Maitrayaniya Upanishad

File:1860s manuscript copy of ancient Maitrayaniya Upanishad, sample iii, Krishna Yajurveda, Pune Maharashtra, Sanskrit, Devanagari.jpg

A page of the Maitrayaniya Upanishad manuscript found in Pune, Maharashtra (Sanskrit, Devanagari)

The Maitrayaniya Upanishad (Template:Langx, Template:IAST) is an ancient Sanskrit text that is embedded inside the Yajurveda.<ref>Charles Johnston (1920-1931), The Mukhya Upanishads, Kshetra Books, Template:ISBN (Reprinted in 2014)</ref><ref name=pauldeussenintro>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 327-386</ref> It is also known as the Maitri Upanishad (Template:Langx, Template:IAST), and is listed as number 24 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Maitrayaniya Upanishad is associated with the Maitrayanas school of the Yajurveda.<ref name=pauldeussenintro/> It is a part of the "black" Yajurveda, with the term "black" implying "the un-arranged, motley collection" of content in Yajurveda, in contrast to the "white" (well arranged) Yajurveda where Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and Isha Upanishad are embedded.<ref name=pauldeussen>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 217-219</ref> The chronology of Maitrayaniya Upanishad is contested, but generally accepted to be a late period Upanishadic composition.<ref name=stephenphillips>Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, Template:ISBN, Chapter 1</ref>

The Maitrayaniya Upanishad consists of seven Prapathakas (lessons). The first Prapathaka is introductory, the next three are structured in a question-answer style and discuss metaphysical questions relating to Atman (Self), while the fifth to seventh Prapathaka are supplements.<ref name=pauldeussenintro/> However, several manuscripts discovered in different parts of India contain lesser number of Prapathakas, with a Telugu language version showing just four, and another Burnell version showing just one section.<ref name=maxmullerintro/> The content and structure of the Upanishad is also different in various manuscript recensions, suggesting that the Upanishad was extensively interpolated and expanded over a period of time. The common kernel of the Upanishad across different recensions, states Max Muller, is a reverence for Self, that can be summarized in a few words as, "(Man) is the Self – the immortal, the fearless, the Brahman".<ref name=maxmullerintro>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad Introduction, Oxford University Press, pages xliii-lii</ref>

The Maitri Upanishad is an important ancient text notable, in its expanded version, for its references to theories also found in Buddhism, elements of the Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism, as well as the Ashrama system.<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 328-329</ref> The text is also notable for its practice of Anyatrapyuktam (or Ityevam Hyaha), that is being one of the earliest known Sanskrit texts that embedded quotes with credits and frequent citations to more ancient Sanskrit texts.<ref name=cowellpreface/>

Etymology

The etymological root of the Maitrayaniya Upanishad is unclear. This has historically led to a variety of names and spellings for this Upanishad.<ref name=maxmullerintro/>

Maitra (Sanskrit: मैत्र) and Maitri (मैत्री) are related words which literally mean "kindly, benevolent, good will, amity, friend of all creatures".<ref>see maitrI and maitra Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Lexicon, Germany</ref> The likely root for the Upanishad is probably the name of an ancient Indian scholar, Maitra, sometimes spelled Maitri or Maitreya, giving the text the alternate name of Maitri or Maitra Upanishad.<ref name=maxmullerintro/><ref name=cowellpreface>Maitri Upanishad - Sanskrit Text with English Translation EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, Bibliotheca Indica, See Preface chapter pages iii-vii</ref><ref name=humefull/> The ancient scholar is also credited with a school of thought, thus giving the text the name Maitrayaniya Upanishad. Other names for this text include Maitrayani Upanishad (मैत्रायणि उपनिषद्), Maitrayana Upanishad, Maitrayaniya-brahmana Upanishad, Sriyagussakhayam Maitrayaniya-brahmana Upanishad, Maitreyopanishad and Maitrayaniyopanishad.<ref name=maxmullerintro/><ref name=cowellpreface/>

Chronology

The Maitrayaniya Upanishad offers no firm evidence as to its date. But on various internal criteria such as its passages on yoga and its doctrinal heterogeneity, scholarly consensus places its composition in late 1st millennium BCE or even slightly later, likely after Atharva Veda texts such as the Mundaka Upanishad and Prashna Upanishad. But its precise chronology is unclear and contested.<ref name="stephenphillips"/> The chronology is difficult to resolve because all opinions rest on scanty evidence, an analysis of archaism, style and repetitions across texts, driven by assumptions about likely evolution of ideas, and on presumptions about which philosophy might have influenced which other Indian philosophies.<ref name=stephenphillips/><ref>Patrick Olivelle (1996), The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text & Translation, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, Introduction Chapter</ref> van Buitenen identified at least five compositional layers in the work, composed at different times by different groups or individuals.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

When discussing the chronology of the Upaniṣads, Olivelle did not specifically mention the Maitri Upanishad but noted that the last group of principal Upanishads "cannot be much older than the beginning of the common era."<ref>P Olivelle (1998), The Early Upanishads, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 12-13</ref> Mahony suggests an earlier date, placing Prashna along with Maitri and Mandukya Upanishads, as texts that probably emerged about early fourth century BCE.<ref>WK Mahony (1987), Upanishads, in Jones, Lindsay, MacMillan Encyclopedia of Religion (2005), MacMillan, Template:ISBN, page 9483</ref> Jayatilleke states, "Buddhism is not far removed in time from, though it is prior to, the Maitri Upanishad".<ref>KN Jayatilleke (2013 Reprint, 1963 Original), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, Routledge, Template:ISBN, page 68</ref> Nakamura states that "although Buddhistic influence can be seen in the Maitri Upanishad (from words used), the particular terms and modes of expression of Mahayana Buddhism do not yet appear (in it)".<ref>H Nakamura (2004), A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, pages 284-286</ref>

