Macedonian Struggle

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Template:Short description Template:Distinguish Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox military conflict

The Macedonian StruggleTemplate:Efn was a series of social, political, cultural and military conflicts that were mainly fought between Greek and Bulgarian subjects who lived in Ottoman Macedonia between 1893Template:Cn and 1912. From 1904 to 1908 the conflict was part of a wider guerrilla war in which revolutionary organizations of Greeks, Bulgarians and Serbs all fought over Macedonia and its Christian population. Particularly over the national affiliation of the Slavic population which was forced to declare themselves for either of the sides. Gradually the Greek and Bulgarian bands gained the upper hand. Though the conflict largely ceased by the Young Turk Revolution, it continued as a low intensity insurgency until the Balkan Wars.

Background

Template:See also Initially the conflict was waged through educational and religious means, with a fierce rivalry developing between supporters of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (Greek-speaking or Slavic/Romance-speaking people who generally identified as Greek), and supporters of the Bulgarian Exarchate, which had been recognized by the Ottomans in 1870.Template:Sfn Starting from the 1870s, Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia intensified their competition for the allegiance of the Christian population of Macedonia, most of whom was yet to develop a national consciousness.<ref name= "Karen Dawisha Bruce Parrott">Template:Cite book</ref> The construction of churches and schools was used as mean of conducting intense propaganda campaigns through which the "proper" national sense was implanted amongst the Christian peasants, so that the territorial claims over Macedonia can be validated.<ref name= "Loring M. Danforth">Template:Cite book</ref> Different national movements could manipulate data and information in order to realize their nationalist agendas due to the absence of collective ethnic identity between the Macedonian people.<ref name= "James Horncastle">James Horncastle, The Macedonian Slavs in the Greek Civil War, 1944–1949; Rowman & Littlefield, 2019, Template:ISBN, pp. 28-32.</ref> Nevertheless, at the dawn of the 20th century, most of the local population did not develop a clear sense of national identity at all, they would only took national identities when they were forced by the nationalist education, propaganda and terror campaigns.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name= "Loring M. Danforth"/>

File:Christian Schools in Macedonia early 20th.jpg
A 1903 map of the Salonika Vilayet depicting Greek (red), Bulgarian (green), Romanian (purple), and Serbian (blue) schools, in addition to Greek churches (red cross) and monasteries (red cross on red dot)
File:Ethnographische Karte von Makedonien (1899).jpg
Austrian ethnographic map from 1899 depicting Christian Bulgarians (light green), Christian Greeks (horizontal blue and yellow stripes), Bulgarians and Serbs mixed (diagonal blue and yellow stripes), Christian Serbs (diagonal blue and white stripes), Christian Aromanians (light blue)

