Lezgian language

Lezgian, also called Lezgi or Lezgin Template:IPAc-en,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> is a Northeast Caucasian language. It is spoken by the Lezgins, who live in southern Dagestan (Russia); northern Azerbaijan; and to a much lesser degree Turkmenistan; Uzbekistan; Kazakhstan; Turkey, and other countries. It is a much-written literary languageTemplate:Citation needed and an official language of Dagestan. It is classified as "vulnerable" by UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger.<ref>UNESCO Interactive Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger Template:Webarchive</ref>

Geographic distribution

In 2002, Lezgian was spoken by about 397,000 people in Russia, mainly Southern Dagestan; in 1999 it was spoken by 178,400 people in mainly the Qusar, Quba, Qabala, Oghuz, Ismailli and Khachmaz provinces of northeastern Azerbaijan. Lezgian is also spoken in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Germany and Uzbekistan by immigrants from Azerbaijan and Dagestan.

Some speakers are in the Balikesir, Yalova, İzmir, Bursa regions of Turkey especially in Kirne (Ortaca), a village in Balikesir Province which touches the western coast, being south-west of Istanbul.

The total number of speakers is about 800,000.<ref name="Ethnologue">Template:Cite web</ref>

Classification

Related languages

Template:Main Nine languages survive in the Lezgic language family:

• Lezgin
• Tabasaran
• Rutul
• Aghul
• Tsakhur
• Budukh
• Kryts
• Udi
• Archi

These have the same names as their ethnic groups.

Some dialects differ heavily from the standard form, including the Quba and Akhty dialects spoken in Azerbaijan.<ref name="Ethnologue" />

Phonology

Vowels

Vowels of LezgianTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

	Front		Central	Back
	unrounded	rounded
Close	Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr	Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr	Template:IPAslink Template:AngbrTemplate:Efn	Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr
Mid	Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr			Template:IPAlink Template:AngbrTemplate:Efn
Open	Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr			Template:IPAlink Template:Angbr

• Template:IPA has two main allophones: Template:IPA and Template:IPA; the former prevails in closed syllables (especially before uvulars and Template:IPA), the latter in open syllables.Template:Sfn
• Template:IPA is very often rounded and raised to Template:IPAslink after labialized consonants, which may then lose their labialization. For example, Template:Lang Template:Gloss Template:IPA becomes Template:IPA or Template:IPA.Template:Sfn
• Template:IPA is more open Template:IPAblink in stressed syllables and Template:IPAslink or Template:IPAblink in pre-stress syllables. In the environment of labialized consonants /e/ is often pronounced as Template:IPAblink~Template:IPAblink.Template:Sfn
• if a vowel plus Template:IPA sequence is not followed by a vowel, the Template:IPA may be deleted and the vowel nasalized. Thus Template:IPA Template:Gloss can be pronounced Template:IPA.Template:Sfn
• Chitoran and Babaliyeva show, at least for Babaliyeva in her native Yargun dialect, pre-tonic high vowels are syncopated.Template:Sfn

Consonants

There are 54 consonants in Lezgian. Characters to the right are the letters of the Lezgian Cyrillic Alphabet. Aspiration is not normally indicated in the orthography, despite the fact that it is phonemic.

Consonants of Lezgian<ref name="Haspelmath 1993 p 2">Template:Harvp</ref>

		Labial	Dental		Post- alveolar	Palatal	Velar		Uvular		Glottal
			plain	lab.			plain	lab.	plain	lab.
Nasal		/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang
Plosive	voiced	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang				/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang
	voiceless	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang			/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang
	aspirated	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang			/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang
	ejective	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang			/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang
Affricate	voiced		/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang		/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang
	voiceless		/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang
	aspirated		/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang
	ejective		/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang
Fricative	voiced	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang				/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang
	voiceless	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang		/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang	/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang
Approximant			/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang			/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang		/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang
Trill			/Template:IPAlink/ Template:Lang

Alphabets

Lezgian has been written in several different alphabets over the course of its history. These alphabets have been based on three scripts: Arabic (before 1928), Latin (1928–1938), and Cyrillic (1938–present).

