Magar Kham language

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Magar Kham (मगर खाम), also known as Kham, Kham Magar, and Khamkura, is the Sino-Tibetan language variety of the Northern Magar people of Nepal.<ref>Hitchcock, John T. (1966). The Magars of Banyan Hill. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.</ref><ref>Fischer, James F. (1986). Trans-Himalayan traders: Economy, society, and culture in northwest Nepal. Berkeley, CA: University of California.</ref><ref>Oppitz, Michael. (1991). Onkels tochter, keine sonst. Uncle’s Daughter, Nobody Else. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. </ref> The language is situated in the upper elevations of Baglung, East Rukum, and Rolpa districts. Based on census data taken in 2021, the total population of Magar Kham is estimated to be about 91,753 speakers.<ref name=2021census>Template:Cite web</ref>

Language classification

Magar Kham is a Sino-Tibetan language, and it is classified by David Bradley as “Central Himalayan,” and as being related to Magar and Chepang and more distantly related to the Kiranti languages. George van Driem also classifies Magar Kham as “Para-Kiranti,” emphasizing that Magar Kham, Magar, and Chepang are united more by their differences from the Kiranti cluster than by their similarity to one another.<ref>Bradley, David. (1997). “Tibeto-Burman languages and classification.” In Papers in Southeast Asian Linguistics No. 14: Tibeto-Burman languages of the Himalayas, edited. by David Bradley, 1-72, Canberra: Australian National University. </ref><ref>van Driem, George. (2001). Languages of the Himalayas: An ethnographic handbook of the greater Himalayan region, vol. 2. Leiden: Brill.</ref> Within this cluster, Magar Kham possesses a number of unique grammatical features, and shares only 44% lexical similarity with Magar and 38% with Chepang.<ref name=":0">Watters, David E.. (2002). A grammar of Kham. Cambridge: Cambridge University. Template:ISBN</ref>

Dialects

Magar Kham speakers generally refer to their dialect using the name of an important village or river in conjunction with the Nepali instrumental suffix [-le] or the genitive suffix [-i]. Thus, it can be said that Magar Kham has as many dialects as there are villages and rivers in their native territory. The table below presents the major dialects of the Magar Kham language as they have been classified by David E. Watters.<ref name=":0" /> The ISO 639-3 codes associated with each major dialect are presented in brackets.

Magar Kham varieties

Gamal Kham [kgj]<ref name=e25kgj/> Sheshi Kham [kip]<ref name=e25kip/> Parbate Kham
Ghusbangi Kham

Tamali Kham

Jangkoti Kham

Tapnangi Kham

Western Parbate

Kham [kjl]<ref name=e25kjl/>

Eastern Parbate

Kham [kif]<ref name=e25kif/>

Maikoti Kham

Takale Kham

Thabangi Kham

Wale Kham

Nisel Kham

Bhujel Kham

At the highest level in the table, Kham has been divided into Gamal Kham, Sheshi Kham, and Parbate Kham, which is further divided into Eastern and Western Parbate Kham. As previously stated, these four major dialects are mutually unintelligible and bear unique grammatical innovations indicative of different languages.<ref>Watters, David E.. (1998). The Kham language of west-central Nepal (Takale dialect). Ph.D. dissertation. Eugene, Oregon.</ref> For this reason, each of these dialects have been given its own ISO 639-3 designation.

Speakers

Based on the census data taken in 2021, the total population of Magar Kham speakers is estimated to be about 91,753 persons.<ref name=2021census/> The tables below presents the homeland population estimates by district and by dialect. It is estimated that about 92,000 Magar Kham speakers live in diaspora.Template:Cn

Magar Kham population by district

Province District Estimated Population
Gandaki Baglung 37,000
Lumbini East Rukum 78,000
Lumbini Rolpa 127,000

Magar Kham population by dialect/variety

According to Ethnologue:

