Mahavira

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Template:Short description Template:Hatnote Template:Use dmy dates Template:Use Indian English Template:Infobox religious biography Template:Jainism Mahavira (Template:IAST), also known by his birth name Vardhamana (Template:IAST), was an Indian religious reformer and spiritual leader who is considered by Jains to be the 24th and final Tirthankara (Supreme Preacher) of this age in Jainism. He is believed by historians to have lived in the 6th or 5th century BCE,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Refn reviving and reforming an earlier Jain or proto-Jain communityTemplate:Refn which had likely been led by Pārśvanātha, whom Jains consider to be Mahavira's predecessor.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Although the dates of Mahavira's life are uncertain and historically reliable information is scarce,Template:Refn and traditional accounts vary by sectarian traditions, the historicity of Mahavira is well-established and not in dispute among scholars.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

According to traditional legends and hagiographies, Mahavira was born in 599 BCE to a ruling royal kshatriya Jain family of the Nāya tribe in what is now Bihar in India.<ref name="BBC">Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Sfn According to traditional sources like the Ācārāṅga Sūtra, the Nāyas were followers of Parshvanatha, Mahavira's predecessor.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mahavira abandoned all worldly possessions at the age of about 30 and left home in pursuit of spiritual awakening, becoming an ascetic. Mahavira practiced intense meditation and severe austerities for twelve and a half years, after which he attained Kevala Jnana (omniscience). He preached for 30 years and attained moksha (liberation) when he died.

Mahavira taught attainment of samyak darshan or self realization (atma-anubhuti) through the practice of bhedvijnāna, which involves positioning oneself as a pure soul, separate from body, mind and emotions, and being aware of the soul's true nature; and to remain grounded and steadfast in soul's unchanging essence during varying auspicious or inauspicious external circumstances. He also preached that the observance of the vows of ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (non-stealing), brahmacharya (chastity), and aparigraha (non-attachment) are necessary for spiritual liberation. He taught the principles of Anekantavada (many-sided reality): syadvada and nayavada. Mahavira's teachings were compiled by Indrabhuti Gautama (his chief disciple) as the Jain Agamas. The texts, transmitted orally by Jain monks, are believed to have been largely lost by about the 1st century CE.

Mahavira is usually depicted in a sitting or standing meditative posture, with the symbol of a lion beneath him. His earliest iconography is from archaeological sites in the North Indian city of Mathura, and is dated from between the 1st century BCE and the 2nd century CE. His birth is celebrated as Mahavira Janma Kalyanaka while his nirvana (liberation) and attainment of Kevala jnana (omniscience) by Gautama Swami are observed by Jains as Diwali.Template:Sfn

Historical Mahavira

File:Gana Sanghas (c. 500 BCE).jpg
The Gaṇasaṅghas (tribal republics) at the time of Mahavira

Although it is universally accepted by scholars of Jainism that Mahavira lived in ancient India, the year of his birth and additional information of his life are "uncertain and debatable."Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Dating

File:Kizil Caves 80.jpg
Painting of Mahavira among the Six Heretical Teachers in Kizil Caves, Xinjiang, China, 4th century CE

Traditional Jain-accounts

The Digambara and Śvetāmbara sects give different accounts of Mahavira's life.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn They agree that Mahavira was born in 599Template:NbspBCE,Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn but according to the Śvetāmbaras he died in 527 BCE, while the Digambaras believe that he died in 510 BCE.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Refn

Rapson notes that "The Jains themselves have preserved chronological records concerning Mahavira and the succeeding pontiffs of the Jain church, which may have been begun at a comparatively early date. But it seems quite clear that, at the time when these lists were put into their present form, the real date of Mahavira had already either been forgotten or was at least doubtful."Template:Sfn

The Jain-tradition accepts the Vira Nirvana Samvat chronology, which starts in 527Template:NbspBCE.Template:Sfn The Vira Nirvana Samvat is based on the Vikram Samvat, which dates from the medieaval period,Template:Refn and starts in 57 or 58 BCE, to which 470 years are added, giving 527 or 528 BCE.Template:Sfn According to Rapson, this calculation is based on "a list of kings and dynasties, who are supposed to have reigned between 528 and 58 BC[E]," and is not reliable, "as it confuses rulers of Ujjain, Magadha, and other kingdoms; and some of these may perhaps have been contemporary, and not successive as they are represented."Template:SfnTemplate:Refn