Phillips, in contrast, lists Maitri Upanishad before and about the time the first Buddhist Pali canonical texts were composed.<ref name=stephenphillips/> Ranade<ref>RD Ranade, A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy, Chapter 1, pages 13-18</ref> posits a view similar to Phillips, placing Maitri's chronological composition in the fifth group of ancient Upanishads and last of the Principal Upanishads. Cowell too considers Maitri Upanishad as late era Upanishad, with its later sections comparatively modern, because of the structural and style differences within texts, inconsistencies in Poona manuscript, Calcutta (Kolkata) manuscript, Eckstein manuscript, Burnell manuscript and other manuscripts, and because some version of the manuscripts insert quotes from Vaishnavism.<ref name=cowellpreface/>

Deussen states that the Upanishad is chronologically significant because its author(s) takes for granted the concepts and ideas found in Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism, which must have been established by the time Maitri Upanishad was composed.<ref name=pauldeussenintro/>

Structure

The extant recension of the text consists seven Template:IASTs (lessons), of which several sections are Khilas (appendices, supplements) added later. The last two are called as khila by medieval era Indian scholar Ramatirtha.<ref name=cowellpreface/> Others consider the last three sections as supplements and appendices.<ref name=pauldeussenintro/> Other discovered manuscript versions of the Maitri Upanishad present different number of sections, ranging from 1 to 4, without any appendices.<ref name=maxmullerintro/> There are also differences in style, structure and content among the discovered manuscripts when the text contains the same number of sections.<ref name=cowellpreface/>

The text is a prose style Upanishad, with a motley collection of different sized paragraphs. The first section has four paragraphs, the second has seven, the third presents five paragraphs, while the fourth section contains six.<ref name=humefull/> As appendices, the fifth lesson has two paragraphs, while the sixth Prapathaka is the longest section with thirty eight paragraphs. The last supplementary section, or the seventh Prapāṭhaka has eleven paragraphs some with many sub-paragraphs.<ref name=humefull/>

The Maitrayaniya Upanishad is embedded after the Brahmana text of Yajur Veda, and in its opening passages refers to rituals contained therein.<ref name=humefull/> It contextually belongs to the Sannyasa Upanishads corpus.<ref>Patrick Olivelle (1998), Upaniṣhads. Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN</ref> Hume includes it among his list of "Thirteen Principal Upanishads".<ref name=humefull>Template:Citation</ref>

Contents

Template:Hindu scriptures Maitri Upanishad deals with the concept and nature of Atman (Self), the question of "how is joy possible?" and "how one can achieve moksha (liberation)?"; in later sections it offers a debate on possible answers.

Meditation of Self is the essence of religious activity - First Prapathaka

The text begins with the following prelude,<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 331-333</ref>

The above prelude is followed by an answer, offered as a tale of a king named Brihadratha<ref>the symbolic name means "mighty chariot" of knowledge; Cowell states that there are several kings of this name in Hindu legends but it is unclear which Brihadratha is referred to here; see Maitri Upanishad - Sanskrit Text with English Translation EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, Bibliotheca Indica, page 242 with footnotes</ref> who renounces his kingdom, lives an austere life and therewith seeks the knowledge of the eternal, the Self.<ref name=hume11/> Sage Template:IAST<ref>the symbolic name means "liberated man, one without sorrow"</ref> appears before the king. The king admits, "I lack the knowledge of Self, you know the essence of Self", so please teach me. In the resulting reply, the sage Template:IAST first claims that the "seeking the knowledge of Atman" was a practice of the past,<ref>Scholars suggest that this is one of many likely references in Maitri Upanishad to Buddhism; see Maitri Upanishad - Sanskrit Text with English Translation EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, Bibliotheca Indica; Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 327-386</ref> it is difficult and not in vogue, then urges the king to ask something else". The king insists, by asking a series of metaphysical questions to the sage.

The sage then shares with the king the philosophy of the Brahman (Universal Self, Cosmic Principle, Ultimate Reality), described in the next lessons.<ref name=humefull/> Paul Deussen states<ref name=pauldeussen11/> that parts of the above questions, on sorrow and frailty of human life is found in the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism, for example in chapters 3.4, 3.5, 3.7, 3.28 and 4.4 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, yet its declamation in the question form above in Maitri Upanishad, mirrors those found in Buddhism and Samkhya school of Hinduism. It is likely, states Deussen, that these two philosophies influenced the formulation of these questions in the form presented in Maitri Upanishad.<ref name=pauldeussen11>Paul Deussen (Translator), Sixty Upanisads of the Veda, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, page 331</ref>

Every individual has Self, which is serene, the highest light, the cosmic truth - Second Prapathaka

Sakayanya answers the king's question, in verse 2.2 of Maitri Upanishad, by asserting that Atman (Self) exists in every individual, and it is that inmost being which "moves about without moving" (exists everywhere), which dispels darkness of ignorance and error, which is serene, immortal, fearless and soaring for the highest light.<ref name=maxmuller21>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, pages 290-291</ref><ref name=hume21>Template:Citation</ref> The Maitri Upanishad states that this is the message of all Upanishads,

