Mausoleum of Genghis Khan

The Mausoleum of Genghis Khan is a mausoleum dedicated to Genghis Khan, where he is worshipped as ancestor, dynastic founder, and deity. The mausoleum is better called the Lord's Enclosure (i.e. shrine), the traditional name among the Mongols, as it has never truly contained the Khan's body. It is the main centre of the worship of Genghis Khan, a growing practice in the Mongolian shamanism of both Inner Mongolia, where the mausoleum is located, and Mongolia.Template:Sfnp

The mausoleum is located in the Kandehuo Enclosure in the town of Xinjie,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> in the Ejin Horo Banner in the city of Ordos, Inner Mongolia, in China. The main hall is actually a cenotaph where the coffin contains no body (only headdresses and accessories), because the actual tomb of Genghis Khan has never been discovered.

The present structure was built between 1954 and 1956 by the government of the People's Republic of China in the traditional Mongol style. It was desecrated and its relics destroyed during the Cultural Revolution, but it was restored with replicas in the 1980s and remains the center of Genghis Khan worship. It was named a AAAAA-rated tourist attraction by China's National Tourism Administration in 2011.

Location

In 1995

The cenotaph is located at an elevation of Template:Convert<ref name=bi>Template:Cite web</ref> on the GandeliTemplate:Sfnp or Gande'er PrairieTemplate:Sfnp about Template:Convert southeast of XilianTemplate:Cn and about Template:Convert south of the county seat of Ejin Horo Banner, Inner Mongolia.Template:Sfnp It is the namesake of its surrounding banner, whose name translates from Mongolian as "the Lord's Enclosure".Template:Sfnp

The site is Template:Convert north of Yulin,Template:Citation needed Template:Convert south of Dongsheng,Template:Citation needed and Template:Convert from Baotou.Template:Sfnp There is a new interchange on highway 210 leading directly to the site.Template:Efn

History

Early sites

A detail from Strahlenberg's 18th-century map of "Great Tartary", showing "Karakoschun, or, the Tomb of the Great and Famous Genghis Khan" in the southern "Ordus"

After Genghis Khan died in or around GansuTemplate:Sfnp on 12 July ADTemplate:Nbsp1227,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> his remains were supposedly carried back to central Mongolia and buried secretly and without markings, in accordance with his personal directions. His actual burial site remains unknown but was almost certainly not in Ejin Horo, which had only recently been conquered from the Tangut Empire.Template:Sfnp Without a body, the Mongols honored the khan's memory and spirit through his personal effects. These ceremonies allegedly date to the same year as his death.<ref name=bi/> Kublai Khan built temples for his grandfather's cult in Daidu and Shangdu.<ref name=bayer1o/> Nine "palaces" for rituals concerning his cult were maintained by an imperial official in Karakorum.<ref name=bayerg8>Template:Harvp.</ref>

After the fall of the Yuan in 1368,<ref name=bayer1o/> these permanent structures were replaced by portable mausoleums called the "eight white yurts" (naiman tsagaan ger). These had originally been palaces where the khan had lived, but were altered to mausoleums by Ögedei Khan. These yurts were first encamped at Avraga site at the base of the Khentii Mountains in Delgerkhaan in Mongolia's Khentii Province.

Ordos

Template:Interlanguage link multi's 1897 photograph of the mausoleum

Bonin's photograph of some Darkhad guardians at the mausoleum the same year

The shrine was entrusted to caretakers known as the Darkhad. Their leader was chosen from the Borjigin clan and was known as the Jinong since the first, Kamala, had been appointed King of Jin. The Darkhad moved from the Kherlen River to the Ordos, which took its name (Mongolian for "palaces") from the mausoleum's presence there. The caretakers oversaw commemorative and religious rituals and were visited by pilgrims. Mongol khans were also crowned at the yurts.Template:Citation needed

Under the Qing, 500 Darkhad were exempted from military service and taxation; the shrine also received 500 taels (about Template:Convert) of silver each year to maintain its rituals.<ref name=bayero3>Template:Harvp.</ref> The site's rituals became more local, more open to lower-class people, and more Buddhist.<ref>Template:Harvp.</ref>

