Michael Gove

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Michael Andrew Gove, Baron Gove (Template:IPAc-en; born Graeme Andrew Logan, 26 August 1967) is a British politician and journalist. A member of the House of Lords since May 2025, he previously held senior Cabinet positions in Conservative governments between 2010 and 2024. He was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Surrey Heath from 2005 to 2024, during which he twice returned to the backbenches. He was a prominent figure in the 2016 referendum on the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union and stood for the Conservative leadership on two occasions. Gove has been editor of The Spectator since 2024.

Born in Aberdeen, Gove was in care until being adopted aged four months old, after which he was raised in the Kittybrewster area of the city. He attended the independent Robert Gordon's College and studied English at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. He then began a career as a journalist at The Press and Journal before having a long tenure as a leader writer at The Times. Elected for Surrey Heath at the 2005 general election, he was appointed Secretary of State for Education in the Cameron–Clegg coalition. He terminated the previous Labour government's Building Schools for the Future programme, reformed A-Level and GCSE qualifications in favour of final examinations, and responded to the Trojan Horse scandal. Four teachers unions passed motions of no confidence in his policies at their 2013 conferences.

In the 2014 cabinet reshuffle, he was moved to the post of Government Chief Whip. Following the 2015 general election and the formation of the majority Cameron government, Gove was promoted to Secretary of State for Justice and Lord Chancellor. As the co-convenor of Vote Leave, Gove was seen, along with fellow Conservative MP Boris Johnson, as one of the most prominent figures of the 2016 referendum on EU membership. He was campaign manager for Johnson in the 2016 Conservative Party leadership election but withdrew his support on the morning Johnson was due to declare and announced his own candidacy, finishing behind Theresa May and Andrea Leadsom.

Upon the appointment of May as prime minister, Gove was dismissed from the Cabinet but joined the second May government as Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs following the 2017 general election. In his second leadership bid, in 2019, Gove finished behind Boris Johnson and Jeremy Hunt. Following Johnson's victory, Gove was appointed Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster with responsibility for no-deal Brexit preparations. He took on the additional role of Minister for the Cabinet Office in the 2020 cabinet reshuffle and was responsible for coordinating the government's response to the COVID-19 pandemic. After the 2021 cabinet reshuffle, he served as Secretary of State for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities and Minister for Intergovernmental Relations until telling Johnson to resign during the July 2022 government crisis and being dismissed by Johnson. Under Rishi Sunak, he was reinstated to his previous roles of Secretary of State for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities and Minister for Intergovernmental Relations. He stood down as an MP at the 2024 general election and was created a life peer in 2025.

Early life

Gove was born Graeme Andrew Logan on 26 August 1967.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn His biological mother, whom he originally understood to have been an unmarried Edinburgh student, was in fact a 23-year-old cookery demonstrator.Template:Sfn Gove regarded Edinburgh as his birthplace until it was revealed in a biography in 2019 that he was born in a maternity hospital in Fonthill Road, Aberdeen.Template:Sfn Logan was put into care soon after he was born.Template:Sfn

At the age of four months he was adopted by a couple in Aberdeen, Ernest and Christine Gove, by whom he was brought up.Template:Sfn After he joined the Gove family, Logan's name was changed to Michael Andrew Gove.Template:Sfn His adoptive father, Ernest, ran EE Gove and Sons,Template:Sfn a fish processing business at Aberdeen Harbour in Torry.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Established by Ernest's father,Template:Sfn the business was sold by Ernest in the 1980s.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Gove's adoptive mother, Christine, was a lab assistant at the University of Aberdeen, later working at the Aberdeen School for the Deaf.Template:Sfn

Gove, his parents, and his adoptive sister Angela Christine lived in a small property in the Kittybrewster area of Aberdeen,Template:Sfn before moving to a residence on Rosehill Drive. He was educated at two state schools (Sunnybank Primary School and Kittybrewster Primary School),Template:Sfn and later, on the recommendation of his primary school teacher,Template:Sfn he sat and passed the entrance exam for the independent Robert Gordon's College.Template:Sfn

At Robert Gordon's, classmates and teachers recalled him as confident and intellectually curious. According to a former teacher, "at the start of every lesson a hand would go up and it would be Michael". He rode an old-fashioned bicycle, wore suits, recited poetry and participated enthusiastically in debates, although he was less strong at sport.Template:Sfn Gove later recalled feeling intellectually out of place at homeTemplate:Sfn and described himself as a "swot" who asked questions from an early age.Template:Sfn In 2012, he wrote an apology letter to his former French teacher for misbehaving in class.Template:Sfn