Sage Sakayanya thereafter narrates an ancient dialogue between Template:IASTs and Template:IAST Kratu, which is sourced from Rig Veda. The dialogue states that "man was created in the image of its creator, innately has all its powers, and is driven by it". The dialogue raises a series of metaphysical objections and inconsistencies with this premise, and then offers theories to resolve the what, how and why this is so.<ref name=maxmuller21/><ref name=cowell21>Maitri Upanishad - Sanskrit Text with English Translation EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, Bibliotheca Indica, pages 244-249</ref>

The Maitrayaniya Upanishad states that the Prajapati (lord of creatures) divided himself fivefold and entered all creatures of the world.<ref name=maxmuller21/> The divided parts are Prana, Apana, Samana, Udana and Vyana.<ref>Note: This theory builds upon, but is different from similar theories in older Upanishads. Additionally, this section is one of the examples where older Upanishads are literally cited by the Maitri Upanishad as it expounds its version of the theory of life and consciousness; see Paul Deussen (Translator), Sixty Upanisads of the Veda, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, preface to the Second Prapathaka on pages 333-334</ref> Prana is upward breath, Apana is downward breath (exhale). Vyana holds the Prana and Apana in balance, giving strength to the whole body. Samana is that which carries gross food to Apana and then subtler food throughout the body. Udana is that which delivers food up and down the body from what has been eaten or drunk.

Now the Upamsu-vessel (or prana) depends on the Antaryama-vessel (apana) and the Antaryama-vessel (apana) on the Upamsu-vessel (prana), and between these two the self-resplendent (Self) produced heat. This heat is the purusha(person), and this purusha is Agni Vaisvanara. The Purusha resides within, assumes the nature of Buddhi (intellect, power to reason). However, having divided itself fivefold, its purpose unattained, it impulsively feels, "let me enjoy objects".<ref name=maxmuller21/> It is distracted from its purpose, its Self. The Upanishad, thereafter recites the "parable of chariot" found in older Upanishads. Max Muller summarizes it as, "the perceptive organs are his reins, the active organs his horses, the body his chariot, the mind the charioteer, the whip being the temperament (emotions). Driven by that whip, his body goes round and round like a wheel driven by the potter. This body is made intelligent, and he (Atman) is the driver thereof."<ref name=maxmuller21/><ref name=cowell21/> He experiences the fruits of his Karma, his personality the weaving of the three Guṇas (sattvam, rajas, tamas).<ref>Paul Deussen (Translator), Sixty Upanisads of the Veda, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 337-338</ref>

In essence, however, man seeks the true bliss, the immortal happiness, the resplendent contentment, the calm freedom that is his Self, states paragraph 2.7 of Maitri Upanishad. This Self of his is pure, unchanging, unmoving, undefilable, serenely calm constant, the spectator within him, the self-abiding.<ref name=hume21/> The Self is inherently good, enjoyer of Ṛta (that which is properly/excellently joined, natural perfection, harmonious, holistic, right, truth).<ref name=maxmuller21/><ref name=cowell21/>

Human suffering, its causes and the nature of Selfs - Third Prapathaka

The third Prapathaka of Maitri Upanishad presents a theory of Self that is different from the Vedanta school of Hinduism, rather it resonates with its Samkhya school.<ref name=pauldeussen31/> It enumerates different types of Atman, the three Gunas and how these "qualities of personality" overwhelm him from his essential nature into egoistic life of cravings, the source of evil and sorrow in a man's life, and other terminology from the Samkhya philosophy.<ref name=pauldeussen31>Paul Deussen (Translator), Sixty Upanisads of the Veda, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 338-340</ref>

The third Prapathaka opens with the question, "if Self is inherently great, then who is this Self that suffers from the 'bright and dark fruits' of karma, rebirth and is overcome by Dvandva (pairs of opposite such as heat and cold, health and disease, etc)?"<ref name=hume31>Template:Citation</ref>

As answer, the Maitrayaniya Upanishad states that there is another, different Self, calling it Bhutatman (the elemental Self), which transmigrates.<ref name=maxmuller31>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, pages 295-299</ref> In paragraph 3.2, the Upanishad presents the "theory of gross elements and subtle elements" which combine to form Sarira (शरीर, body).<ref name=hume31/> The "elemental Self" resides in this body, and is overcome by prakrti guna (inner nature of an individual's personality).<ref name=cowell31>Maitri Upanishad - Sanskrit Text with English Translation EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, Bibliotheca Indica, pages 249-251</ref> This, states the text, is cause of confusion, conflicting desires, unsteady behaviors and self-conceit. Man, because of this confusion, binds himself with suffering, just like a bird binds itself inside a net. Human suffering is the result of human actions (Karma) and complex interplay of human psychology (Guṇas). However, the "immortal Self" is, states the text, unaffected by the elemental Self's confusion and drifts.<ref name=hume31/> The third Prapathaka explains the two Self and human personalities using the metaphor of "fire, iron and forge" as follows,<ref name=pauldeussen31/>