The Mongolian prince Toghtakhutörü and the Darkhad built a permanent mausoleum in Setsen Khan Aimag in 1864.Template:Citation needed This traditional Chinese structure was described by a Belgian missionary in 1875<ref name=bayer11>Template:Harvp.</ref> but was destroyed at the Panchen Lama's suggestion in order to end an outbreak of plague among the Darkhad in early 20th century.<ref name=bayer11/>

Around the fall of the Qing, the mausoleum became notable as a symbol for Mongolian nationalists. The Buryat scholar Tsyben Zhamtsarano advocated a removal of the shrine to northern Mongolia Template:C..Template:Citation needed After the Mongolian Revolution, a sacrificial rite was held for Genghis Khan to "bring peace and safety to... human beings and other creatures" and to "drive out bandits, thieves, illness, and other internal and external malefactions" in 1912.<ref name=bayer12>Template:Harvp.</ref> Some Mongolians planned to remove some of the ritual objects—particularly the Black Sülde, an allegedly magical heaven-sent tridentTemplate:Sfnp—to the independent northern Mongolian territory from the Inner Mongolian shrine;<ref name=bayero6/> in 1914, a letter from the Beijing office overseeing Mongolia and Tibet ordered Arbinbayar, the head of the Ihe Juu League, that Template:Quote

In 1915, Zhang Xiangwen (tTemplate:NbspTemplate:Nowrap sTemplate:NbspTemplate:Nowrap pTemplate:NbspZhāng Xiāngwén, wTemplate:NbspChang Hsiang-wen) began the scholarly controversy over the site of Genghis Khan's tombTemplate:Sfnp by publishing an article claiming that it was in Ejin Horo.Template:Sfnp

During World War II, Prince Demchugdongrub, the notional leader of the Japanese puppet government in Mongolia, ordered that the mobile tomb and its relics be moved to avoid a supposed "Chinese plot to plunder it".<ref name=bayero8>Template:Harvp.</ref> This was rebuffed by the local leader Shagdarjab, who claimed that the shrines could never be moved and locals would resist any attempt to do so.<ref name=bayero8/> When he accepted Japanese weaponry to defend it, however, the Nationalist government became alarmed at the possibility of Japan using the cult of Genghis Khan<ref name=bayero8/> to lead a Mongolian separatist movement. The yurts and their relics were to be removed to Qinghai either at their armed insistence or at Shagdarjab's invitation. (Accounts differ.)<ref name=bayero8/> The Japanese still attempted to use the cult of Genghis Khan to fan Mongolian nationalism; from 1941–4,<ref name=thatstoomuchman>Template:Harvp.</ref> the IJA colonel Kanagawa KosakuTemplate:Citation needed constructed a separate mausoleum in Ulan Hot consisting of 3 main buildings in a Template:Convert estate.<ref name=thatstoomuchman/>