The 12th-century Jain scholar Hemachandra placed Mahavira in the 6th-5thTemplate:Nbspcentury BCE.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Scholarly datings

There has been considerable scholarly debate on Mahavira's dates since th 19th century, and various dates have been proposed.Template:Sfn While traditional accounts adhere to the timeline that places his birth in 599 BCE and his nirvana in 527 BCE or 510 BCE, "[s]ome scholars believe this date to be as much as 100 years early."Template:Sfn

On the basis of chronologies in Hemachandra's Pariśiṣṭaparvan, some historians have dated Mahavira's birth to 549 BCE, and his death to 477 or ca. 468-467 BCE.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref>World Religions Reference Library, Mahavira</ref>

Ultimately, Mahavira's dates depend on the dates for the Buddha, who was a (slightly later) contemporary of Mahavira,Template:Refn which is supported by Buddhist texts.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn They both lived during the reigns of the kings Bimbisara and Ajatashatru of Magadha.Template:Refn Historians who accept the "Short Chronology" for Gautama Buddha's lifetime (ca. 480-400 BCE), argue that the traditional dates for Mahavira also are too early, by as much as one century, since Mahavira and Buddha were contemporaries.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref name="BBC_late-_dating">Template:Cite web</ref> Dundas suggests that Mahavira may have died "around 425 BCE, or a few years after",Template:Sfn and Long suggests "c.499-427 BCE" as his approximate lifespan.Template:Sfn

Role in Jainism

Jain-accounts: successor

Jains believe that the 23 previous tirthankaras also espoused Jainism.Template:Sfn Mahavira is placed in Parshvanatha's lineage as his spiritual successor and ultimate leader of shraman sangha.Template:Sfn According to Dundas, Jains believe that the lineage of Parshvanatha influenced Mahavira. Parshvanatha, as the one who "removes obstacles and has the capacity to save", is a popular icon; his image is the focus of Jain temple devotion.Template:Sfn Of the 24 tirthankaras, Jain iconography has celebrated Mahavira and Parshvanatha the most; sculptures discovered at the Mathura archaeological site have been dated to the 1stTemplate:Nbspcentury BCE.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

According to Jain tradition, Parshvanatha was a tirthankara born 273 years before Mahavira, which would mean he lived in about the 9th or 8th century BCE.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> However, "some scholars have suggested that Pārśvanātha and Mahāvīra were actually closer in time than the tradition claims",Template:Sfn and that "Pārśva could not have started his ascetic career before the beginning of the sixth century BC" and "may have passed away only a few decades before Vardhamāna [i.e., Mahāvīra] had started his preaching career".Template:Sfn

Scholalrly accounts: reformer

Mahavira is believed by historians to have revived and reformed an earlier Jain or proto-Jain communityTemplate:Refn which had likely been led by Pārśvanātha, whom Jains consider to be Mahavira's predecessor.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn According to Moriz Winternitz, Mahavira may be considered a reformer of an existing Jain sect known as Niganthas (fetter-less) which was mentioned in early Buddhist texts.Template:Sfn

Birthplace

According to both secterian text Uttarapurana and Kalpa Sūtra, Mahavira was born in Kundagrama in the Kingdom of the Videhas.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Kundagrama is said to be located in present-day Bihar, India,Template:Citation needed although the exact location of Kundagrama within Bihar remains a subject of dispute.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Kundagrama was identified by JP Sharma as a suburb of the city of Vaishali, and because of this, some sources refer to him as Vesālie.<ref name=Sharma1968>Template:Cite book</ref>

Another potential location of Kundagrāma is the village of Basu Kund, about Template:Convert north of Patna (the capital of Bihar).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Life-course