The Maitri Upanishad in paragraph 3.4 states that true essence of man is not his body, but his immortal Self.<ref name=maxmuller31/> The elemental Self is mere reflection of his Gunas (psychology), a source of his suffering, which manifests itself as quality of Tamas (darkness), such as "confusion, fear, grief, sloth, carelessness, decay, sorrow, hunger, thirst, infidelity, anger, ignorance, cruelty, meanness, envy, shamelessness, pride, folly, dishonesty, arrogance, miserliness".<ref name=pauldeussen31/><ref name=cowell31/> The quality of Rajas () too, states the Upanishad, is a result of this interplay of overpowered elemental Self and guna, and lists the manifold manifestation of this as, "greed, covetousness, craving, possessiveness, unkindness, hatred, deceit, restlessness, mania, fickleness, wooing and impressing others, servitude, flattery, hedonism, gluttony, prodigality and peevishness".<ref name=hume31/> While the elemental Self is thus affected, the inner Self, the immortal Self, the inner spectator is unaffected, asserts the Upanishad.<ref name=maxmuller31/>

Realization of True Self, union with Brahman - Fourth Prapathaka

The fourth Prapathaka begins with the question, "how can the elemental Self obtain union with the true Self"?<ref name=maxmuller41/><ref name=hume41>Template:Citation</ref>

The Maitri Upanishad answers that the elemental Self is distracted, intoxicated and attached to numerous things in life, craving for false delights, which prevents its ability to know the true Self. The remedy for elemental Self, in order to realize the true Self, is to acquire the knowledge of the Veda, perform svadharma (one's duty) based on one's age, be part of Rta, devote oneself to Ashrama stage one is in.<ref name=maxmuller41/><ref name=hume41/> The Upanishad, in paragraph 4.3 acknowledges the inherent tension between ascetic life of renouncing society for Self-knowledge and the svadharma in each Ashrama stage of life with devotion to society. It calls asceticism qua asceticism wrong, and then immediately calls asceticism right, necessary and praises asceticism for the inner perfection and Self-knowledge it helps bring.<ref name=maxmuller41/><ref name=hume41/> The fourth prapathaka does not resolve the inherent conflict it acknowledges. In paragraph 4.4, the Upanishad asserts that meditation, austerities, perseverance and knowledge leads to Brahman state, of bliss that is imperishable, infinite and unchangeable. It is this union of Brahman that frees the true Self unto bliss.<ref name=maxmuller41>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, pages 299-302</ref><ref name=hume41/>

Deity worship can be rewarding, but must be temporary, replaced with meditation and self knowledge - Fourth Prapathaka

In paragraph 4.5, the Maitrayaniya Upanishad presents the question as to which of the gods is best for worship. The text answers that they are merely forms of Brahman, that one should meditate upon, worship, yet ultimately deny them and reject the gods.<ref name=cowell45/> They are means to man's liberation, which is obtained through Self meditation and in Self-knowledge. This is expounded on, as follows,

Hume states that the construct of the question above is notable, as it thus incorporates the three triads of thought found in ancient Indian philosophies - the Vedic trinity, the philosophical trinity in different schools of Hinduism, as well as the Brahmanic trinity.<ref name=hume45/>

Appendix: Pantheistic Self and Samkhya theory of Gunas - Fifth Prapathaka

The fifth Prapathaka then presents a motley collection of a hymn and various theories, all focussed on the pantheistic premise that everything is manifested form of Cosmic Self, all is One Brahman-Atman.<ref name=hume51>Template:Citation</ref><ref name=cowell51>Maitri Upanishad - Sanskrit Text with English Translation EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, Bibliotheca Indica, page 255-256</ref>

A hymn, inserted into paragraph 5.1 and called the Kutsayana Hymn, states that the Self is the hidden unchanging reality, the tranquil, the unlimited, the one without beginning or end. The Self, states this pantheistic hymn, is Brahma, Vishnu, Rudra, Prajapati, Agni, Varuna, Vayu, Indra, Moon, Anna (Food), Yama, Earth.<ref name=cowell51/> All life, all existence is manifold manifestation of the Self. The hymn calls the Self as Prabhu (Lord) of all pleasure and delight.<ref name=hume51/><ref name=maxmuller51>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, pages 303-304</ref>

The paragraph 5.2 of the Upanishad asserts the Guna theory of Samkhya school of Hinduism. The text states that in the beginning the universe was darkness (Tamas) alone. The Brahman impelled Tamas to differentiate, thus arose passion (action qua action, Rajas). The Brahman impelled Rajas to continue differentiating, and thus arose purity (right action, truth, Sattva). These three Gunas reside in everything. The aspect of Brahman that characterizes Tamas is Rudra. The aspect of Brahman that characterizes Rajas is Brahma. The aspect of Brahman that characterizes Sattva is Vishnu.<ref name=maxmuller51/> These threefold concepts have differentiated manifold into eightfold, elevenfold, into infinite number of parts, states the Upanishad. These, all creatures, and the Visva (विश्व, world, empirical universe) are manifestations of one Supreme Self, within and without. Self's existence is reflected by the development of goodness (virtues).<ref name=maxmuller51/> It is this Self that is reflected in man, just like sun is reflected in different vessels of water, posits paragraph 5.2 of the fifth Prapathaka.<ref name=hume51/><ref name=cowell51/>

Appendix: Enumeration of Selfs - Sixth Prapathaka

The sixth Prapathaka enumerates Self into two, the one that is within each human being and one without that is in Sun.<ref name=maxmuller61/> These correspond to two paths, one inner and one outer.<ref name=hume62>Template:Citation</ref> The existence of inner Self can only be inferred, while the outer Self can be perceived. The outer Self is the evidence of the inner Self, and the inner Self is the evidence of the outer Self.<ref name=maxmuller61/><ref name=pauldeussen61/> In Paragraph 6.1, the Maitri Upanishad refers to more ancient texts of this teaching of Self and its relation to ethical life and introspective behavior, as follows,

