Longqing Emperor

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The Longqing Emperor (4Template:NbspMarch 1537Template:Snd5Template:NbspJuly 1572), personal name Zhu Zaiji,Template:SfnpTemplate:EfnTemplate:Efn was the 13th emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1567 to 1572. He was initially known as the Prince of Yu (Template:Zhi) from 1539 to 1567 before he became the emperor. He succeeded his father, the Jiajing Emperor.

After the death of the Jiajing Emperor, the Longqing Emperor inherited a country in turmoil due to years of mismanagement and corruption. Recognizing the extent of the chaos caused during his father's lengthy reign, the Emperor worked to restore order in the state administration. He reinstated talented officials who had been previously exiled and dismissed corrupt officials and Taoist priests who had surrounded the Jiajing Emperor. Additionally, he lifted the ban on foreign trade, boosting the empire's economy, and reorganized the border troops to strengthen security on the inland and coastal borders. The seaports of Zhejiang and Fujian were fortified to defend against coastal pirates, who had been a constant nuisance during the previous government. The Emperor also successfully repelled Altan Khan's Mongol army, which had breached the Great Wall and reached Beijing. A peace treaty was signed shortly after, allowing for the resumption of the exchange of horses for silk.

The Longqing Emperor, like many previous Ming emperors, relied heavily on court eunuchs. One particular eunuch, Meng Cong (Template:Zhi), who was supported by Grand Secretary Gao Gong, gained control over the inner court towards the end of the Emperor's reign. Despite a promising start, the Longqing Emperor quickly neglected his duties as a ruler and instead focused on personal pleasures, much to the disappointment of his reform-minded advisors. The Emperor also made contradictory decisions by re-employing Taoist priests, whom he had previously banned at the beginning of his reign.

Early life

Zhu Zaiji, the future Longqing Emperor, was born on 4 March 1537 to the Jiajing Emperor and a concubine surnamed Du. He was the Emperor's third son; the eldest son had died in infancy before Zhu Zaiji's birth, and the second son, Zhu Zairui, was six months older than him. A month after Zhu Zaiji's birth, the Emperor's fourth son, Zhu Zaizhen, was born.Template:Sfnp

In February 1539, the Jiajing Emperor named Zhu Zairui heir to the throne. On the same day, Zhu Zaiji was granted the title of Prince of Yu, and Zhu Zaizhen was given the title of Prince of Jing. In 1549, Zhu Zairui died.Template:Sfnp His death caused the Jiajing Emperor to feel immense sorrow and regret, as he believed he had not listened to the supposed advice of his Taoist priest Tao Zhongwen, who had warned him that "two dragons should not face each other". This may have been the reason why he refused to create another heir,Template:Sfnp and also avoided seeing Zhu Zaiji. Another version suggests that the Emperor held a grudge against Zhu Zaiji for not observing sexual abstinence during the mourning period (this version was fueled by the fact that Zhu Zaiji had a son in October 1555, only 18 months after his mother's death).Template:Sfnp

In September 1552, Zhu Zaiji and Zhu Zaizhen began receiving education together. Two months later, their wives were chosen and they were married in February 1553.Template:Sfnp After that, Zhu Zaiji moved from the Forbidden City to his princely palace. For thirteen years, he lived outside the Forbidden City, gaining experience of conditions beyond the Imperial Palace and developing an understanding of the country's issues. The Jiajing Emperor ensured that he and the officials treated the third and fourth sons equally, sparking speculation at court about who would be the new successor. This speculation was further fueled by the Emperor's fondness for Zhu Zaizhen's mother, with whom he spent a lot of time. In contrast, when Zhu Zaiji's mother died in February 1554, the funeral arrangements had to be revised twice, as the Emperor suppressed any insinuation that she held a higher status than just the mother of the presumptive successor.Template:Sfnp

In March 1560, the Jiajing Emperor received a memorandum suggesting that Zhu Zaiji be appointed as his successor. In response, the Emperor was outraged and ordered the execution of the writer, but later that year, he changed his mind and ordered Zhu Zaizhen to go to his seat in Anlu, Huguang. This decision strengthened Zhu Zaiji's position, although he continued to be excluded from the Emperor's entourage and neglected. Unlike the deceased Zhu Zairui, the Emperor did not like him.Template:Sfnp Despite being 29 years old at the time of his accession to the throne and having a Confucian education,Template:Sfnp Zhu Zaiji lacked deep knowledge in statesmanship and was not adequately prepared to govern an empire.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

Beginning of reign

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Portrait of the Longqing Emperor. National Palace Museum, Taipei