As Ottoman rule in the Balkans crumbled in the late 19th century, competition arose between Greeks and Bulgarians (and to a lesser extent also other ethnic groups such as Serbs, Aromanians and Albanians) over the multi-ethnic region of Macedonia.Template:SfnTemplate:Efn The Bulgarians founded in 1893 the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (initially known as Bulgarian Macedonian-Adrianopolitan Revolutionary Committees)<ref>Poulton, Hugh (2000). Who are the Macedonians. Indiana University Press, Template:ISBN p. 53.</ref>Template:Sfn<ref>Denis Š. Ljuljanović (2023) Imagining Macedonia in the Age of Empire. State Policies, Networks and Violence (1878–1912), LIT Verlag Münster; Template:ISBN, p. 211.</ref> which coordinated the majority of Bulgarian actions in the region. The defeat of Greece in the Greco-Turkish War of 1897 was a loss that appalled GreeksTemplate:Sfn which led to the dissolution of the Ethniki Eteria, by Prime Minister Georgios Theotokis. With little prospect of liberation by Greece, the Macedonian Greeks took their fate into their own hands and began to form various armed bands that would ultimately fall under the control of the Hellenic Macedonian Committee. The region quickly became a constant battleground among various armed groups, with hostilities peaking in 1904-1908. The main struggle was waged over securing the national interpreted affiliation of the population to the Exarchate or the Patriarchate, by using violent and terrorist actions over the population.<ref name= "Michael Palairet">Template:Cite book</ref> Thus, easily claimed were Slav-speaking Exarchists as Bulgarians and Greek-speaking Patriarchists as Greeks, but the main issue arose with the Slav-speaking Patriarchists who were claimed as Bulgarians based on the language and Greeks cause of the church affiliation. Also, the Slav-speaking population in the northwest of Macedonia was claimed as Serbs.<ref name= "Loring M. Danforth"/> The Slavic population was forced to declare themselves for either of the sides, thus became divided into Bulgarophiles, Grecomans and Serbomans.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It was common for whole villages to change the church affiliation, based on which side offered free or cheap education or by force with violent methods from the armed bands. Same families could have members affiliated to different "nationalities", an individual could pass through multiple religio-national orienation.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Ottoman Army was also involved in the conflict and perpetuated atrocities against the Christian population in attempt to quell the unrest. Due to the Christian population of Macedonia, whether Greek, Serb, Bulgarian or Aromanian, engaging in more or less constant rebellion against the Ottoman Empire, in conjunction with the revolutionary activities of Armenian nationalists in Anatolia, many Ottoman officers believed that all Christians of the empire were disloyal and treasonous.Template:Sfn However, the majority of Macedonian people were more concerned with surviving the terror caused by the plundering of nationalist bands than with following any specific ethnic ideology.<ref name= "James Horncastle"/>

Bulgarian activity

Template:See also

Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organisation

File:IMARO CC Seal 01.jpg
Seal of the CC of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization containing the motto Svoboda ili smart.

In 1893, Internal Macedonian-Adrianople Revolutionary Organization (IMARO) had been founded in Thessaloniki.Template:Efn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>İpek Yosmaoğlu (2013) Blood Ties: Religion, Violence and the Politics of Nationhood in Ottoman Macedonia, 1878–1908. Cornell University Press. Template:ISBN, p. 16.</ref><ref>Dimitris Livanios (2008). The Macedonian Question: Britain and the Southern Balkans 1939–1949. Oxford Historical Monographs, OUP: Oxford. Template:ISBN. p. 17.</ref> Initially its membership was allowed only for Bulgarians, but later it opened itself to all ethnic groups in Macedonia and Adrianople regions. Earlier on, IMARO claimed that it was fighting for the autonomy of Macedonia and not for annexation to Bulgaria. However, many of the members of the organization saw Macedonian autonomy as an intermediate step to unification with Bulgaria,Template:Efn but others saw as their aim the creation of a Balkan federal state, with Macedonia as an equal member. In practice, most of the followers of the IMARO were native Macedonian Bulgarians, though they also had some Aromanian allies,<ref>Andrew Rossos (2013). Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History. Hoover Press. Template:ISBN. p. 105.</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Raymond Detrez (2014). Historical Dictionary of Bulgaria. Rowman & Littlefield, Template:ISBN, p. 520.</ref> like Pitu Guli, Mitre The Vlach, Ioryi Mucitano and Alexandru Coshca.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Maxwell, Alexander. "Slavic Macedonian Nationalism: From 'Regional' to 'Ethnic'." Ethnologia Balkanica 11 (2007): 127–155. p. 141.</ref> In April 1903, a group known as the Boatmen of Thessaloniki, with assistance from the IMARO, blew up the French ship Guadalquivir and the Ottoman Bank in Thessaloniki. In August 1903, the IMARO organised the Ilinden Uprising in Macedonia and the Preobrazhenie Uprising in the Adrianople Vilayet which led to the formation of the short-lived Kruševo Republic and Strandzha Republic. The uprisings were ultimately suppressed by the Ottoman Army with the subsequent destruction of many villages and the devastation of large areas in Western Macedonia and around Kırk Kilise near Adrianople. Following the failed Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising the IMARO ultimately weakened due to a split into and a pro-Bulgarian nationalist right-wing faction (centralists) and a left-wing faction (federalist) who continued to favor autonomous Macedonia as part of a Balkan Federation. The previous events motivated Greece and Serbia to increase their revolutionary and educational activities and take a more direct role in achieving their agendas.<ref name= "James Horncastle"/><ref name= "Michael Palairet"/>