Just like in time (kala), the solar fire ultimately consumes all beings and the outer world as food, asserts the Upanishad, it is the man's Self that consumes inner food. The outer Self and inner Self are, assuredly, states the Upanishad, one and same thing.<ref name=hume62/> Man should meditate on both these Selfs with the symbol Om (Template:Large), revere them through Vyahrtis and the Savitri verse, asserts paragraph 6.2 of the text.<ref name=maxmuller61/><ref name=pauldeussen61/>

Appendix: The symbol Om and its significance - Sixth Prapathaka

Template:Multiple image Om represents Brahman-Atman. The three roots (or the three-footed nature) of the word are A + U + M.<ref name=maxmuller64>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, pages 307-308</ref> The sound is the body of the Self, and it manifests in three ways: as the gender-endowed body - feminine, masculine, and neuter; as the light-endowed body - Agni, Vayu and Aditya; as the deity-endowed body - Brahma, Rudra and Vishnu; as the mouth-endowed body - Garhapatya, Dakshinagni and Ahavaniya;<ref>this is a reference to the three major Vedic fire rituals</ref> as the knowledge-endowed body - Rig, Saman and Yajur;<ref>this is a reference to the three major Vedas</ref> as the world-endowed body - Bhūr, Bhuvaḥ and Svaḥ; as the time-endowed body - Past, Present and Future; as the heat-endowed body - Breath, Fire and Sun; as the growth-endowed body - Food, Water and Moon; as thought-endowed body - intellect, mind and psyche.<ref name=maxmuller64/><ref name=cowell64>Maitri Upanishad - Sanskrit Text with English Translation EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, Bibliotheca Indica, page 258-260</ref> Brahman exists in two forms - the material form and the immaterial formless form.<ref>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, pages 306-307 verse 6.3</ref> The material form is changing, unreal. The immaterial formless isn't changing, real. The immortal formless is truth, the truth is the Brahman, the Brahman is the light, the light is the Sun which is the syllable Om as the Self.<ref>Sanskrit Original: द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे मूर्तं चामूर्तं च । अथ यन्मूर्तं तदसत्यम् यदमूर्तं तत्सत्यम् तद्ब्रह्म तज्ज्योतिः यज्ज्योतिः स आदित्यः स वा एष ओमित्येतदात्माभवत् | Maitrayani Upanishad Wikisource;
Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, page 347</ref><ref>Maitri Upanishad - Sanskrit Text with English Translation EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, Bibliotheca Indica, page 258</ref>

The world is Om, its light is Sun and the Sun is also the light of the syllable Om. Meditating on Om, is acknowledging and meditating on the Brahman-Atman (Self).<ref name=maxmuller64/>

Savitri prayer and meditation with the rising sun, a means to Self worship

Anyone who loves his Self, states paragraph 6.7 of the Upanishad, loves the Savitri – literally, that which "vivifies, ray of light that enlivens knowledge".<ref name=hume67>Template:Citation</ref><ref>savitr Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany</ref> The Sun is Savitri, and thus one who loves his Self, loves the splendor of the Sun.<ref>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, page 309 verse 6.7</ref> The text thereafter explains the meaning of Savitri verse from Rig Veda 3.62.10, its emphasis on "may the Sun inspire our thoughts, stimulate our thoughts".<ref name=pauldeussen67>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, page 349</ref> To think is to meditate, states paragraph 6.7 of Maitri Upanishad.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> To worship Sun, is to worship Self.<ref name=hume67/>

The sixth Prapathaka includes etymologies of six Sanskrit words, stating that these are all related to stimulating Self-knowledge.<ref name=hume67/><ref name=pauldeussen67/> It is this Self, this Self that is the immortal inside man, the perceiver, thinker, goer, doer, evacuator, begetter, speaker, taster, smeller, seer, hearer, toucher and all-prevader.<ref name=hume67/><ref>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, page 310</ref> The Self underlies the senses yet is more than the sensory capabilities of man, it is pristine unity beyond cause, effect and action.<ref>Maitri Upanishad - Sanskrit Text with English Translation EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, Bibliotheca Indica, page 261 with footnotes</ref>

Appendix: Types of knowledge, all gods are nothing but Self, that Self is within each human being - Sixth Prapathaka

Knowledge is of two types, asserts the Maitri Upanishad: subjective and objective.<ref name=maxmuller311>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, page 311</ref> The subjective knowledge is about the external world dependent on the person, the objective knowledge is about the Self and inner, hidden principles of the world. It is the Self of man that comes to know subjective and objective knowledge.<ref name=maxmuller311/><ref name=hume68>Template:Citation</ref>

The Self of man is identical with various gods and powers, it is the deities Isana, Sambhu, Bhava, Rudra, Prajapati, Visvarij, Hiranyagarbha, Satyam, Prana, Hamsa, Sastri, Vishnu, Narayana, Arka, Savitri, Dhatri, Vidhatri, Samraj, Indra, Indu and Sun.<ref name=maxmuller311/><ref name=hume68/> It is this Self that is to be thought after, sought after. Man should find this Self within him.<ref name=hume68/><ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, page 350 paragraph 6.8</ref>