Mahavira renounced his material wealth and left home when he was twenty-eight, by some accounts,Template:WhichTemplate:Sfn thirty by othersTemplate:Which,Template:Sfn lived an ascetic life for twelve and a half years in which he did not even sit for a time, attained Kevalgyana and then preached Dharma for thirty years.Template:Sfn Where he preached has been a subject of disagreement between the two major traditions of Jainism: Śvētāmbara and Digambara.Template:Sfn The place of his nirvana, Pavapuri in present-day Bihar, is a pilgrimage site for Jains.Template:Sfn

Life according to Jain tradition

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Sources

Old illustrated manuscript
Folio from the Kalpa Sūtra, 15th century

Yativṛṣabha's Tiloya-paṇṇatti recounts nearly all the events of Mahavira's life in a form convenient for memorisation.Template:Sfn Jinasena's Mahapurana (which includes the Ādi purāṇa and Uttara-purāṇa) was completed by his disciple, Gunabhadra, in the 8thTemplate:Nbspcentury. In the Uttara-purāṇa, Mahavira's life is described in three parvans, or sections, (74–76) and 1,818 verses.Template:Sfn

Vardhamacharitra is a Sanskrit kāvya poem, written by Asaga in 853 CE, which narrates the life of Mahavira.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Kalpa Sūtra is a collection of biographies of tirthankaras, notably Parshvanatha and Mahavira. Samavayanga Sutra is a collection of Mahavira's teachings, and the Ācārāṅga Sūtra recounts his asceticism.

Tirthankaras

According to Jain cosmology, 24 Tirthankaras have appeared on earth; Mahavira is the last tirthankara of Avasarpiṇī (the present time cycle).Template:RefnTemplate:Sfn A tirthankara (ford-maker, saviour or spiritual teacher) signifies the founding of a tirtha, a passage across the sea of birth-and-death cycles.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref name="britannica">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>

Previous births

Mahavira's previous births are recounted in Jain texts such as the Mahapurana and Tri-shashti-shalaka-purusha-charitra. Although a soul undergoes countless reincarnations in the transmigratory cycle of saṃsāra, the birth of a tirthankara is reckoned from the time he determines the causes of karma and pursues ratnatraya. Jain texts describe Mahavira's 26 births before his incarnation as a tirthankara.Template:Sfn According to the texts, he was born as Marichi (the son of Bharata Chakravartin) in a previous life.Template:Sfn

Birth

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Tirthankara Mahavira was born in Kundagrāma into the royal Jain family of King Siddhartha of the Nāya tribe and Queen Trishala of the Licchavi republic.<ref name="BBC"/>Template:SfnTemplate:Refn The Nāyas were kshatriyas and saw themselves as being related to the Videhas. The Ācārāṅga Sūtra informs us that:<ref name= Sharma1968 /> Template:Blockquote

According to Jains, Mahavira was born in 599Template:NbspBCE. His birth date falls on the thirteenth day of the rising moon in the month of Chaitra in the Vira Nirvana Samvat calendar era.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn It falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar, and is celebrated by Jains as Mahavir Janma Kalyanak.Template:Sfn

Kshatriyakund (the place of Mahavira's birth) is traditionally believed to be near Vaishali, an ancient town on the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Its location in present-day Bihar is unclear, partly because of migrations from ancient Bihar for economic and political reasons.Template:Sfn According to the "Universal History" in Jain texts, Mahavira underwent many rebirths (total 27 births) before his birth in the 6th-century BCE. They included a denizen of hell, a lion, and a god (deva) in a heavenly realm just before his last birth as the 24th tirthankara.Template:Sfn Svetambara texts state that his embryo first formed in a Bamana woman before it was transferred by Hari-Naigamesin (the divine commander of Indra's army) to the womb of Trishala, Siddhartha's wife.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Refn The embryo-transfer legend is not believed by adherents of the Digambara tradition.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Jain texts state that after Mahavira was born, the god Indra came from the heavens along with 56 digkumaries, anointed him, and performed his abhisheka (consecration) on Mount Meru.Template:Sfn These events, illustrated in a number of Jain temples, play a part in modern Jain temple rituals.Template:Sfn Although the Kalpa Sūtra accounts of Mahavira's birth legends are recited by Svetambara Jains during the annual Paryushana festival, the same festival is observed by the Digambaras without the recitation.Template:Sfn