Bulgarian efforts

File:SMAC cheta Ilinden uprising.jpg
A Supreme Macedonian Committee's cheta during the Ilinden Uprising.

Already from 1895 the Supreme Macedonian-Adrianople Committees were formed in Sofia in order to reinforce the Bulgarian actions in Ottoman Empire. One of Komitadjis' first activities was the capture of the predominantly Greek town of Meleniko (today Melnik, Bulgaria), but they couldn't hold it for more than a few hours.Template:Sfn<ref name="balkanologie">Template:Cite journal Template:Open access</ref> Bulgarian bands destroyed the Pomak village of Dospat where they massacred local inhabitants.<ref name="balkanologie" /> This kind of activity alerted Greeks and Serbians, who made a farce of the slogan "Macedonia for the Macedonians", being against the constitution of Macedonia as separate state.Template:Sfn In the following years SMAC activists as well as the activists of another smaller group formed in Sofia called the Bulgarian Secret Revolutionary Brotherhood, started to infiltrate the IMARO. They would later become the core of the IMARO right-wing, and through them the Bulgarian government would assume control over IMARO after 1903.<ref name= "James Horncastle"/> As Bulgarian efforts intensified, they started to affect European public opinion.

Greek activity

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Hellenic Macedonian Committee

File:Seal of the Greek-Macedonian Committee.jpg
Seal of the Greek Macedonian Committee depicting Alexander the Great and Byzantine Emperor Basil II
File:Pavlos Melas.jpg
Pavlos Melas in Macedonomachos uniform

In order to strengthen Greek efforts for Macedonia, the Hellenic Macedonian Committee was founded in 1903 by Stefanos Dragoumis and functioned under the leadership of wealthy publisher Dimitrios Kalapothakis. Its members included many Greek notables in addition to the fighters. Among its members were Ion Dragoumis and Pavlos Melas.Template:Sfn Its fighters were known as Makedonomachoi ("Macedonian fighters").<ref name="BrownHamilakis2003">Template:Cite book</ref>

Under these conditions, in 1904 a vicious guerrilla war broke as response of IMRO activities between Bulgarian and Greek bands within Ottoman Macedonia. The Bishop of Kastoria, Germanos Karavangelis, who was sent to Macedonia by Nikolaos Mavrokordatos, the ambassador of Greece, and Ion Dragoumis, the consul of Greece in Monastir, realised that it was time to act in a more efficient way and began to organise the intensification of the Greek opposition.

While Dragoumis concerned himself with the financial organisation of the efforts, the central figure in the military struggle was the very capable Cretan officer Georgios Katechakis.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Bishop Germanos Karavangelis travelled to raise morale and encourage the Greek population to take action against the IMRO. Many committees were also formed to promote the Greek national interests.

Katechakis and Karavangelis succeeded in the recruitment and organization of guerrilla groups that were later reinforced with volunteers from Greece. Volunteers often came from Crete and the Mani area of the Peloponnese. They even recruited former IMRO members, taking advantage of their political and/or personal disputes within the organisation. Additionally, officers of the Hellenic Army were encouraged to join the struggle to provide experienced leadership, as many had served in the Greco-Turkish War of 1897. The officers who elected to join provided a logistical advantage to the Makedonomachoi. The Macedonian Greeks, however, would form the core of the fighting force and proved to be the most important fighters due to their knowledge of the region's geography and some possessing knowledge of the Bulgarian language. Many local Greeks, such as Periklis Drakos, were also involved in the smuggling and stashing of weapons and ammunition around the region.