The Lezgian Cyrillic alphabet is as follows:<ref>Талибов Б. Б., Гаджиев М. М. Лезгинско-русский словарь. Moscow, 1966.</ref>

А а	Б б	В в	Г г	Гъ гъ	Гь гь	Д д	Е е
Ё ё	Ж ж	З з	И и	Й й	К к	Къ къ	Кь кь
КI кl	Л л	М м	Н н	О о	П п	ПI пl	Р р
С с	Т т	ТI тl	У у	Уь уь	Ф ф	Х х	Хъ хъ
Хь хь	Ц ц	ЦI цl	Ч ч	ЧI чl	Ш ш	Ъ ъ	Ы ы
Ь ь	Э э	Ю ю	Я я

Grammar

Lezgian is unusual for a Northeast Caucasian language in not having noun classes (also called "grammatical gender"). Standard Lezgian grammar features 18 grammatical cases,<ref>Template:Harvp</ref> produced by agglutinating suffixes, of which 12 are still used in spoken conversation.

Cases

The four grammatical cases are:<ref name="Haspelmath 1993 p 2" />

• Absolutive case (basic form of the word, no ending): marks the subject of an intransitive verb and the direct object of a transitive sentence. It is also used to mark a nominal predicate (who or what something turns into/becomes) and as a vocative.
• Ergative case (various endings; the most common are: -ди, -a or -е; [-di, -a or e], which are added to the Absolutive): marks the subject of transitive verbs, and the subject of some compound intransitive verbs.
• Genitive case (ending -н [-n]; added to the Ergative): marks possession. It is also used with the meaning 'of'. The genitive case precedes the noun that it modifies.
• Dative case (ending -з [-z]; added to the Ergative): usually marks the indirect object of sentences, that is the recipient of an action. It is also used to mark the subject of some verbs (mainly about emotions) and to express a point of time and direction.
• There are fourteen Locative cases:
  • Adessive case (ending -в [-v]; added to the Ergative): marks the object of some verbs to mean 'by', 'to', 'with'.
  • Adelative case (ending -вай [-vaj]; added to the Ergative): expresses movement from somewhere. It is also used with the verb 'to be able' and to express an accidental action.
  • Addirective case (ending -вди [-vdi]; added to the Ergative): used as an instrumental case, but also sometimes used with its original meaning, 'in the direction of', and more rarely 'near by'.
  • The Postessive case (ending -хъ [-qh]; added to the Ergative): means 'behind', 'at', 'toward', 'in exchange for', and 'with'. In a construction with the verb ава (ava), it expresses possession.
  • Postelative case (ending -хъай [-qhaj]; added to the Ergative): can either mean 'from' or the cause of fear or shame.
  • Postdirective case (ending -хъди [-qhdi]; added to the Ergative): rarely used case, meaning 'toward(s)'.
  • Subessive case (ending -к [-k]; added to the Ergative): means either 'below' or 'participates'.
  • Subelative case (ending -кай [-kaj]; added to the Ergative): means either 'from below', 'from', '(from) against', 'with' or 'out of' (partitive). It is also used to mark Y in the construction 'X becomes out-of-Y' and can express the topic of a sentence ('about') or the cause of emotions.
  • Subdirective case (ending -кди [-kdi]; added to the Ergative): expresses cause (never motion under), and can mean 'because' or 'of' (when in sentences such as 'the man died of a disease'.
  • Inessive case (endings -а or -е [-a or -e]; added to Absolutive): means 'at', 'in' or 'during/whilst'.
  • Inelative case (endings -ай or -ей [-aj or -ej]; added to Inessive): means 'out of' or 'in return for'.
  • Superessive case (ending -л [-l]; added to the Inessive): means 'on', and also to express the cause of some emotions.
  • Superelative case (ending -лай [-laj]; added to the Inessive): means 'off', 'after' or 'than' (comparison).
  • Superdirective case (ending -лди [-ldi]; added to the Inessive): means 'onto', 'until', 'in' (when followed by an adjective), as an instrumental case (e.g. language) or instructive with abstract nouns.

Declension

There are two types of declensions.