Early life

Mahavira grew up as a prince. According to the second chapter of the Śvētāmbara text Ācārāṅga Sūtra, his parents were lay devotees of Parshvanatha.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Handbook of Indian History notes that the Kalpasutra narrates Pārśva’s liberation 250 years before Mahavira, and mentions that Buddhist literature contains reference to disciples of Parsva in the lifetime of the Buddha.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Jain traditions differ about whether Mahavira married.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Digambara tradition believes that his parents wanted him to marry Yashoda, but he refused to marry.Template:SfnTemplate:Refn The Śvētāmbara tradition believes that he was married to Yashoda at a young age and had one daughter, Priyadarshana,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn also called Anojja.Template:Sfn

Jain texts portray Mahavira as tall; his height was given as 7 hastas or four cubits (6 feet) in the Aupapatika Sutra.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn According to Jain texts, he was the shortest of the twenty-four tirthankaras; earlier arihants were believed to have been taller, with Neminatha or Aristanemi —the 22nd tirthankara, who lived for 1,000 years—said to have been sixty-five cubits (98Template:Nbspfeet) in height.Template:Sfn

Renunciation

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File:Mahavir Swami giving alms to a brahmin.jpg
Tirthankar Mahavir giving his half garment to a brahmin as alms

At age thirty, Mahavira abandoned royal life and left his home and family to live an ascetic life in the pursuit of spiritual awakening.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn He undertook severe fasts and bodily mortifications,Template:Sfn meditated under the Ashoka tree, and discarded his clothes.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Ācārāṅga Sūtra has a graphic description of his hardships and self-mortification.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn According to the Kalpa Sūtra, Mahavira spent the first forty-two monsoons of his life in Astikagrama, Champapuri, Prstichampa, Vaishali, Vanijagrama, Nalanda, Mithila, Bhadrika, Alabhika, Panitabhumi, Shravasti, and Pawapuri.Template:Sfn He is said to have lived in Rajagriha during the rainy season of the forty-first year of his ascetic life, which is traditionally dated to 491Template:NbspBCE.Template:Sfn

Omniscience

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File:Lord Mahavira Omniscience.jpg
Lord Mahavir attaining omniscience in shukla dhyana, the highest and purest level of meditation

According to traditional accounts, Mahavira achieved Kevala Jnana (omniscience, or infinite knowledge) under a Sāla tree on the bank of the River Rijuvalika near Jrimbhikagrama at age 43 after twelve years of rigorous penance.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn The details of the event are described in the Jain Uttar-purāņa and Harivamśa-purāņa texts.Template:Sfn The Ācārāṅga Sūtra describes Mahavira as all-seeing. The Sutrakritanga expands it to all-knowing, and describes his other qualities.Template:Sfn Jains believe that Mahavira had a most auspicious body (paramaudārika śarīra) and was free from eighteen imperfections when he attained omniscience.Template:Sfn According to the Śvētāmbara, he traveled throughout India to teach his philosophy for thirty years after attaining omniscience.Template:Sfn However, the Digambara believe that he remained in his Samavasarana and delivered sermons to his followers.Template:Sfn

Disciples

File:Samosarana Mahaviras enlightenment.jpg
[Top illustration] Mahavira attains kevala jñāna (complete knowledge); [Bottom] a samosarana (divine preaching hall). Folio 60 from Kalpasutra series, loose leaf manuscript, Patan, Gujarat. Template:Circa.

Jain texts document eleven Brahmanas as Mahavira's first disciples, traditionally known as the eleven Ganadharas.Template:Sfn Indrabhuti Gautama is believed to have been their leader,Template:Sfn the others were named: Agnibhuti, Vayubhuti, Akampita, Arya Vyakta, Sudharman, Manditaputra, Mauryaputra, Acalabhraataa, Metraya, and Prabhasa. The Ganadharas are believed to have remembered and to have verbally transmitted Mahavira's teachings after his death. His teachings became known as Gani-Pidaga, or the Jain Agamas.Template:Sfn According to Kalpa Sutra, Mahavira had 14,000 sadhus (male ascetic devotees), 36,000 sadhvis (female ascetics), 159,000 sravakas (male lay followers), and 318,000 sravikas (female lay followers).Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Jain tradition mentions Srenika and Kunika of Haryanka dynasty (popularly known as Bimbisara and Ajatashatru) and Chetaka of Videha as his royal followers.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mahavira initiated his mendicants with the mahavratas (Five Vows).Template:Sfn He delivered fifty-five pravachana (recitations) and a set of lectures (Uttaraadhyayana-sutra).Template:Sfn Chandana is believed to be the leader of female monastic order.Template:Sfn