Dialect ISO 639-3 Native speakers (year) L2 speakers (year) Total speakers (year)
Gamal Kham kgj 7,000 (2021)<ref name=e25kgj/> 3,000 (2021)<ref name=e25kgj/> 10,000 (2021)<ref name=e25kgj/>
Sheshi Kham kip Template:N/A Template:N/A 91,753 (2021)<ref name=e25kip/>
Eastern Parbate kif Template:N/A Template:N/A 50,000 (2021)<ref name=e25kif/>
Western Parbate kjl 38,000 (2003)<ref name=e25kjl/> 25,000 (2021)<ref name=e25kjl/> 69,000 (2003–2021)<ref name=e25kjl/>
All varieties Template:N/A Template:N/A Template:N/A 127,000 (2003–2021)

Estimates are based on the number of persons registering their mother tongue as either “Magar” or “Kham” within the territory of the northern Magars.Template:Cn

Language vitality

Although their homeland is fairly homogeneous, northern Magars are multilingual.<ref>Leman, Joseph D. (2019). “Sociolinguistic Profile of Maikoti Kham: A sociolinguistic study of the Kham language spoken in the area of Maikot village in East Rukum District of Nepal.” Journal of Language Survey Reports. SIL International.</ref><ref>Watters, Stephen. (2018). Linguistic identity and dialect diversity: A conundrum with regard to Magar Kham. Language and identity in multilingual, migrating world. SIL International.</ref> The national language of Nepali is spoken confidently by all individuals under 35 years old. In some communities (Sheshi and Eastern Parbate), parents have shifted to speaking Nepali with their children, and the speaker population is gradually decreasing. However, in all of East Rukum and in the Gam river valley of Rolpa, the language is being vigorously transmitted. Ethnologue has assigned the following EGIDS levels to each variety:

  • Western Parbate Kham [kjl]: level 5 (Developing)<ref name=e25kjl>Template:E25</ref>
  • Eastern Parbate Kham [kif]: level 6b (Threatened)<ref name=e25kif>Template:E25</ref>
  • Gamal Kham [kgj]: level 6a (Vigorous)<ref name=e25kgj>Template:E25</ref>
  • Sheshi Kham [kip]: level 6b (Threatened)<ref name=e25kip>Template:E25</ref>

The UNESCO Endangered Languages Project has classified Gamal Kham as "Vulnerable."<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Phonology

Consonants

The Taka dialect of Western Parbate Kham has 22 consonant phonemes while Gamal Kham possesses around 29 to 30 consonant phonemes.<ref name=":0" />

Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Template:Small Template:Small
Nasal voiceless Template:IPAlink2 Template:IPAlink2 Template:IPAlink1
voiced Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
Plosive/
Affricate 		voiceless Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink2
voiced Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
aspirated Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
Fricative voiceless Template:IPAlink2 Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink1 Template:IPAlink
voiced Template:IPAlink
Rhotic Template:IPAlink3
Approx. Template:Small Template:IPAlink2 Template:IPAlink2
Template:Small Template:IPAlink2 Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
  1. These phonemes only appear in Ghusbang and Sheram<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> dialect. All others appear in every Kham dialect.
  2. These phonemes do not occur in Parbate Kham.<ref name=":0" />
  3. The rhotic Template:IPA is realized as a trill Template:IPA at the end of words. Otherwise, it is a flap.

Vowels

Taka dialect of Western Parbate has 25 vowel phonemes.<ref name=":0" />

Front Central Back
unrounded rounded unrounded rounded
short long nasal short long short long nasal short long nasal short long nasal
Close Template:IPAlink1 Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink1 Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
Mid Template:IPAlink1 Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink1 Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink1 Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
Open mid Template:IPAlink
Open Template:IPAlink1 Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
  1. These vowels occur in every dialect of Kham.

Writing

Consonants

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Deva. Template:Lang<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang Template:Lang
trans. z zh nh mh ẏ hl hw hẏ
IPA Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink Template:IPAlink
क ख ग घ ङ
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
च छ ज झ ञ
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
ट ठ ड ढ ण
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
त थ द ध न
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
प फ ब भ म
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
य र ल व
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
श ष स ह
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA
क्ष त्र ज्ञ
Template:IPA Template:IPA Template:IPA