Gove joined the Labour Party in 1983Template:Sfn and campaigned for the party in the 1983 general election.Template:Sfn Outside of school, he spent time as a Sunday school teacher at Causewayend Church.Template:Sfn As he entered sixth year,Template:Sfn his father's business had collapsed and the family could no longer afford the school fees, so he won a scholarship.Template:Sfn He served as a school prefect in his final two years.Template:Sfn

Oxford

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Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, where Gove studied (pictured in 2017)

In 1985, Gove enrolled at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, where he read English.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn While there he joined the Conservative Party.Template:Sfn He became a member of the Oxford University Conservative Association Template:Sfn and served as secretary of Aberdeen South Young Conservatives.Template:Sfn During his first year,Template:Sfn he met future Prime Minister Boris Johnson Template:Sfn and was an enthusiastic supporter of his campaign to be President of the Oxford Union.Template:Sfn In an interview with Andrew Gimson, Gove remarked that at Oxford, Johnson was "quite the most brilliant extempore speaker of his generation".Template:Sfn Gove was elected President of the Oxford Union for Hilary term 1987.Template:Sfn

While at Oxford and shortly afterwards, Gove participated in Cambridge Union debates where he sometimes used language that later drew criticism. In 1987, while president-elect of the Oxford Union, he took part in a debate on the British Empire. In his speech he said: "It may be moral to keep an empire because the fuzzy-wuzzies can't look after themselves. It may be immoral to keep an empire because the people of the Third World have an inalienable right to self-determination, but that doesn't matter whether it's moral or immoral." He also described Margaret Thatcher's policies as a "new empire" where "the happy South stamps over the cruel, dirty, toothless face of the Northerner", and said that gay people "thrive primarily upon short-term relations".Template:Sfn These and other remarks he made shortly after university later drew criticism.Template:Sfn Gove graduated with an upper second-class degree.Template:Sfn

Early career

After university, when applying for a job at the Conservative Research Department, Gove was told he was "insufficiently political" and "insufficiently Conservative", so he turned to journalism.Template:Sfn After passing an interview with editor Max Hastings, Gove briefly worked on The Daily TelegraphTemplate:'s Peterborough column,Template:Sfn edited by David Twiston-Davies. He reportedly found regular shifts hard to come by and was told by Twiston-Davies that his talent lay "in libel". Struggling to make a living in London,Template:Sfn he moved back to Aberdeen and became a trainee reporterTemplate:Sfn and court reporterTemplate:Sfn Template:Sfn at The Press and Journal, where he spent several months on strike in the 1989–1990 dispute over union recognition and representation.Template:Sfn From 1990 to 1991,Template:Sfn Template:Sfn he worked as a reporter for Scottish Television, with a brief interlude at Grampian Television in Aberdeen.Template:Sfn

After moving to UK-wide television in 1991, Gove worked for the BBC's On the Record,Template:Sfn and the Channel 4 current affairs programme A Stab in the Dark, alongside David Baddiel and Tracey MacLeod.Template:Sfn In 1994, he began working for the BBC's Today programme.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn In 1995, The Guardian identified Gove as part of "The Group", a circle of young Conservatives sceptical of John Major's leadership and critical of the welfare state and European integration, alongside figures such as Matthew d'Ancona, Paul Goodman, and Dean Godson.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn During Major's 1995 Conservative leadership contest, Gove revealed ahead of rival broadcasters that Welsh Secretary John Redwood would challenge the prime minister, drawing on his contacts within the Conservative Party.Template:Sfn

In January 1996 he joined The Times as a leader writer and assumed posts as its comment editor, home affairs editor, assistant editor, and Saturday editor.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn He also wrote a weekly column on politics and current affairs for the paper from 1999 until 2005Template:Sfn and contributed to The Times Literary Supplement, Prospect magazine and The Spectator. He was on good terms with the owner of the paper, Rupert Murdoch,Template:Sfn Template:Sfn whom Gove described in evidence before the Leveson Inquiry as "one of the most impressive and significant figures of the last 50 years".Template:Sfn He wrote a sympathetic biography of Michael Portillo, Michael Portillo: The Future of the Right, and a highly critical study of the Northern Ireland peace process, The Price of Peace, where he compared the Good Friday Agreement to appeasement of the Nazis in the 1930s.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn During his period at The Times he also broadcast regularly, on programmes including Any Questions?, The Week in Westminster, The Book Quiz, Moral Maze and Newsnight Review (all on the BBC).Template:Sfn