Nirvana and moksha

Large, white temple on the water
Lord Mahavira's Jal Mandir (water temple) in Pawapuri, Bihar, India
File:MahaviraSwamiPawapuri.jpg
The "Charan Paduka" or foot impression of Mahavira at Jal Mandir

According to Jain texts, Mahavira's nirvana (death)Template:Refn occurred in the town of Pawapuri in present-day Bihar.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn His life as a spiritual light and the night of his nirvana are commemorated by Jains as Diwali at the same time that Hindus celebrate it.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn His chief disciple, Gautama, is said to have attained omniscience the night that Mahavira achieved nirvana from Pawapuri.Template:Sfn

Accounts of Mahavira's nirvana vary among Jain texts, with some describing a simple nirvana and others recounting grandiose celebrations attended by gods and kings. According to the Jinasena's Mahapurana, heavenly beings arrived to perform his funeral rites. The Pravachanasara of Digambara tradition says that only the nails and hair of tirthankaras are left behind; the rest of the body dissolves in the air like camphor.Template:Sfn In some texts Mahavira is described, at age 72, as delivering his final preaching over a six-day period to a large group of people.Template:Sfn The crowd falls asleep, awakening to find that he has disappeared (leaving only his nails and hair, which his followers cremate).Template:Sfn

The Jain Śvētāmbara tradition believes that Mahavira's nirvana occurred in 527 BCE, and the Digambara tradition holds that date of 510 BCE.Template:Sfn In both traditions, his jiva (soul) is believed to abide in Siddhashila (the home of liberated souls).Template:Sfn Mahavira's Jal Mandir stands at the place where he is said to have attained nirvana (moksha).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Artworks in Jain temples and texts depict his final liberation and cremation, sometimes shown symbolically as a small pyre of sandalwood and a piece of burning camphor.Template:Sfn

Teachings

Template:Main Colonial-era Indologists considered Jainism (and Mahavira's followers) a sect of Buddhism because of superficial similarities in iconography and meditative and ascetic practices.Template:Sfn As scholarship progressed, differences between the teachings of Mahavira and the Buddha were found so divergent that the religions were acknowledged as separate.Template:Sfn Mahavira, says Moriz Winternitz, taught a "very elaborate belief in the soul" (unlike the Buddhists, who denied such elaboration). His ascetic teachings have a higher order of magnitude than those of Buddhism or Hinduism, and his emphasis on ahimsa (non-violence) is greater than that in other Indian religions.Template:Sfn

Agamas

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Mahavira's teachings were compiled by Gautama Swami, his Ganadhara (chief disciple).Template:Sfn The canonical scriptures are in twelve parts.Template:Sfn Mahavira's teachings were gradually lost after about 300Template:NbspBCE, according to Jain tradition, when a severe famine in the Magadha kingdom dispersed the Jain monks. Attempts were made by later monks to gather, recite the canon, and re-establish it.Template:Sfn These efforts identified differences in recitations of Mahavira's teachings, and an attempt was made in the 5thTemplate:Nbspcentury CE to reconcile the differences.Template:Sfn The reconciliation efforts failed, with Svetambara and Digambara Jain traditions holding their own incomplete, somewhat-different versions of Mahavira's teachings. In the early centuries of the common era, Jain texts containing Mahavira's teachings were written in palm-leaf manuscripts.Template:Sfn According to the Digambaras, Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic with partial knowledge of the original canon. Later, some learned achāryas restored, compiled, and wrote down the teachings of Mahavira which were the subjects of the Agamas.Template:Sfn Āchārya Dharasena, in the 1stTemplate:Nbspcentury CE, guided the Āchāryas Pushpadant and Bhutabali as they wrote down the teachings. The two Āchāryas wrote Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama, among the oldest-known Digambara texts, on palm leaves.