Vowels

Vowels for Parbate Kham<ref name=":0" />
Devanagari Roman IPA
Template:Lang a ə
Template:Lang ā ɐ
Template:Lang i i
Template:Lang ü y
Template:Lang ī iː
Template:Lang u u
Template:Lang ï ɯ
Template:Lang ū uː
Template:Lang e e, ɛ
Template:Lang ø ø
Template:Lang ai əj
Template:Lang o o
Template:Lang au əw
Template:Lang h, ḥ V̤
Template:Lang ◌̃ ◌̃ː
Template:Lang ◌̃, ṅ, n, ṇ, ñ ◌̃ː, ŋ, n
Template:Lang, Template:Lang Template:Lang, Template:Lang, Template:Lang ' ◌ː
Template:Lang ’ ʔ

Vowels for Gamal Kham

Orthography अ आ इ/ई उ/ऊ ए ऐ ओ औ अं अः अँ ॱअ
Roman a ā i/ī u/ū e ai o au aṃ aḥ ã a'
IPA Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link, Template:IPAlink Template:IPA linkTemplate:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA linkTemplate:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPA link Template:IPAlinkTemplate:IPAlink

Morphology

Pronouns

singular dual plural
1st person naː gin geː
2nd person nɨ̃ː jin jeː
3rd person noː noːni noːrə

Nouns

Number

Kham nouns are marked for three numbers: singular (unmarked), dual (-ni) and plural (-rə). The plural marker has an allomorph -ra that appears when it is followed by another suffix.

Case

Kham nominals are marked for various morphosyntactical and locational cases.

Core case markers:

  • Nominative -Ø
  • Ergative -e/-je
  • Oblique/Objective -lai
  • Tripartite marking: The split ergativity patterns in Kham is overlapped for most of the argument's person/number and thus when both the agent and object arguments are both in the higher ranks of the argument hierarchy, the transitive subject/agent must be marked with ergative, while the object takes the oblique in order to distinguish it from the S/A arguments. There is no semantic and discourse-orientated variations in Kham alignment marking.

Peripheral case markers:

Possessive

singular dual plural
1st person ŋa- gin- ge-
2nd person nə- jin- dʒe-
3rd person o-/u- ni- ja-

Kin terms are marked by inalienable possessive unless they are used as vocatives or referential proper nouns. Eg. ŋa-bəhrca ('my nephew') vs. phubu ('Aunt').

Gender

In Kham, a small number of lexical items are marked for gender, but not affecting elsewhere in the morphosyntax: -pa masculine, -ma feminine, and -za diminutive. Indo-Aryan gender distinction -a/-i is also borrowed, creating a semi-productive 'similative' class of nouns, i.e. lexical object is conceptualized as representative of an attribute.

korop ('stitch') > koropcya ('[masculine] scar-face') / 'kurupci' ('[feminine] scar-face').

Verbs

Verbs in Kham inflect for various tense, aspect, mood, and mode categories, voices, negation, person/number of the subject, agent, and of the object in active voice. Kham person indexation have different paradigms for intransitive and transitive verbs as well for indicatives, optatives, and imperatives.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Template:Interlinear

Reconstruction

Proto-Kham has been reconstructed by Watters (2002). Proto-Kham reconstructions from Watters (2002: 443–456) are given below.<ref name=":0" /> Template:Refbegin