Gansu

Once in Chinese hands, the relics did not go to Qinghai as planned. On 17 May 1939,Template:Sfnp 200 specially-selected Nationalist troops conveyed the relics to Yan'an, then the principal base of the Chinese Communists.<ref name=bayero8/> Upon their arrival on 21 June 1939, the Communists held a large public sacrifice to Genghis Khan with a crowd of about ten thousand spectators; the Central Committee presented memorial wreathes; and Mao Zedong produced a new sign for it in his calligraphy, reading "Genghis Khan Memorial Hall" (tTemplate:NbspTemplate:Nowrap sTemplate:NbspTemplate:Nowrap Chéngjísī Hán Jìniàntáng).<ref name=bayero8/> As part of the Second United Front, it was allowed to pass out of the Communist controlled area to Xi'an, where Shaanxi governor Jiang Dingwen officiated another religious ritual before a crowd of tens of thousands on 25 June. (Accounts vary from thirty to 200,000.)<ref name=bayero8/> Li Yiyan, a member of the Nationalists' provincial committee, wrote the booklet China's National Hero Genghis Khan (tTemplate:NbspTemplate:Nowrap sTemplate:NbspTemplate:Nowrap Zhōnghuá Mínzú Yīngxióng Chéngjísī Hán) to commemorate the event, listing the khan as a great Chinese leader in the mold of the First Emperor, Emperor Wu, and Emperor Taizong.<ref>Template:Harvp.</ref> A few days later, the Gansu governor Zhu Shaoliang held a similar ritual<ref name=bayero9>Template:Harvp.</ref> before enshrining the khan's relics at the Dongshan Dafo DianTemplate:Sfnp on Xinglong Mountain in Yuzhong County.<ref name=bayero9/> The Gansu government sent soldiers and a chief official for the shrine and brought the remaining Darkhad onto the provincial government's payroll;<ref name=bayero9/> the original 500 Darkhad were reduced to a mere seven or eight.Template:Citation needed Following this Template:Convert journey,Template:Sfnp the shrine remained there for ten years.<ref name=bayero9/>

Qinghai

At the conclusion of the Chinese Civil War, the Nationalist guard at the temple fled before the Communist advance into Gansu in the summer of 1949.<ref name=bayero9/> Plans were put forward to move the khan's shrine to the Alxa League in western Inner Mongolia or to Mount Emei in Sichuan.<ref name=bayero9/> Ultimately, Qinghai's local warlord Ma Pufang intervened<ref name=bayero9/> and moved it Template:Convert westTemplate:Citation needed to Kumbum Monastery near his capital Xining, consecrating it with the help of local and Mongolian lamas under Ulaan Gegen.<ref name=bayero9/> Following the Communist conquest of Xining a few months later, the Communist general He Banyan sacrificed three sheep to the khan and offered ceremonial scarves (hadag) and a banner reading "National Hero" (Template:Nowrap Mínzú Yīngxióng) to the temple housing his shrine.<ref name=bayer1o>Template:Harvp.</ref>

Present-day mausoleum

Ejin Horo fell to the Communists at the end of 1949 and was controlled by their Northwest Bureau until the establishment of Suiyuan Province the next year.<ref name=bayer1o/> The district's Communists set up rituals honouring Genghis Khan in the early 1950s, but abolished the traditional religious offices surrounding them like the Jinong and controlled the cult through local committees with loyal Party cadres.<ref name=bayer1o/> Without the relics, they relied largely on singing and dancing groups.<ref name=bayer1o/> In 1953, the PRC's central government approved the recently formed Inner Mongolian provincial government's request for 800,000Template:NbspTemplate:Sc to create the present permanent structures.<ref name=bi/> Early the next year,<ref name=bayer12/> the central government permitted the return of the objects at Kumbum to the site being constructed at Ejin Horo.<ref name=bayer1o/> The region's chairman Ulanhu officiated at the first ritual after their return, decrying the Nationalists for having "stolen" them.<ref name=bayer1o/> After this ritual, he immediately held a second ceremony to break ground on a permanent temple to house the objects and the khan's cult, again approved and paid for by China's central government.<ref name=bayer1o/> By 1956, this new temple was completed, greatly expanding the purview of the original shrine.<ref name=bayer11/> Rather than having eight separate shrines throughout Ejin Horo for the Great Khan, his wives, and his children, all were placed together; a further 20 sacred and venerated objects from around the Ordos were also brought to the new site.<ref name=bayer11/> The government also mandated that the main ritual would be held in the summer rather than in the third lunar month, in order to make it more convenient for the headers to maintain their spring work schedules.<ref name=bayer11/> With the Darkhads no longer liable for personally paying for maintenance of the shrine, most accepted these changes.<ref name=bayer11/> An especially large celebration was held in 1962 to mark the 800th anniversary of Genghis Khan's birth.<ref name=bayer12/>

In 1968, the Cultural Revolution's Red Guards destroyed almost everything of value at the shrine.<ref name=bayer11/> For 10 years, the buildings themselves were turned into a salt depot as part of preparations for a potential war with the Soviet Union.Template:Sfnp