Appendix: The metaphorical theory of food, of time - Sixth Prapathaka

Sections 6.9 through 6.17 of the Maitri Upanishad is motley collection of three parts, all relating to the metaphysical interpretation of food.<ref name=pauldeussen69>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 350-358 with introductory and footnotes</ref> This is connected with the much older metaphorical discussion of "food" in chapter 5 of the Chandogya Upanishad. Everything is food to everything else, and taking of food is described by the Upanishad as a form of worship, a sacrifice offered by the Self to the Self.<ref>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, page 312 with footnote 2</ref>

In the first part of discussing food, the section discusses the feeding of one's own body as a form of religious ritual, and includes a hymn that is "food prayer" and that urges Atman to gratify the reciter as well as gratify all creatures in the universe.<ref name=pauldeussen69/><ref name=hume611>Template:Citation</ref> In the second part, the Upanishad calls apparent form of Brahman as food, then differentiates between food and the eater of food, and metaphorically maps food all to the nature of existence, of Prakrti (nature) and Purusha (consciousness).<ref name=pauldeussen69/>

In the third part, in paragraphs 6.11 to 6.17, the text states that food is the cause of all that is in space and hidden principles, then expands the idea to include time by calling Kala (Time) is the cause of food, and then celebrates Time as Brahman.<ref name=pauldeussen69/> Food, states the sixth Prapathaka, is the source of the world, Time is the origin of food, and Sun is the origin of Time.<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, page 355 paragraph 6.14</ref> It symbolically maps the Time and Timeless as changing reality and the unchanging Brahman, respectively.<ref name=hume611/><ref>Maitri Upanishad - Sanskrit Text with English Translation EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, Bibliotheca Indica, pages 265-268</ref>

There is a motley collection of ideas in the discussion of Kala (Time), within the sixth Prapathaka of the Upanishad.<ref name=pauldeussen69/> For example, in section 6.14, it sets out to prove Time exists, acknowledges the difficulty in proving Time exists by Pramana (epistemology in Indian philosophy), then inserts a theory of inductive inference for epistemological proof as follows,

The section includes the concept of Time and non-Time, calling these as two forms of Brahman, mirroring the Upanishad's earlier discussion of Material and non-Material universe. It defines non-Time as "what was there before the appearance of Sun", and Time as "what began with the appearance of Sun".<ref name=pauldeussen316>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 357-358</ref> Non-Time is indivisible, Time is divisible. Year is the Murti (idol) of time.<ref>Diana L. Eck (1986), Darshan of the Image, India International Centre Quarterly, Vol. 13, No. 1, Images (March 1986), pages 43-53</ref> Time ripens everything, asserts the Upanishad. Sun is the foundation for Time, Sun is the Self (the Atman) of Brahman. The Brahman is the eternal, the boundless, the unborn, the immeasurable, the infinite, that which existed before Time, the light in the Sun, the colors in the smokeless fire, and all are only that one, one alone.<ref name=hume611/><ref name=pauldeussen316/>

Appendix: Yoga, Samkhya and Vaishnava doctrines - Sixth Prapathaka

Sections 6.18 through 6.30 of the Maitri Upanishad is another motley collection of various theories. The supplementary section starts with the theory of Yoga, as the way by which the highest human goal of Self-knowledge can be attained. Paul Deussen states that this highest goal is the knowledge of Atman (Self, one's inmost being), and with that knowledge realized, becoming one with the Atman.<ref name=pauldeussen618>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 358-361</ref> Along with Katha Upanishad and Shvetashvatara Upanishad, the Maitri Upanishad offers one of the oldest known descriptions of Yoga theory.<ref name=pauldeussen618/><ref name=singletonyoga/> The sixth Prapathaka enumerates six limbs, a shorter list than the eight limbs of Patanjali's Yogasutra. The identified Yoga steps for Self-knowledge in Maitrayaniya Upanishad are: Pranayama (regulation of breath), Pratyahara (withdrawal of senses inwards), Dhyana (meditation), Dharana (concentration of mind on one idea), Tarka (creative, contemplation of idea), Samadhi (absorption with the idea, a state of being one with the idea).<ref name=pauldeussen618/><ref name=hume618>Template:Citation</ref>

File:Yoga Meditation Pos-410px.png

The sixth Prapathaka of Maitri Upanishad is one of the several ancient Indian texts that describe the theory of Yoga.

After enumerating the sixfold yoga, the Upanishad states that the path to Self-knowledge is yogic meditating on Self and Brahman.<ref name=maxmuller318>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, page 318-320 with footnotes</ref><ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 363-364</ref> This meditation leads to the state that "unites everything in the eternal, highest Atman". The one who thus knows Atman, asserts the text, becomes innately one of goodness, liberated, limitless, blissful.<ref name=hume618/><ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 359-360</ref>

In section 6.23, the Upanishad re-asserts that Brahman is the syllable Om, and then adds that Brahman is manifested in the name of Vishnu, recommending the worship of both.<ref name=hume618/><ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, page 362</ref> In section 6.30, the Maitri Upanishad acknowledges a debate, based on the Samkhya theories, whether it is the Prakrti or Purusha who attains moksha.<ref name=pauldeussen618/> The text asserts that it is Purusha, because man by default is controlled by his senses and mind, all emotions such as fear and bashfulness are products of a mind in bondage; man is what his mind is, and for freedom (moksha) man needs to recognize and know his Self.<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, page 367</ref>