The Jiajing Emperor died on 23 January 1567, and twelve days later, Zhu Zaiji became the new emperor.Template:Sfnp He adopted the era name Longqing, which means "great celebration".Template:Sfnp

The reign of the Longqing Emperor began with the implementation of the Jiajing Emperor's "dying orders", which aimed to bring about reform and political change. Senior Grand Secretary Xu Jie, in collaboration with Zhang Juzheng, drafted the "final edict" of the Jiajing Emperor and the first edicts of the Longqing Emperor's reign, which were approved by the Emperor himself.Template:Sfnp These edicts, with the goal of "removing the bad" and "introducing the new", revoked the unpopular policies of the Jiajing Emperor and introduced long-awaited reforms. The Taoist priests who had held significant influence during the previous era were imprisoned and their rituals were banned. The orders to gather ingredients for their rituals were also cancelled.Template:Sfnp The area in West Park, which was built by the Jiajing Emperor and modeled after the Taoist Immortal Lands, was dismantled. Officials who had been punished for opposing the policies of the Jiajing Emperor were pardoned and released from prison. Those who were still alive were reinstated to their positions, and those who had died were given posthumous honors.Template:Sfnp These reforms were generally well-received.Template:Sfnp

In the long term, the most noteworthy event during the early days of the Longqing Emperor's reign was the selection of Zhang as grand secretary. Zhang had been the Emperor's tutor since 1563, and the Emperor saw him as a man with exceptional abilities. Throughout the Longqing Emperor's reign, Zhang's power and influence increased, and after the Emperor's died, he swiftly rose to the position of senior grand secretary. He became the most influential politician in the Ming government for a decade and was considered the most competent administrator of the late Ming dynasty.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

In the years that followed, the reforms persisted,Template:Sfnp with the Longqing Emperor approving changes proposed by experienced statesmen such as Gao Gong, Chen Yiqin, and Zhang. An evaluation was conducted on the government officials, including those from the princely households. Competent officials were promoted, while inadequate ones were removed from their positions. Taxes for those affected by natural disasters were lowered, and land surveys and tax records were updated. Restrictions were placed on certain expenses for the imperial household.Template:Sfnp

However, Xu, senior grand secretary at the beginning of the Longqing Emperor's reign, had already rejected the cooperation of Grand Secretaries Gao and Guo Pu when writing the Jiajing Emperor's "final edict". Instead, he invited Zhang, who was then the director of the Hanlin Academy. This caused a conflict with his colleagues in the secretariat.Template:Sfnp A contemporary commentator sadly remarked on this, noting that such capable men were unable to work together for the good of the empire and instead became mortal enemies. In the summer of 1567, Gao was dismissed from the Grand Secretariat, followed by Xu the following year. When Gao returned to office in the early 1570s, he and his followers sought revenge against Xu and his sons.Template:Sfnp

Personality

The information available about the Longqing Emperor is vague and contradictory. While official history praises his thrift and humanity, it seems that this is simply the usual rhetoric.Template:Sfnp He was not naturally strong or ambitious, in contrast to his father.Template:Sfnp He was known for being friendly and kind, and during his reign, there were fewer severe punishments for high officials compared to previous years, but he lacked his father's drive for power, as well as his temper and cruelty.Template:Sfnp Additionally, he did not possess the same strength of faith in Taoism as his father.Template:Sfnp The Longqing Emperor also suffered from a speech defect,Template:Sfnp which caused him to only speak to his eunuchs.Template:Sfnp In public, he was always silent and even during formal events, his grand secretaries would deliver his lines for him.Template:Sfnp

The Longqing Emperor was perceived to have average intelligence at best, but he was determined to be taken seriously. He implemented reforms and policy changes during his reign, particularly in relation to the Jiajing Emperor. He was successful in strengthening his government by aligning himself with capable politicians, a rarity during the Ming dynasty.Template:Sfnp While his minimal involvement in state affairs did not have a negative impact, as competent ministers and grand secretaries were responsible for handling them, it did lead to a power struggle within the Grand Secretariat. The winner of this struggle would have the authority to make final decisions on state matters.Template:Sfnp Gao, who had been one of the Longqing Emperor's closest mentors during his youth,Template:Sfnp was able to consolidate power as the head of the Grand Secretariat (and also held the title of minister of personnel) more than any of his predecessors.Template:Sfnp

Within months of ascending to the throne, the Longqing Emperor became disinterested in matters of stateTemplate:Sfnp and instead devoted much of his time to extravagant parties with his consorts, indulging in opulence and living extravagantly.Template:Sfnp It is rumored that he sought entertainment and luxury as a means of compensating for years of neglect and deprivation.Template:Sfnp Concerned officials began to voice their objections, citing his declining health and exhaustion, both physically and mentally.Template:Sfnp

