,<ref name="citezw">Template:Cite web</ref> Abel Muzorewa and Silas Mundawarara signed for the government of Zimbabwe Rhodesia,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Preston, "Ending Civil War," 251.</ref> and Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo for the Patriotic Front.<ref name="historyuk2019" /> According to Robert Matthews, the success of the Lancaster House negotiations can be explained by a "balance of forces on the battlefield that clearly favoured the nationalists" the impact of international sanctions on the Rhodesian economy, "a particular pattern of third party interests" and the resource and skills that Lord Carrington brought to the table as a mediator.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The agreement was also described as a "constitutional compromise".<ref>Template:Cite journal ALT URL</ref>
Outcome
The agreement would lead to the dissolution of the unrecognised state of Zimbabwe Rhodesia, created months earlier by the Internal Settlement. Template:Sfn Under the terms of the agreement, Zimbabwe Rhodesia temporarily reverted to its former status as the colony of Southern Rhodesia, thereby ending the rebellion caused by Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence.Template:Sfn Lord Soames was appointed governor, with full executive and legislative powers.Template:Sfn
In terms of the ceasefire, ZAPU and ZANU guerrillas were to gather at designated assembly points under British supervision, following which elections were to be held to elect a new government.Template:Sfn These elections were held in February 1980,Template:Sfn and resulted in ZANU led by Robert Mugabe winning a majority of seats. On 18 April 1980, according to the terms of the constitution, agreed-upon during the Lancaster House negotiations, Southern Rhodesia became independent as Zimbabwe, with Robert Mugabe as the first prime minister.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Mugabe's victory reportedly spelled "disaster" for South Africa's plan to establish a "neutral constellation of friendly, client states."Template:Sfn
The content of Lancaster House Agreement covered the new constitution, pre-independence arrangements, and the terms of ceasefire.<ref>Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977–1980, Volume XVI, Southern Africa, eds. Myra F. Burton and Adam M. Howard (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2016), Document 246.</ref> The agreement is named after Lancaster House in London, where the conference on independence from 10 September to 15 December 1979 was held. The agreement was not, however, signed until 21 December.<ref name="historyuk2019">Template:Cite web</ref>
Later developments
In February 1980, the U.N. Security Council passed Resolution 463 which called on all parties to comply with the agreement, and the UK to fully implement the agreement, encouraging the UK government to ensure that South African forces would be withdrawn, regular or mercenary, out of the country. It also requested that the UK allow the speedy return of Zimbabwean exiles and refugees, release of political prisoners, confinement of the Rhodesian and auxiliary forces to their bases, and rescindment of all emergency measures and laws inconsistent with the conduct of free and fair elections.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The resolution also condemned South Africa for its interference in Southern Rhodesia and reaffirmed the "unalienable right" of the Zimbabwean people to self-determination. The council adopted the resolution by 14 votes to none, while the United Kingdom did not participate in the vote.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
It was said that the "crucial land question" was excluded from the conference's deliberations, with the "key financial backing for land restitution" promised by the Carter Administration,Template:Sfn but it actually delayed land reform by ten years.Template:Sfn<ref name="reuters2009">Template:Cite web</ref> The agreement specified that the new government could buy land owned by white settlers, but only from "willing sellers" with compensation, and without formal stipulations for Britain to "fund land programmes".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="reuters2009" /><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It was also said that the British were protective of "white farming interests" in Zimbabwe.<ref name="hrw2002">Template:Cite report</ref>
In 1997, ZANLA and ZIPRA war veterans began receiving individual personal payments of ZW$50,000 each for their service in the Rhodesian Bush War.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Former civil servants of the Rhodesian Government and Rhodesian military personnel received pensions until 2003; social welfare minister Nicholas Goche said in 2014 that the government could no longer afford to make the payments.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
In 1998, Robert Mugabe announced that the forced acquisition of land under section 8 would proceed. Within 24 hours, the Zimbabwean dollar had devalued more than 50%.<ref>Template:Cite press release</ref> In 2000 and 2001, the U.S. and British governments, and the European Union, would condemn the new land reform program, although African organizations also criticised the international community for their role in the situation, and Britain's abrogation of their promises made at the time of Zimbabwean independence from colonial rule.<ref name="hrw2002" />
See also
References
Sources
Further reading
- Template:Cite book
- Matthews, Robert O. "From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe: prerequisites of a settlement." International Journal 45.2 (1990): 292–333.
- Preston, Matthew. "Stalemate and the termination of civil war: Rhodesia reassessed." Journal of Peace Research 41#1 (2004): 65–83.
- Soames, Lord. "From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe." International Affairs 56#3 (1980): 405–419. online
- Tendi, Blessing-Miles. "Soldiers contra diplomats: Britain’s role in the Zimbabwe/Rhodesia ceasefire (1979–1980) reconsidered." Small Wars & Insurgencies 26.6 (2015): 937–956.
- Template:Cite journal
- Yorke, Edmund. "'A Family Affair': the Lancaster House Agreement." in Diplomacy at the Highest Level (Palgrave Macmillan, 1996) pp. 200–219.