File:Σώμα Ελλήνων Μακεδονομάχων.jpg
Greek armed band (Athens War Museum Collections)

Greek efforts

File:Περικλής Δράκος.JPG
Periklis Drakos from Kavala with co-fighters

The Greek state became concerned, not only because of Bulgarian penetration in Macedonia but also due to Serbian interests, which were concentrated mainly in Üsküp and Monastir area. The rioting in Macedonia, especially the death of Pavlos Melas in 1904, caused intense nationalistic feelings in Greece. This led to the decision to send more volunteers to reinforce and better organise the armed bands and thwart the Bulgarian efforts to bring all of the Slavic-speakers of Macedonia on under their influence.

File:Gonos-Apostolis-Omada-Andartes.png
The band of Gonos Yiotas (seated right) and Apostolis Matopoulos (seated left).

The Greek General Consulate in Thessaloniki, under Lambros Koromilas, became the centre of the struggle, coordinating the Greek bands, distributing, and nursing the wounded. Fierce conflicts between the Greeks and Bulgarians started in the area of Kastoria, in the Giannitsa Lake area, and elsewhere. During 1905, guerrilla activity increased and the Makedonomachoi gained significant advantage within 10 months, extending their control towards the areas of Mariovo and East Macedonia, Kastanohoria (near Kastoria), the plains north and south of Florina and the routes around Monastir.Template:Sfn However, from early 1906 the situation became critical and the forces of the Makedonomachoi were forced to withdraw from various areas. Nevertheless, the groups of Tellos Agras and Ioannis Demestichas had some success in the marsh of Giannitsa.Template:Sfn There were great advances of the Serb forces, joined by Muslim Slavs, in summer of 1906 in the northern areas of the Sanjak of Üsküp.<ref name="Aarbakke2003">Template:Cite book</ref>

While the armed bands confronted the Ottoman Army, the Ottoman administration often ignored the activities of the Greek guerrillas,<ref name="Hanioğlu2010">Template:Cite book</ref> and according to Dakin assisted them against the Bulgarians outright.Template:Sfn However, once the subversive potential of the Bulgarians had been neutralised, Ottoman policy ended the favourable neutrality to the Greek side and embarked upon relentless persecutions against the Greeks.Template:Sfn During the course of the conflict Greek armed bands numbered 2,000 men. Of whom over 700 were killed in action along with 1,250 pro-Greek civilians.Template:Sfn

Aromanian activity

File:Vlach revolutionaries from Ber or Veria.jpg
Aromanian revolutionaries in Veria

The Greek–Romanian conflict concerning the Aromanians reached its climax during the Macedonian Struggle, with Aromanians being no longer divided into pro-Greek and pro-Romanian factions but into "Greeks" and "Romanians" proper.Template:Sfn The pro-Greek faction was the largest and most powerful.Template:Sfn

Pro-Greek Aromanians

Most Aromanians during the Macedonian Struggle were pro-Greek, supporting the Greek revolutionaries and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Page needed<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> These Aromanians escaped or resisted the influence of Romanian interventionism,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> in which a considerable amount of money was spent on by the Romanian state.Template:Sfn They were indifferent or even hostile to their national movement.Template:Sfn In the archives of the Greek Foreign Ministry there are numerous testimonies from Aromanian communities denouncing Romanian "propaganda" and proclaiming their Greekness.Template:Sfn In Veria, there was a small local unit which was under the leadership of a pro-Greek Aromanian, Tasos Koukotegos. This unit, being small and somewhat isolated, had been operating without definite objectives, but it proved to be very important for the Greek cause as it helped in fights against local Turkish chiefs, pro-Romanian Aromanians, and Bulgarian komitadjis.Template:Sfn Additionally, local support from pro-Greek Aromanians in Kastoria empowered Greek activity in the region.Template:Sfn A notable Greek makedonomachos of Aromanian descent was Anastasios Pichion.