Appendix: Self exists, it is everywhere - Sixth Prapathaka

In section 6.31, the Maitri Upanishad acknowledges concepts, such as Sūnya (voidness) found in Buddhism, in a form that suggests a challenge to its premise, as follows, Template:Quote

The text answers that Self exists, that reason, steadfastness, recollection, consciousness are related to Self, as plants are related to seeds, as smoke is related to flame and sparks to fire.<ref name=pauldeussen631/> The Self (Atman), states the Upanishad, is the source of all life-forces, all worlds, all the Vedas, all gods, all beings, all knowledge, all nature, all literature, all sciences, all explanations, all commentaries, it is in everything.<ref>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, page 330 with footnotes</ref><ref>Template:Citation</ref> The Upanishad (secret meaning) of the Self is that "it is the Reality of the realities".<ref name=pauldeussen631/>

Appendix: What a man thinks, that he becomes - Sixth Prapathaka

The goal of meditation, states Maitri Upanishad in section 6.34, is to reach liberation and tranquility of mind through Self-realization. This liberation is achieved through one's mind, by refining one's thoughts, through knowing Atman.<ref>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, pages 332-334 with footnotes</ref> The text includes a hymn, which in abridged form expresses these ideas as follows,<ref name=hume634/> Template:Quote

The mind of man, states the Upanishad, is the cause of his bondage and his freedom. The one whose mind is controlled by objects of sense is unfree, the one whose mind is guided by his Self is free (mukti).<ref name=pauldeussen634/><ref>Maitri Upanishad - Sanskrit Text with English Translation EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, Bibliotheca Indica, page 281</ref>

Appendix: Self is unlimited and there is Oneness in the whole world - Seventh Prapathaka

The seventh Prapathaka of Maitrayaniya Upanishad states that the Self is "the inmost being of everything", it is unlimited and it is manifestation of one Brahman.<ref name=hume71>Template:Citation</ref> It is Self, it is deep, it is pure, it is brilliant. The Self is tranquil, it is fearless, it is sorrowless, it is indescribable joy.<ref name=maxmuller71>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, pages 338-346</ref> It is intelligent, it is patient, it is truth, it is harmony. It is self-dependent, it is steadfast, it is immortal, it is without limits.<ref name=pauldeussen71/> It is Vishnu, it is Shiva, it is Aditya, it is Indra.<ref name=maxmuller71/> It is everywhere, it is in creatures, it is in nature, it is in music. It is in gods, it is in seasons, it is in planets, it is in hymns.<ref name=pauldeussen71>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 379-386</ref> It is the Self, it is the Lord, it manifests in many, they are all one and the same.<ref>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, pages 340-341 section 7.7</ref>

Appendix: Beware of false teachers and non-Vedic doctrines; seek your own truth - Seventh Prapathaka

The final supplement of the Maitri Upanishad is a polemic against philosophies that declared antagonism to the Vedic teachings and its doctrine of Self.<ref name=pauldeussen78/> The section does not name any specific philosophy, but scholars have included Carvakas and Buddhism among the likely candidates.<ref name=pauldeussen78>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 382-386</ref><ref name=knjaya/> Paul Deussen states that the description though probable, is not concrete enough to prove that this section targets Buddhism.<ref name=pauldeussen78/> Max Muller expresses stronger doubts that the target was Buddhism.<ref name=maxmullerhb>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad Introduction, Oxford University Press, pages L-Li</ref> Jayatilleke, on the other hand, states that Buddhism is the likely target.<ref name=knjaya/>

The paragraph eight of seventh Prapathaka opens by stating that there are hindrances to knowledge, and it is false teaching by those who continually beg, preach hedonism, wear red robes, ear rings and skulls, rogues as religious mendicants, who "for a price, offer that they can remove the evil influences of spirits, demons, ghosts, goblins and the like".<ref>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, pages 341-346</ref><ref name=hume78>Template:Citation</ref> In this group of false teachers, are others who misrepresent Vedas, have developed the strategy of deceptive circular arguments, false claims, faulty reasoning and irrational examples against the Vedic literature.<ref name=pauldeussen78/><ref name=hume78/> All false teachers declare good to be evil, evil to be good, knowledge to be ignorance, and ignorance to be knowledge. They compel a dharma that destroys Vedas and other Sastras (scriptures, sacred books). One must not associate with these people, states the text, because they are robbers and love to oppress the believers in the Veda.<ref name=pauldeussen78/> The text quotes a passage to express its sentiment as follows,

In sections 7.9 and 7.10, the Upanishad refers to Katha Upanishad, and recommends that man should seek to know both knowledge and non-knowledge, the real and the delusion, the truth and untruth.<ref>Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, pages 342-343</ref> Don't be "like blind men led by one who is himself blind", states the Maitri Upanishad.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

Similarities and differences with Buddhist teachings

The Maitri Upanishad shows signs of influence, or at least awareness of Buddhist teachings.<ref>A.L. Basham in Paul Williams, ed., Buddhism: Buddhist origins and the early history of Buddhism in South and Southeast Asia. Taylor & Francis, 2005, page 61.</ref><ref>Florin Giripescu Sutton, Existence and enlightenment in the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra: a study in the ontology and epistemology of the Yogācāra school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. SUNY Press, 1991, page 58.</ref><ref>Hajime Nakamura, Trevor Leggett. A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 2. Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 2004 page 284-6</ref> Rhys Davis, about a 100 years ago, stated that Maitri Upanishad is the earliest Sanskrit literary usage of the term 'samadhi', a word also found in early texts of Buddhism.<ref>T.W.Rhys Davis (1905). 'Introduction to the Subha Sutta'. Source: [1] (accessed: Thursday December 24, 2009)</ref> However, the concept of meditation and union is far older than the known literally use of the term Samadhi. The idea of "union", expressed with terms such Samadhi-root or related words, occur in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the oldest and longest Upanishad of the Hinduism.<ref>George Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, page 285</ref> There are many other words and ideas that are shared between Maitri Upanishad and earliest known Buddhist texts.<ref name=pauldeussenintro/>