A. Body parts
  • *r-dzəŋ ~ *b-dzəŋ 'back'
  • *yep 'back (upper)'
  • *phuː 'belly'
  • *dziːh 'blood'
  • *klaŋ 'body'
  • *s-rus 'bone'
  • *nun 'breast'
  • *sək 'breath'
  • *r-mehsiŋ 'buttocks'
  • *r-tso 'cheek'
  • *r-na 'ear'
  • *(ba)r-zut 'egg'
  • *mik 'eye'
  • *s-ŋa 'face'
  • *sot 'fat'
  • *r-sin 'fingernail'
  • *kəŋ 'foot'
  • *r-nihl 'gums'
  • *r-ta 'guts'
  • *muhl 'hair (body)'
  • *p-tsem 'hair (head)'
  • *kut 'hand'
    • *r-la 'the under-arm area; side of the body'
  • *s-r-ŋat 'head'
  • *s-yiŋ 'heart'
  • *b-rəhŋ 'horn'
  • *sya 'animal'
  • *r-khap 'jawbone'
  • *kəl 'kidney'
  • *p-sin 'liver'
  • *yaːh 'mouth'
  • *s-məŋ 'mustache'
  • *r-dehŋ 'neck'
  • *s-nat 'nose'
  • *r-dzihs 'piss'
  • *s-nis 'pus'
  • *b-rəhm 'rib'
  • *p-s-til 'saliva'
  • *kli 'shit'
    • *r-kək 'excrement in the intestine of a slaughtered animal'
  • *s-pum 'shoulder'
  • *r-sa 'sinew'
  • *l-kota 'skin'
  • *r-nahp 'snot'
  • *r-meh 'tail'
  • *r-pihl 'tears'
  • *r-b-yah 'thigh (upper side)'
  • *p-s-le 'tongue'
  • *ha-p-sya 'tooth'
  • *wohs 'vomit'
  • *hwaŋ 'waist'
  • *r-mil ~ *s-mil 'wind pipe'
  • *kər 'wing'
B. Pronouns/kinship terms/nouns referring to humans'
  • *dahpa 'bachelor'
  • *za 'child'
  • *nan 'friend'
  • *b-re 'husband'
  • *dahme 'maiden'
  • *r-min 'name'
  • *r-mi; *ruː 'person'
    • *s-lepa 'man, male human'
    • *miːma 'woman, female human' < *mi 'person' + *ma 'female'
  • *nana 'sister (older)'
  • *nam 'sister (younger)'
  • *nəŋ 'thou'
  • *dzya 'wife'
C. Foodstuff
  • *bəhres 'bread'
  • *tsip 'curry'
  • *r-zəm 'food'
  • *s-ŋən 'herbs'
  • *raŋrəi 'millet'
  • *r-mo 'mushroom'
  • *hek 'parched grain'
  • *tuk 'poison'
  • *(ya)kaŋ 'rice (cooked)'
  • *plima 'wheat'
D. Animal names or animal products
  • *səhr 'antelope'
  • *nim 'bear'
  • *r-pen 'bedbug'
  • *b-zin 'bee'
  • *bwa 'bird'
    • *s-puŋ 'chick'
  • *gəl 'boar (wild)'
  • *b-s-rut 'bug'
  • *s-raŋ 'cat'
  • *har 'cow'
  • *kaːh 'dog'
  • *ŋah 'fish'
  • *tek 'frog'
  • *ra 'goat'
  • *r-ta 'horse'
  • *r-pəti 'leech'
  • *la 'leopard'
  • *syar 'louse'
  • *s-p-yu; *s-p-ya 'monkey'
  • *srəm 'otter'
  • *b-rəhŋ 'pheasant'
  • *wə 'pig'
  • *bi 'rat'
  • *luk 'sheep'
  • *guhl 'snake'
    • *daŋ 'python, constricting snake'
  • *p-s-yap 'squirrel (flying)'
  • *s-kyar 'woodpecker'
  • *p-sən 'wool'
E. Natural objects or phenomena; the inanimate landscape; vegetable and mineral kingdoms
  • *r-plah 'ashes'
  • *kər 'branch'
  • *r-pup 'cave'
  • *la 'day'
    • *tshyam 'a certain day'
  • *b-rih 'dirt'
  • *r-gəm 'earth'
  • *rihm 'evening'
  • *ehŋ 'field'
    • *baŋ 'a field, meadow, bowl shaped valley'
  • *meh 'fire'
  • *p-set 'fruit'
  • *tshi 'grass'
  • *kuŋ 'hole'
  • *dzəhŋ 'iron'
  • *s-la 'leaf'
  • *r-nahm 'low country'
  • *p-s-ya + *hwot 'moon'
  • *goŋ 'mountain'
  • *rik; *mun 'night'