Following Deng Xiaoping's Opening Up Policy, the site was restored by 1982<ref name=bi/> and sanctioned for "patriotic education"<ref name=bayer11/> as a AAAA-rated tourist attraction.<ref name=bi/> Replicas of the former relics were made, and a great marble statue of Genghis was completed in 1989.Template:Sfnp Priests at the museum now claim that all of the Red Guards who desecrated the tomb have died in abnormal ways, suffering a kind of curse.Template:Sfnp

Mongolians continued to complain about the poor state of the mausoleum.Template:Sfnp A 2001 proposal for its refurbishment was finally approved in 2004.Template:Sfnp Unrelated houses, stores, and hotels were removed from the area of the mausoleum to a separate area Template:Convert away and replaced with new structures in the same style as the mausoleum.Template:Sfnp The 150-million-Template:Sc (about $20 million)Template:Sfnp improvement plan was carried out from 2005 to 2006, improving the site's infrastructure, expanding its courtyard, and decorating and repairing its existing buildings and walls.Template:Sfnp The China National Tourism Administration named the site a AAAAA-rated tourist attraction in 2011.<ref>Template:Cite web.</ref>

On 10 July 2015,Template:Sfnp 20 tourists aged 33 to 74—10 South Africans, 9 Britons, and an IndianTemplate:Sfnp—were detained at Ordos Ejin Horo Airport, arrested on terrorism-related charges the next day,Template:Sfnp and ultimately deported from ChinaTemplate:Sfnp after they watched a BBC documentary about Genghis Khan in their hotel rooms prior to visiting the mausoleum.Template:Sfnp Authorities had considered it "watching and spreading violent terrorist videos".Template:Sfnp

In 2017, the Genghis Khan Mausoleum averaged about 8000 visitors a day during its peak season and about 200 visitors a day at other times.Template:Sfnp

Administration

The site is overseen by the Genghis Khan Mausoleum Administration Bureau.<ref name=bayerg7/> It was headed by Chageder and then Mengkeduren in the early 2000s.Template:Sfnp

Architecture

The tomb complex at the Genghis Khan Mausoleum Scenic Area in 2007

The present Genghis Khan Mausoleum Scenic Area stretches about Template:Convert, covering about Template:Convert in total.<ref name=bayerg7>Template:Harvp.</ref>Template:Sfnp It consists of the Sulede Altar, the Sightseeing District for the Protection of Historic Relics, the Conservation District for Ecosystem Preservation, the Development-Restricted District of Visual Spectacles, the Template:Convert long Sacred Pathway of Genghis Khan between the entrance and the cenotaph, the Template:Convert long scenic pathway around the Bayinchanghuo Prairie, a Tourist Activity Centre, a Tourist Education Centre, the Sacrificial Sightseeing District, the Mongolian Folk Custom Village, the Shenquan Ecological Tourism Region, the Nadam Equestrian Sport Centre, and the Hot Air Balloon Club.Template:Cn

The tomb complex consists of the Main Hall, the Imperial Burial Palace, the Western Hall, the Eastern Hall, the Western Corridor, and the Eastern Corridor.Template:Cn

The Main Hall (正殿) is octagonal,Template:Sfnp Template:Convert high,<ref name=bi/> and covers about Template:Convert.<ref name=bi/> It is shaped like a flying eagle as a symbol of the khan's bravery and adventurousness.<ref name=bi/> Its plaque, reading "Mausoleum of Genghis Khan", was written by Ulanhu in 1985.<ref name=bi/> The site includes a Template:Convert high statue of Genghis KhanTemplate:Cn and two murals about his life,Template:Citation needed including a wall map of the extent of the Mongol Empire.Template:Sfnp

The Imperial Burial Palace (寢宮) or Back PalaceTemplate:Sfnp (後殿) is Template:Convert highTemplate:Citation needed and covers about Template:Convert.Template:Sfnp It has three yurts with yellow silk roofs; the central yurt houses the coffins of Genghis Khan and one of his four wives<ref name=bi/> and the side yurts house the coffins of his brothers.Template:Cn Genghis Khan's coffin is silver decorated with engraved roses and a golden lock; weapons allegedly used by Genghis lie around it.Template:Cn There are also two other coffins for another two of his consorts.Template:Citation needed The site's main altar lies in front of this yurt.Template:Sfnp The cenotaph and its placement are highly unusual in China, which usually follows Han principles like feng shui in the placement of tombs, employing mountains, rivers, and forestsTemplate:Sfnp in the belief that this increases its spiritual power.