First declension

Case	Singular		Plural
Absolutive	Template:Lang	buba	Template:Lang	bubajar
Ergative	Template:Lang	bubadi	Template:Lang	bubajri
Genitive	Template:Lang	bubadin	Template:Lang	bubajrin
Dative	Template:Lang	bubadiz	Template:Lang	bubajriz
Adessive	Template:Lang	bubadiv	Template:Lang	bubajriv
Adelative	Template:Lang	bubadivaj	Template:Lang	bubajrivaj
Addirective	Template:Lang	bubadivdi	Template:Lang	bubajrivdi
Postessive	Template:Lang	bubadiqʰ	Template:Lang	bubajriqʰ
Postelative	Template:Lang	bubadiqʰaj	Template:Lang	bubajriqʰaj
Postdirective	Template:Lang	bubadiqʰdi	Template:Lang	buabajriqʰdi
Subessive	Template:Lang	bubadikʰ	Template:Lang	bubajrikʰ
Subelative	Template:Lang	bubadikʰaj	Template:Lang	bubajrikʰaj
Subdirective	Template:Lang	bubadikʰdi	Template:Lang	bubajrikʰdi
Inessive	Template:Lang	bubada	Template:Lang	bubajra
Inelative	Template:Lang	bubadaj	Template:Lang	bubajraj
Superessive	Template:Lang	bubadal	Template:Lang	bubajral
Superelative	Template:Lang	bubadalaj	Template:Lang	bubajralaj
Superdirective	Template:Lang	bubadaldi	Template:Lang	bubajraldi

Vocabulary

Numbers

The numbers of Lezgian are:

уд	Template:IPA	zero
сад	Template:IPA	one
кьвед	Template:IPA	two
пуд	Template:IPA	three
кьуд	Template:IPA	four
вад	Template:IPA	five
ругуд	Template:IPA	six
ирид	Template:IPA	seven
муьжуьд	Template:IPA	eight
кlуьд	Template:IPA	nine
цlуд	Template:IPA	ten
цlусад	Template:IPA	eleven
цlикьвед	Template:IPA	twelve
цlипуд	Template:IPA	thirteen
цlикьуд	Template:IPA	fourteen
цlувад	Template:IPA	fifteen
цlуругуд	Template:IPA	sixteen
цlерид	Template:IPA	seventeen
цlемуьжуьд	Template:IPA	eighteen
цlекlуьд	Template:IPA	nineteen
къад	Template:IPA	twenty
къадцуд	Template:IPA	thirty
яхцlур	Template:IPA	forty
яхцlурцуд	Template:IPA	fifty
пудкъад	Template:IPA	sixty
пудкъадцlуд	Template:IPA	seventy
кьудкъад	Template:IPA	eighty
къудкъадницlуд	Template:IPA	ninety
виш	Template:IPA	one hundred
агъзур	Template:IPA	one thousand

Nouns following a number are always in the singular. Numbers precede the noun. "Сад" and "кьвед" lose their final "-д" before a noun.

Lezgian numerals work in a similar fashion to the French ones, and are based on the vigesimal system in which "20", not "10", is the base number. "Twenty" in Lezgian is Template:Lang, and higher numbers are formed by adding the suffix -ни to the word (which becomes "къанни"; the same change occurs in пудкъад and кьудкъад) and putting the remaining number afterwards. This way 24 for instance is къанни кьуд ("20 and 4"), and 37 is къанни цӏерид ("20 and 17"). Numbers over 40 are formed similarly (яхцӏур becomes яхцӏурни). 60 and 80 are treated likewise. For numbers over 100 just put a number of hundreds, then (if need be) the word with a suffix, then the remaining number. 659 is thus ругуд вишни яхцӏурни цӏекӏуьд. The same procedure follows for 1000. 1989 is агьзурни кӏуьд вишни кьудкъанни кӏуьд in Lezgi.

Bibliography

• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book

External links

• Lezgi-Russian online dictionary
• Appendix:Cyrillic script
• Notes on the Lezgi language
• Languages of the World report Template:Webarchive
• Lezgian basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
• Lezgian Dictionary + Mobile apps