File:Anastasios-Picheon.JPG
Anastasios Pichion, a pro-Greek Aromanian

In Pelagonia, the pro-Greek sentiments of Aromanians during the Macedonian Struggle contributed to their displacement.Template:Sfn When they migrated to Greece, they were already financially ruined.Template:Sfn

Pro-Bulgarian Aromanians

File:PitoGuli 2.jpg
Pitu Guli, a pro-Bulgarian Aromanian

Many Aromanians were also pro-Bulgarian, joining their efforts in the struggle. They were aligned with the Bulgarian Exarchate rather than the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and sympathized with the goals and aspiration of the Bulgarian cause. Some notable pro-Bulgarian Aromanians include Pitu Guli and Mitre Pangiaru.

Pro-Romanian Aromanians

As the Bulgarians had managed to introduce their language in church services and education in the Ottoman Empire, so did the pro-Romanian Aromanians start demanding the same rights. The Greek Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople reacted strongly to this however amid increased rivalry in the region and eight Aromanian churches were closed by his personal order in 1875. This produced protests from the pro-Romanian Aromanians to the Ottoman and Romanian government, and also increased tensions between the pro-Romanian Aromanians and the GreeksTemplate:Sfn as well as with pro-Greek Aromanians,Template:Sfn which led to physical violence that often ended in fatalities.Template:Sfn

In 1903, following the failure of the Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising in which many pro-Romanian Aromanian and Bulgarian soldiers had fought with the aim of creating a Macedonian autonomy, the Ottoman Empire allowed the intervention of Greek militias, known as andartes and formed within Greece with commanders from the Greek state, to suppress potential renewed attempts of this objective. These commanders began to threaten the leaders of various Romanian schools in Aromanian villages, warning them that if they did not close down their activities, they would be attacked. Given this, some pro-Romanian Aromanian fighters referred to as armatoles (Template:Lang, Template:Lang in singular) began to take up arms, the first ones being Mihail Handuri from Livadia (Template:Lang or Template:Lang) and Hali Joga from Template:Ill (Template:Lang), who having been joined by various young pro-Romanian Aromanian fighters, began to attack Greek bands in the area of Edessa and Veria. These pro-Romanian Aromanian bands were allied with Bulgarian bands in Ottoman Macedonia. In 1906, under Ioryi Mucitano,Template:Sfn they were organized into two committees, one in Bucharest led by Alexandru Coshca and Sterie Milioru and the other in Sofia led by Mucitano. He decided to divide their area of operations into districts led by a so-called voivode. These bands were allowed free passage by Bulgarian villages.Template:Sfn

Clashes

Starting from summer of 1904, clashes between pro-Romanian Aromanian and ethnic GreekTemplate:Sfn or pro-Greek Aromanian bands,Template:Sfn be it only between themselves or with other combatants involved, erupted in the village of Condusula (between Edessa and Naousa), Ano Grammatiko,Template:Sfn Pyrgoi and Dervent.Template:Sfn Pro-Greek schools and churches were destroyed by the pro-Romanian Aromanians and pro-Greek Aromanians retaliated by doing the same to pro-Romanian schools and churches.Template:Sfn The two factions expelled each other and even murdered opponent schoolteachers and clergy.Template:Sfn One such case took place in 1911, when komitadjis and pro-Romanian Aromanians murdered Template:Ill, Template:Ill.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Another example is Template:Ill, an Aromanian priest murdered in 1914 by Greek andartes.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Greeks and pro-Greek Aromanians suffered attacks from Turkish troops and bashibazouks who killed 41 of them and destroyed 366 and 203 of their houses and shops respectively.Template:Sfn