The Eastern Hall or Palace (東殿) is Template:Convert high.Template:Citation needed It holds the coffin of Tolui (Genghis Khan's 4th and favourite son) and his wife Sorghaghtani.Template:Cn

The Western Hall or Palace (西殿) is Template:Convert high.Template:Citation needed It holds nine bannersTemplate:Cn with holy arrows thought to house or connect with the soul of the Great Khan.Template:Sfnp They also represent 9 of Genghis's generals.Template:Citation needed It also holds Genghis's saddle and reins,<ref name=bi/> some weapons,Template:Sfnp and some other objects like the khan's milk barrel.<ref name=bi/> All of the items currently displayed are replicas.Template:Sfnp

The Template:Convert highTemplate:Citation needed Eastern (東廊) and Western Corridors (西廊) connecting these halls are decorated with Template:Convert of muralsTemplate:Sfnp about the lives of Genghis Khan and his descendants.Template:Cn

The site uses a five-colour scheme of blue, red, white, gold, and green to represent the multiethnic nature of Genghis Khan's empire and also the sky, sun and fire, milk, earth, and prairie.<ref name=bi/>

Worship

Outdoor sacrificial altar to heaven

The temple's ovoo

Template:Further Genghis Khan worship is a practice of Mongolian shamanism.Template:Sfnp There are other mausoleums dedicated to this cult in Inner Mongolia and Northern China.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The mausoleum is guarded by the Darkhad or Darqads<ref name=bayero9/> ("Untouchables"), who also oversee its religious festivals, stop tourists from taking photographs,Template:Sfnp keep candles lit,Template:Sfnp and watch over the site's keys and books.Template:Sfnp The 30 or so official Darkhad at the mausoleum are paid about 4000Template:NbspTemplate:Sc a month for their services.Template:Sfnp

Mongols gather four times annually:Template:Sfnp

• 21st day of the 3rd month of the Mongolian calendar, the most importantTemplate:Sfnp
• 15th day of the 5th lunar month
• 12th day of the 9th lunar month
• Goat Hide Stripes Ceremony on the 3rd day of the 10th lunar monthTemplate:Sfnp

There is also a major ceremony in honor of the Black Sülde on the 14th day of the 7th lunar month.Template:Sfnp

They follow traditional ceremonies, such as offering flowers and food to Heaven (Tengri).Template:Citation needed The ritual sacrifice to the spirit of Genghis Khan was listed as national-level intangible cultural heritage in 2006, and the sacrifice to the Black Sülde was given similar status at the provincial level in 2007.<ref name=bi/> After the ceremonies, there are Naadam competitions, primarily wrestling, horse-riding, and archery,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> but also singing.Template:Sfnp

Performance

The mausoleum complex is also hosts three plays concerning the khan and Mongolian culture: Proud Son of Heaven: Eternal Genghis Khan,Template:Sfnp The Mighty Genghis Khan (Template:Lang), or The Grand Ceremony of Genghis Khan (Template:Lang),Template:Sfnp<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and An Ordos Wedding Ceremony (Template:Lang).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> There is also an annual Genghis Khan Mausoleum Tourism Cultural Week.Template:Sfnp

References

Sources

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External links

• Template:Citation.
• Map of the site Template:In lang
• Photos of the rituals on the 21st day of the 3rd lunar month, from China Daily
• Photos of the mausoleum, from People's Daily
• Photos of the mausoleum, from Getty Images