Five Vows

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Tan stone relief of the Jain swastika and its five vows
The swastika and five vows

The Jain Agamas enumerate five vratas (vows) which ascetics and householders must observe.Template:Sfn These ethical principles were preached by Mahavira:Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

  1. Ahimsa (Non-violence or non-injury): Mahavira taught that every living being has sanctity and dignity which should be respected as one expects one's own sanctity and dignity to be respected. Ahimsa, Jainism's first and most important vow, applies to actions, speech, and thought.<ref name=pkshah5v/> When Mahavira revived the Jain community, ahimsa was already an established, strictly observed rule. The followers of Parshvanatha vowed to observe ahimsa; this obligation was part of their caujjama dhamma (Fourfold Restraint).<ref name=":0" /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
  2. Satya (truthfulness): Applies to oneself and others.<ref name=pkshah5v/>
  3. Asteya (non-stealing): Not "taking anything that has not been given"Template:Sfn
  4. Brahmacharya (chastity): Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures for monks, and faithfulness to one's partner for householders<ref name="pkshah5v">Template:Cite web</ref>Template:Sfn
  5. Aparigraha (non-attachment): For lay people, an attitude of non-attachment to property or worldly possessions; for mendicants, not owning anythingTemplate:Sfn

The goal of these principles is to achieve spiritual peace, a better rebirth, or (ultimately) liberation.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn According to Chakravarthi, these teachings help improve a person's quality of life.Template:Sfn However, Paul Dundas writes that Mahavira's emphasis on non-violence and restraint has been interpreted by some Jain scholars to "not be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures" but by "continual self discipline": a cleansing of the soul which leads to spiritual development and release.Template:Sfn

Mahavira is best remembered in the Indian traditions for his teaching that ahimsa is the supreme moral virtue.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He taught that ahimsa covers all living beings,Template:Sfn and injuring any being in any form creates bad karma (which affects one's rebirth, future well-being, and suffering).Template:Sfn According to Mahatma Gandhi, Mahavira was the greatest authority on ahimsa.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref name="fhe">Template:Cite web</ref>

Soul

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Mahavira taught that the soul exists. There is no soul (or self) in Buddhism, and its teachings are based on the concept of anatta (non-self).<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mahavira taught that the soul is dravya (substantial), eternal, and yet temporary.Template:Sfn

To Mahavira, the metaphysical nature of the universe consists of dravya, jiva, and ajiva (inanimate objects).Template:Sfn The jiva is bound to saṃsāra (transmigration) because of karma (the effects of one's actions).Template:Sfn Karma, in Jainism, includes actions and intent; it colors the soul (lesya), affecting how, where, and as what a soul is reborn after death.Template:Sfn

According to Mahavira, there is no creator deity and existence has neither beginning nor end. Deities and demons however exist in Jainism, whose jivas are a part of the same cycle of birth and death.Template:Sfn The goal of spiritual practice is to liberate the jiva from its karmic accumulation and enter the realm of the siddhas, souls who are liberated from rebirth.Template:Sfn Enlightenment, to Mahavira, is the consequence of self awareness, self-cultivation and restraint from materialism.Template:Sfn

Anekantavada

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Mahavira taught the doctrine of anekantavada (many-sided reality).Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Although the word does not appear in the earliest Jain literature or the Agamas, the doctrine is illustrated in Mahavira's answers to questions posed by his followers.Template:Sfn Truth and reality are complex, and have a number of aspects. Reality can be experienced, but it is impossible to express it fully with language alone; human attempts to communicate are nayas ("partial expression[s] of the truth").Template:Sfn Language itself is not truth, but a means of expressing it. From truth, according to Mahavira, language returns—not the other way around.Template:Sfn<ref name="iepmahav">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> One can experience the "truth" of a taste, but cannot fully express that taste through language. Any attempt to express the experience is syāt: valid "in some respect", but still a "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete".<ref name="iepmahav" /> Spiritual truths are also complex, with multiple aspects, and language cannot express their plurality; however, they can be experienced through effort and appropriate karma.Template:Sfn

The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahavira's approach to answering metaphysical, philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" (syāt). A version of this doctrine is also found in the Ajivika school of ancient Indian philosophy.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