Albanian activity

Conflict with Serbian Chetniks

In 1907, Idriz Seferi came into conflict with Serbian Chetniks that were operating in Eastern Kosovo. Radivojević and his Serbian Chetnik band were sent across Kosovo as aid to fight the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization at Vardar, they were all wearing Albanian clothes with the plan to reach Poreče disguised as Albanian kachaks. However, they were discovered and in July Idriz fought and killed Dragoljub Nikolić and Rade Radivojević, both high ranking Serbian Chetniks, along with their entire Četa in Pasjane and Gjylekar.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Conflict with the Ottomans

File:Shkup1912.jpg
Albanian rebels entering Üsküp (Skopje)

In July, during the Albanian revolt of 1912, the Albanian rebels gathered their forces in Kosovo after successfully capturing major cities in the region, including Pristina, Ferizaj, and Gjakova, which were previously under control of the Ottoman Empire. As early August approached, Albanian troops embarked on a southwards march to the provincial capital, Üsküp (Skopje). A four-day battle ensued, which ended in an Albanian Victory and the capture of Üskup by Albanian rebels. Following this battle, Albanian rebels from the Karadak Mountains (Skopska Crna Gora), under Idriz Seferi, marched on Kumanova and Preševo, liberating both of them.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Page needed Template:Citation needed span

Crimes

War crimes were committed by both sides during the Macedonian struggle. According to a 1900 British report compiled by Alfred Biliotti, who is considered to have heavily relied on Greek intelligence agents,<ref name="SMEA">Template:Cite journal</ref> starting from 1897, the members of the Exarchist committees had embarked upon a systematic and extensive campaign of executions of the leading members of the Greek side.Template:Sfn Moreover, Bulgarian Komitadjis, pursued a campaign of extermination of Greek and Serbian teachers and clergy.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> On the other hand, there were attacks by Greek Andartes on many Macedonian Bulgarian villages, with the aim of forcing their inhabitants to switch their allegiance from the Exarchate back to the Patriarchate and accept Greek priest and teachers,<ref>Template:Cite book; Template:Cite book</ref> but they also carried out massacres against the civilian population,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> especially in the central parts of Macedonia in 1905<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and in 1906.Template:Sfn One of the notable cases was the massacre<ref>Template:Cite Hansard</ref> at the village Zagorichani (today Vasiliada, Greece), which was a Bulgarian Exarchist strongholdTemplate:Sfn near Kastoria on 25 March 1905, where between 60 and 78 villagers were killed by Greek bands.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

According to British reports on political crimes (including the above-mentioned Biliotti report), during the period from 1897 to 1912 over 4000 political murders were committed (66 before 1901, 200 between 1901 and 1903, 3300 between 1903 and 1908 and 600 between 1908 and 1912), excluding those killed during the Ilinden Uprising and the members of the Bulgarian and Greek bands. Of those who were killed, 53% were Bulgarians, 33.5% were Greeks, Serbs and Aromanians together 3.5% and 10% were of unknown ethnicity.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

These conflicts decreased their intensity after the revolution of Young Turks in July 1908, as they promised to respect all ethnicities and religions, and to provide a constitution.

Consequences

The success of Greek efforts in Macedonia was an experience that gave confidence to the country. It helped develop an intention to annex Greek-speaking areas, and bolster Greek presence in the still Ottoman ruled Macedonia.

The events in Macedonia, specifically the consequences of the conflicts between Greek and Bulgarian national activists, including Greek massacres against the Bulgarian population in 1905 and 1906, gave rise to pogroms against the ca. 70,000–80,000-strong Greek communities that lived in Bulgaria, who were considered to share responsibility for the actions of the Greek guerrilla groups.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Nevertheless, the Young Turk movement resulted in a few instances of collaboration between Greek and Bulgarian bands, while this time the official policy in both countries continue to support the penetration of armed fighters into Ottoman Macedonia, but without having fully ensured that there would be no attacks on each other.Template:Sfn

Commemoration and historiography

Many museums have been dedicated to the conflict, including:

There have been fiction and non-fiction accounts of the events of the struggle and its participants, including:

See also

Notes

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References

Citations

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Works cited

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Further reading

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