Maitri Upanishad explicitly mentions, in seventh Prapathaka, a sect of thought whose teachers wear "reddish robe" (kasaya–), who deny the "existence of Self" premise (nairatmyavada–), preach a "dharma destructive of Vedas and Upanishads" (vedadisastra himsaka dharmabhidhyanam–) and whose goal is hedonistic "attainment of pleasure" (ratimatram phalam asya–).<ref name=knjaya>KN Jayatilleke (2013 Reprint, 1963 Original), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, Routledge, Template:ISBN, pages 66-68</ref> This sect reference could potentially be Carvakas, Ajivakas, Buddhism, Jainism or another unknown sect of thought that existed in ancient India. Jayatilleke states that this reference in Maitri Upanishad is likely to be to the Buddhists since,<ref name=knjaya/>

1. Ajivikas or Jainism upheld the belief in Self, which the Buddhists explicitly rejected
2. Carvakas did not value dharma, while Buddhists were referred to as dharmavadin by opposing schools of thought.
3. Buddhists were strongly accused of being hedonists at this time.
4. Dhammapada seems to regard red robes as a distinct attire of Buddhist monks.

Jayatilleke additionally notes that there are many words as well as ideas such as the contemplation of the organic substances of the body and brahma-kosa theory in the sixth Prapathaka of this Upanishad that has "a Buddhist flavor".<ref name=knjaya/>

Despite the similarities in words and some ideas, the teachings in the Upanishads of Hinduism, including Maitrayaniya Upanishad, however, are founded on the premise that "the Self and Brahman exists", and these texts discuss the paths to know, realize one's Self and Brahman. This makes the fundamental premise of Maitrayaniya and other Upanishads of Hinduism distinctly different from Buddhism's key premise that there is "no Self, no Soul".<ref name=humefull/><ref>KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, Template:ISBN, pages 246-249, from note 385 onwards;
Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, Template:ISBN, page 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";
Edward Roer (Translator), Template:Google books, pages 2-4
Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?, Philosophy Now</ref><ref>John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".</ref>

Anatman and Niratman

The term niratman appears in the Maitrayaniya Upanishad such as in verses 6.20, 6.21 and 7.4. Niratman literally means "selfless".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Wood1992p67">Template:Cite book</ref> The verses 6.22 and 6.23 discuss sound-Brahman (Om, sabda-brahman, lower Brahman) and soundless-Brahman (empty, asabda-brahman, higher Brahman), then teaches that both should be known.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Beck1993p44">Template:Cite book</ref> The niratman concept has been interpreted to be analogous to anatta doctrine (anatman) of Buddhism.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The ontological teachings, however, are different. In the Upanishad, states Thomas Wood, numerous positive and negative descriptions of various states – such as niratman and sarvasyatman (the self of all) – are used in Maitrayaniya Upanishad to explain the nondual concept of the "highest Self".<ref name="Wood1992p67"/> According to Ramatirtha, states Paul Deussen, the niratman state discussion is referring to stopping the recognition of oneself as an individual Self, and reaching the awareness of universal Self or the metaphysical Brahman.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Reception

The Maitri Upanishad is oft cited text in comparative studies of Buddhism and Hinduism, as well as the likely influence of one on the other.<ref name=knjaya/><ref name=maxmullerhb/><ref>Charles Drekmeier (1962), Kingship and Community in Early India, Stanford University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 66-67</ref> Monier-Williams referred to Maitrayaniya Upanishad, among other Vedic literature, in his review of the relationship between Hinduism and Buddhism.<ref>Monier Monier-Williams, Art. VIII — On Buddhism in its Relation to Brāhmanism, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland (New Series), Volume 18, Issue 2, April 1886, pages 127-156</ref>

In studies on the earliest discussion of Yoga theory, Maitri Upanishad is among the most referred to.<ref name=singletonyoga>Mark Singleton (2010), Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, page 26</ref><ref>Carl Olsen (2011), Meditation in Religious Studies: The Key Concepts, Routledge, Template:ISBN</ref>

See also

• Vedas
• Upanishads
• Hinduism
• Buddhism

Bibliography

• Cowell, E. B. (re-issue 1935). (tr.) The Maitri or Template:IAST Upanishad, Calcutta: The Asiatic Society of Bengal

External links

• Maitri Upanishad with commentary of Ramatirtha (Sanskrit] EB Cowell (Compiler)
• Maitri Upanishad EB Cowell (English Translation), Cambridge University
• Maitrayana Brahmana Upanishad Max Muller (Translator), Oxford University Press
• Maitri Upanishad in The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Robert Hume (Translator)
• https://www.scribd.com/doc/290391743/Prabuddha-Bharata-January-2015] Translation of Maitrayani Upanishad in Prabuddha Bharata by Swami Narasimhananda
• Maitri Upanishad Another archive of Hume's Thirteen Principal Upanishads
• Maitri Upanishad Sanskrit Documents
• Template:Librivox book