  • *r-wa 'rain'
  • *bəih 'river'
  • *yem 'road'
  • *s-rin 'root'
  • *sa + *pik 'salt'
  • *nup 'set (sun)'
  • *saŋ 'shadow'
  • *nəm 'sky'
  • *mihkut 'smoke' < *meːh 'fire' + *ku 'smoke'
  • *r-pom 'snow'
  • *səro 'star'
  • *r-dzuht 'stick'
  • *luŋ 'stone'
  • *nəmi(y) 'sun'
  • *b-zu 'thorn'
  • *siŋ 'tree'
  • *riːh 'water'
    • *rihmun 'cooking water' < *riːh 'water' + *mun 'warm'
  • *rəhm 'weed'
F. Artifacts and social organization
  • *r-wan 'arrowhead'
  • *r-wa 'axe'
  • *r-beh(k) 'basket'
  • *li 'bow'
  • *tshəm 'bridge'
  • *pəsi(-s) 'broom'
  • *kwa 'cloth'
  • *yahm 'door'
  • *b-rihŋ 'drum'
  • *'gor 'circle'
  • *muhthap 'hearth' < *muh 'burn' + *thap 'hearth'
  • *zihm 'house'
    • *r-bəŋ 'lower storey of house; cattle byre'
  • *khor 'knife'
  • *gur 'load'
  • *tən 'sleeping mat'
  • *b-lo 'large bamboo mat'
  • *tshum 'mortar'
  • *r-gəp 'a small needle'
  • *r-khap 'a large needle'
  • *b-zəhn 'net'
  • *r-gum 'pillow'
  • *gohr 'plow'
  • *b-dza 'pot'
  • *p-sip 'sheath'
  • *tsihŋ 'snare'
  • *gel 'spirit'
  • *naŋkhar; *nam 'village'
  • *ehn 'work'
  • *kum 'yoke'
G. Spatial/directional
  • *glahŋ 'across'
  • *chin 'behind'
  • *khar 'center'
  • *me 'down'
  • *s-ŋa 'front'
  • *thək 'upright'
  • *a-sniŋ 'year'
    • *rta-sniŋ 'last year'
    • *pərniŋ 'next year'
H. Numerals and quantifiers
  • *tə 'one'
  • *nehs 'two'
  • *sohm 'three'
  • *b-zi 'four'
  • *r-ŋa 'five'
I. Verbs of utterance, body position or function
  • *sən; *so 'awaken'
  • *klik 'cry'
  • *eh 'defecate'
  • *si 'die'
  • *b-yi 'fart'
  • *sas 'laugh'
    • *p-s-rat 'to play'
    • *b-s-res 'toy, plaything'
  • *nah 'rest'
  • *tsuŋ 'sit'
  • *r-ŋəhl; *em; *ruk ~ *ru-t 'sleep'
    • *s-ip 'to put to sleep'
  • *p-tshis 'sneeze'
  • *s-paŋ 'speak'
  • *tsyahŋ 'stand'
  • *kəlet 'tickle'
  • *r-dzihs 'urinate'
  • *who-t 'vomit' < CAUS. of wohs 'to spurt out'
  • *gəhr 'weep'
J. Verbs of motion
  • *kles 'arrive'
  • *rə-t 'bring'
  • *plu-s 'climb'
  • *huŋ 'come'
  • *plu-s 'emerge'
    • *s-plu-t 'cause to emerge, expel'
  • *te-s 'fall'
  • *s-bur 'fly'
  • *z-ba 'go'
  • *b-la 'graze'
  • *mohŋ 'hide'
  • *zok 'run'
K. Verbs of emotion, cognition, perception
  • *r-məŋ 'dream'
  • *p-tshet 'fear'
  • *s-meŋ 'forget'
  • *that 'hear'
    • *thas 'to be heard, audible'
  • *sən 'know'
  • *r-ses 'something, to know how'
  • *r-sək 'proud'
  • *rəhŋ 'see'
    • *p-tsyu 'to look'
  • *s-ŋər; *s-nəm 'smell'
  • *b-ris 'tingle'
L. Stative verbs with human patients
  • *məhŋ 'drunk'
  • *sot 'fat'
  • *kre 'hunger'
  • *na 'ill'
  • *so 'itchy'
  • *tshaŋ 'pure'
  • *tsos 'thirst'
M. Stative verbs with non-human patients
  • *pək 'bad'
  • *li 'be'
  • *p-se 'bear fruit'
  • *s-ta-s 'become'
  • *ka 'bitter'
  • *pak 'broken'
  • *mom 'bud'
  • *p-set 'bud'
  • *r-pu-s 'burst'
  • *zihm; *gim 'cold'