Trade

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Porcelain box from the Longqing era. Musée Cernuschi

During the Longqing era, the government adopted a more open approach to trade compared to the previous Jiajing regime. In 1567, the grand coordinator of Fujian proposed to abolish the Haijin policy, which was approved by the government and the Emperor. This led to the restoration of maritime inspection offices and the legalization of foreign trade, primarily in Yuegang (Moon Port) in Fujian, but trade with Japan remained prohibited.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

In addition to the southeast coast, the northern borders were also opened as part of a new reconciliation policy, allowing for trade with the Mongols.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Financial policy

Bronze coins, also known as coppers, were primarily used along the Grand Canal in the mid-16th century, causing a shortage in other areas and hindering trade.Template:Sfnp In 1567, Minister of Revenue, Ge Shouli (Template:Zhi), suggested resuming production of these coins due to their importance in the daily lives of urban citizens. He believed that losing control over the currency would also mean losing control over the entire economy, as silver and those who profited from it would dominate.Template:Sfnp The Ministry of Works rejected the proposal, citing the high cost of casting the coins, which was twice their value.Template:Sfnp Opponents of the minister argued that the existing coins were sufficient for the limited regions where they were in circulation.Template:Sfnp

Later, in the years 1569–1570, the Emperor was convinced by Minister of War Tan Lun and Left Vice Minister of Personnel Jin Xueyan (Template:Zhi) to reopen the mints. They argued that it was necessary to increase the money supply during a silver shortage, as this would lead to a decrease in the price of silver and an increase in the value of goods. They also believed that a medium of exchange was needed to prevent the wealthy from hoarding silver and causing a shortage, and that using silver for payments was disadvantageous for smaller payers. Their proposal was met with opposition from Gao who argued that having two currencies would lead to the state manipulating their exchange rate and causing mistrust among the population. Despite this, the mints were only open for a short period of time, until the death of the Longqing Emperor.Template:Sfnp

Military and foreign policy

In foreign affairs, the Longqing era was a period of peace. Apart from Guangdong, the pirate raids, so devastating in the Jiajing era, subsided.Template:Sfnp

The grand military parade held in the autumn of 1569 was a momentous occasion. (The previous parade had taken place in 1429 and the next one would not occur until 1581.)Template:Sfnp As part of the parade, incompetent officers were dismissed and the units underwent rigorous training. Despite the high cost, it greatly boosted the morale of both the soldiers and the onlookers.Template:Sfnp The parade, which featured a colorful display with the emperor at its center, was meticulously planned by Zhang, who was dedicated to fortifying border defenses and revitalizing the military. Apart from uplifting the spirits of the troops, the parade also provided a refreshing break from the monotonous palace life for the emperor.Template:Sfnp

Immediately after the parade, the Mongol army led by Altan Khan breached the Great Wall and ravaged the northern border regions. Prior to this, there had been fighting in the winter of 1567/68, during which Ming troops not only defended their territory but also made several forays into the Mongolian steppes.Template:Sfnp In the early 1570s, the Ming dynasty's long-term policy towards the Mongols changed. Gao and Zhang, in addition to strengthening the border troops, pursued a policy of appeasement and negotiated peace with Altan Khan in 1571.Template:Sfnp As part of the agreement, the Ming dynasty opened border markets<ref name="theobald">Template:Cite web</ref> where the Mongols could trade their horses and other surplus goods for Chinese goods. Altan Khan was also granted the title of Prince of Shunyi (Obedience and Righteousness) by the Longqing Emperor.<ref name="theobald" />

Death

The Emperor died on 5 July 1572Template:Efn at the age of thirty-five.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp Prior to his death, he entrusted ministers Gao, Zhang, and Gao Yi (Template:Zhi) to manage state affairs and advise his ten-year-old son, the Wanli Emperor.Template:SfnpTemplate:Efn The Longqing Emperor was buried in Zhao Mausoleum, one of the Ming tombs located near Beijing. He was given the posthumous name Emperor Zhuang (Template:Zhi) and the temple name Muzong (Template:Zhi).Template:Sfnp

Consorts and issue

The Longqing Emperor had four sons and seven daughters. His first son, Zhu Yiyi (October 1555 – May 1559, posthumous name "Xianhuai"), was born to his first wife, Lady Li. His second son died as an infant. The third son, Zhu Yijun, inherited the throne. The fourth son, Zhu Yiliu (1568–1614, posthumous name "Jian"), held the title of Prince of Lu and resided in Weihui, Henan. Both Zhu Yijun and Zhu Yiliu were born to a concubine surnamed Li. Out of the seven daughters, only four survived into adulthood.Template:Sfnp

See also

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