According to Dundas, the anekantavada doctrine has been interpreted by many Jains as "promot[ing] a universal religious tolerance ... plurality ... [and a] ... benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions"; however, this misreads Jain historical texts and Mahavira's teachings.Template:Sfn Mahavira's "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings are a doctrine about the nature of reality and human existence, not about tolerating religious positions such as sacrificing animals (or killing them for food) or violence against nonbelievers (or any other living being) as "perhaps right".Template:Sfn The five vows for Jain monks and nuns are strict requirements, with no "perhaps".Template:Sfn Mahavira's Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism beyond the renunciant Jain communities, but each religion was "highly critical of the knowledge systems and ideologies of their rivals".Template:Sfn

Gender

A historically contentious view in Jainism is partially attributed to Mahavira and his ascetic life; he did not wear clothing, as a sign of renunciation (the fifth vow, aparigraha). It was disputed whether a female mendicant (sadhvi) could achieve the spiritual liberation like a male mendicant (sadhu) through asceticism.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

The digambar sect (the sky-clad, naked mendicant order) believed that a woman is unable to fully practice asceticism and cannot achieve spiritual liberation because of her gender; she can, at best, live an ethical life so she is reborn as a man.Template:Refn

Mahavira had preached about men and women equality. The Svetambaras have interpreted Mahavira's teaching as encouraging both sexes to pursue a mendicant, ascetic life with the possibility of moksha (kaivalya, spiritual liberation).Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Rebirth and realms of existence

Template:Main Rebirth and realms of existence are fundamental teachings of Mahavira. According to the Acaranga Sutra, Mahavira believed that life existed in myriad forms which included animals, plants, insects, bodies of water, fire, and wind.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He taught that a monk should avoid touching or disturbing any of them (including plants) and never swim, light (or extinguish) a fire, or wave their arms in the air; such actions might injure other beings living in those states of matter.Template:Sfn

Mahavira preached that the nature of existence is cyclic, and the soul is reborn after death in one of the trilokTemplate:Sndthe heavenly, hellish, or earthly realms of existence and suffering.Template:Sfn Humans are reborn, depending on one's karma (actions) as a human, animal, element, microbe, or other form, on earth or in a heavenly (or hellish) realm.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Nothing is permanent; everyone (including gods, demons and earthly beings) dies and is reborn, based on their actions in their previous life. Jinas who have reached Kevala Jnana (omniscience) are not reborn;Template:Sfn they enter the siddhaloka, the "realm of the perfected ones".Template:Sfn

Iconography and presentations

Names and epithets

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Rendering of the Idol of Lord Mahavira in lotus posture depicted in Svetambar iconography at Shri Dharampur Tirth, Valsad.

Surviving early Jain and Buddhist literature uses several names (or epithets) for Mahavira, including Nayaputta, Muni, Samana, Nigantha, Bamaṇa, and Bhagavan.Template:Sfn In early Buddhist sutras, he is referred to as Araha ("worthy") and Veyavi (derived from "Vedas", but meaning "wise").Template:Sfn He is known as Sramana in the Kalpa Sūtra, "devoid of love and hate".Template:Sfn

According to later Jain texts, Mahavira's childhood name was Vardhamāna ("the one who grows") because of the kingdom's prosperity at the time of his birth.Template:Sfn According to the Kalpa Sūtra, he was called Mahavira ("the great hero") by the gods in the Kalpa Sūtra because he remained steadfast in the midst of dangers, fears, hardships and calamities.Template:Sfn He is also known as a tirthankara.Template:Sfn

Iconography

File:Mahavira Bruxelles 02 10 2011.jpg
Mahavira iconography is distinguished by a lion stamped (or carved) beneath his feet; a Shrivatsa is on his chest.

Mahavira is usually depicted in a sitting (or standing) meditative pose, with a lion symbol beneath him;Template:Sfn each tīrthankara has a distinct emblem, which allows worshippers to distinguish similar idols.Template:Sfn Mahavira's lion emblem is usually carved below his legs. Like all tirthankaras, he is depicted with a Shrivatsa in Shetamber tradition.Template:Refn The yoga pose is very common in Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. Each tradition has had a distinctive auspicious chest mark that allows devotees to identify a meditating statue to symbolic icon for their theology. There are several srivasta found in ancient and medieval Jain art works, and these are not found on Buddhist or Hindu art works.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and downcast eyes in digamber tradition while in Shetamber tradition it is wide open.