  • *s-ta 'collapsed'
  • *s-kluŋ 'detach'
  • *thəŋ 'dried'
  • *yək 'full'
  • *p-tsa 'good'
  • *s-len 'greasy'
  • *piŋ 'green'
  • *gis < *s-lis 'heavy'
  • *s-gwaŋ 'hole'
  • *b-rah 'hot'
  • *wyi 'leak'
  • *bom 'light'
  • *s-lo; *b-re 'long'
  • *dzöhl 'loose'
  • *mah 'lost'
  • *s-dem ~ *them 'low'
  • *khət 'matched'
  • *sahr 'new'
  • *gyahm 'red'
  • *mihn 'ripe'
  • *tsik 'rotten'
  • *lum 'round'
  • *p-tsha 'sharp'
  • *tun 'short'
  • *zim 'small'
  • *b-sir 'sour'
  • *tuk 'spicy'
  • *sli-s 'stale'
  • *b-rehk 'sweet'
  • *ruhŋ 'thick'
  • *plek 'thin'
    • *wa 'to be thin (esp. of boards)'
  • *mun 'warm'
  • *pal 'white'
    • *plaŋ 'bright, illuminated'
N. Action verbs with human agent
  • *s-po 'beat'
  • *ŋih 'beg'
  • *kəi 'bite'
  • *s-mut 'blow'
    • *phut 'to blow with bellows'
  • *r-lap 'bore'
  • *s-kle(t) 'break'
  • *hip 'burn'
  • *r-duhp 'butt'
  • *ləhŋ 'buy'
    • *b-lot 'to lend to someone'
    • *b-los 'to borrow'
  • *guhr 'carry'
  • *kloh 'catch'
  • *kwa-t 'clothe'
  • *r-sat 'comb'
  • *phin 'cook'
    • *mihn 'to cook until done'
    • *tso 'to boil'
  • *kəp 'cover'
  • *pəl 'cut'
    • *kri 'to cut meat'
  • *p-syah 'dance'
  • *goh 'dig'
  • *gəp 'draw water'
  • *zya 'eat'
    • *kəi 'to eat things which require chewing'
  • *hat 'extract'
  • *z-dət 'find'
  • *z-dup 'gather'
  • *ya 'give'
  • *p-set 'grind'
  • *r-guh 'guard'
  • *tup 'hammer'
  • *tsho 'herd'
  • *phok 'husk'
  • *lut 'insert'
  • *tak 'install'
  • *r-then 'kick'
  • *saht 'kill'
  • *kek 'ladle'
  • *b-rihm 'lay wall'
  • *lep 'lick'
  • *dzət 'make'
  • *pek 'milk'
  • *z-bra-t 'mix'
  • *pho-t 'open'
  • *phok 'pay'
  • *tik 'pick up'
  • *s-krəp 'pin closed'
  • *p-tsil 'pinch'
  • *p-sut 'plug'
  • *tek 'press'
  • *dzəhk 'put'
    • *nat 'to set down, place'
  • *ra-s 'release'
  • *phit 'remove from fire'
  • *tsep 'ride'
  • *s-ŋo 'roast'
  • *b-zu 'rub'
    • *p-sil 'to scrub'
  • *s-lom 'scald'
  • *sim 'scoop'
  • *s-pik 'scrape'
    • *pur 'to scratch'
  • *s-nan 'seize'
  • *p-yet 'sell'
  • *s-priŋ 'send'
  • *ruhp 'sew'
  • *p-yen 'shave'
  • *gap 'shoot'
  • *s-tən 'show'
  • *kok 'skin, peel'
  • *phyak 'snap'
  • *tshim 'soak'
  • *was 'sow seed'
  • *khəl 'spin wool'
  • *p-si 'split firewood'
  • *tser 'squeeze'
  • *ku 'steal'
    • *rok 'to ransack, rummage'
  • *r-wal 'stir'
  • *on 'stop'
  • *sit 'sweep'
  • *p-sik ~ *p-sis 'teach'
  • *p-tsit 'tear'
  • *khya 'throw'
  • *s-ki 'tie'
  • *s-to 'trade'
  • *kil 'twist'
  • *s-krup 'unfold'
  • *bohk 'uproot'
  • *tse 'wash'
    • *r-za 'to wash hair'
  • *rəhk 'weave'
    • *rihn 'to set up a loom'
  • *hul 'whet'

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References

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Further reading

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