Mahavira's earliest iconography is from archaeological sites in the north Indian city of Mathura, dated from the 1stTemplate:Nbspcentury BCE to the 2ndTemplate:Nbspcentury CE.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The srivatsa mark on his chest and his dhyana-mudra posture appears in Kushana Empire-era artwork. Differences in Mahavira's depiction between the Digambara and Svetambara traditions appear in the late 5thTemplate:Nbspcentury CE.Template:Sfn According to John Cort, the earliest archaeological evidence of Jina iconography with inscriptions precedes its datable texts by over 250 years.Template:Sfn

Many images of Mahavira have been dated to the 12th century and earlier;Template:Sfn an ancient sculpture was found in a cave in Sundarajapuram, Theni district, Tamil Nadu. K. Ajithadoss, a Jain scholar in Chennai, dated it to the 9th century.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Jivantasvami represents Mahavira as a princely state. The Jina is represented as standing in the kayotsarga pose wearing crown and ornaments.Template:Sfn

Temples

Along with Rishabhanath, Parshvanath, Neminath, and Shantinath; Mahavira is one of the five tirthankaras that attract the most devotional worship among the Jains.Template:Sfn Various Jain temple complexes across India feature him, and these are important pilgrimage sites in Jainism. Pawapuri, for example, is a hilly part of southern Bihar, which is believed to have been a place where 23 out of 24 tirthankaras preached, along with Rishabha.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn According to John Cort, the Mahavira temple in Osian, Jodhpur, Rajasthan is the oldest surviving Jain temple in western India; it was built in the late 8thTemplate:Nbspcentury.Template:Sfn Important Mahavira temple complexes include Jal Mandir in Pawapuri, Trilokyanatha Temple, Meguti Jain Temple, Kumbharia Mahavira Temple, Sankighatta, Muchhal Mahavir Temple, Bhandavapur Jain Tirth, Dimapur Jain Temple, and Jain temple, Kundalpur

Worship

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Mahavira worship in a manuscript c.Template:Nbsp1825

Samantabhadra's Svayambhustotra praises the twenty-four tirthankaras, and its eight shlokas (songs) adore Mahavira.Template:Sfn One such shloka reads:Template:Blockquote Samantabhadra's Yuktyanusasana is a 64-verse poem which also praises Mahavira.Template:Sfn

Festivals

Two major annual Jain festivals associated with Mahavira are Mahavir Janma Kalyanak and Diwali. During Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, Jains celebrate Mahavira's birth as the 24th and last tirthankara of avasarpiṇī (the current time cycle).Template:Sfn During Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, the five auspicious events of Mahavira's life are re-enacted.Template:Sfn Diwali commemorates the anniversary of Mahavira's nirvana, and is celebrated at the same time as the Hindu festival. Diwali marks the New Year for Jains.Template:Sfn Jains celebrate Mahavir Janma Kalyanak every year on the 13th day of the Indian Calendar month of Chaitra.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Legacy

Mahavira's legacy is the systematic codification of Jain philosophy and the establishment of the chaturvidha sangha (four-fold order) of monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen.Template:Sfn This structure, which provides a path for both ascetics and lay followers, enabled Jainism to be preserved as a living tradition. His teachings, particularly the cardinal vow of Ahimsa (non-violence), had a lasting influence on Indian culture.

Michael H. Hart ranked him 100th in his 1978 book, “The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History”, below the Buddha (ranked 4th) and Ashoka (ranked 53rd).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> According to Pantheon's 2024 Historical Popularity Index (HPI), Mahavira is ranked 19th among the most famous Indian people of all time.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Mahavira's teachings were influential. According to Rabindranath Tagore, Template:Blockquote

An event associated with the 2,500th anniversary of Mahavira's nirvana was held in 1974:Template:Sfn Template:Blockquote

See also

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Notes

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References

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Sources

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