Gove co-founded Policy Exchange,Template:Sfn a conservative think tank launched in 2002,Template:Sfn Template:Sfn and chaired it for three years.Template:Sfn He was seen as part of an influential group of Conservatives referred to as the Notting Hill set, which included future party leader David Cameron, future Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne, Ed Vaizey, Nick Boles, and Rachel Whetstone.Template:Sfn They were considered modernisers within the Conservative Party, combining socially liberal positions with an emphasis on environmental issues.Template:Sfn Having been passed over for the editorship of The TimesTemplate:Sfn and seen his authority diminish, Gove began to focus on a political career.Template:Sfn Cameron, who had long encouraged him privately, publicly urged him to enter politics, writing: "Give up the journalist's expense account and cast aside ambitions of editing the Thunderer. Gird up your loins and prepare for late nights sitting on uncomfortable green benches... In short, Michael, become a Tory MP."Template:Sfn Template:Sfn In 2004, Gove was commissioned to write a biography of Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke.Template:Sfn On 5 July 2004, he won the Conservative candidacy for Surrey Heath,Template:Sfn after the sitting MP Nick Hawkins was deselected by the local Conservative associationTemplate:Sfn amid disputes over his personal conduct.Template:Sfn Gove then arranged to leave the staff of The Times, but was retained on a contract to write a weekly column for the newspaper and other such pieces as might be commissioned ad hoc.Template:Sfn Gove has helped to write speeches for Cabinet and Shadow Cabinet ministers, including Peter Lilley and Michael Howard.Template:Sfn

Political career

Member of Parliament: 2005–2010

Gove was elected as MP for Surrey Heath at the 2005 general election, winning by 10,845 votes and a 51.5% vote share.Template:Sfn After being elected he stood down from Moral Maze but continued to appear on Newsnight Review. He was commissioned to write a book on terrorism in 2005, Celsius 7/7, which was published in 2006.Template:Sfn In 2005, he was appointed Shadow Minister for Housing and Planning.Template:Sfn During his time as an MP, as well as his column for The Times he also wrote columns for Building magazine and the newspaper Scotland on Sunday.Template:Sfn He made his maiden speech on 7 June 2005, focusing on national security.Template:Sfn

Over a five-month period between December 2005 and April 2006, Gove claimed more than £7,000 on a house bought with his wife Sarah Vine, in 2002. Around a third of the money was spent at OKA, an upmarket interior design company established by Annabel Astor, David Cameron's mother-in-law. Shortly afterwards he reportedly flipped his designated second home, a property for which he claimed around £13,000 to cover costs including local authority searches, fees and stamp duty. Gove also claimed for a cot mattress, despite children's items being banned under updated Commons rules. Gove said he would repay the claim for the cot mattress, but maintained that his other claims were "below the acceptable threshold costs for furniture" and that moving house was necessary "to effectively discharge my parliamentary duties". While he was moving between homes, on one occasion he stayed at the Pennyhill Park Hotel in Bagshot, Surrey, charging the taxpayer more than £500 per night's stay.Template:Sfn

Gove won the "Rising Star Award" at the February 2006 Channel 4 political awards.Template:Sfn He criticised the then-Labour government for its introduction of the Empty Properties Rating Bill, because he viewed it as a damaging tax, especially during an economic downturn. He also criticised Labour's top-down housing targets,Template:Sfn a policy from the 2000s where the central government imposed mandatory housebuilding quotas on local councils.Template:Sfn

On 2 July 2007, Gove was promoted to the Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families,Template:Sfn shadowing Ed Balls.Template:Sfn In the role he advocated the introduction of a Swedish-style education voucher system, whereby parents would choose where their child would be educated, with the state paying what they would have cost in a state school.Template:Sfn He also advocated Swedish-style free schools, to be managed by parents and funded by the state,Template:Sfn with the possibility that such schools would be allowed to be run on a for-profit model.Template:Sfn

Gove occasionally contributed to the right-leaning Standpoint magazine.Template:Sfn He contracted swine flu during the 2009 influenza pandemic.Template:Sfn In January 2010, he gave up his column for The Times, in keeping with a policy governing Shadow Cabinet activity laid down by David Cameron at that time.Template:Sfn Many of his questions in Commons debates prior to the 2010 general election concerned children, schools and families, education, local government, Council Tax, foreign affairs, and the environment.Template:Sfn At the 2010 general election, Gove was re-elected, winning an increased majority of 17,289, and with an increased vote share of 57.6%.Template:Sfn

Secretary of State for Education: 2010–2014

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Official portrait, 2012

With the formation of the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government following the hung parliament after the 2010 general election, Gove became Secretary of State for Education. His first moves included reorganising his department,Template:Sfn announcing plans to allow schools rated as Outstanding by Ofsted to become academies,Template:Sfn and for groups such as parents and charities to establish new state-funded free schools,Template:Sfn and cutting the previous government's school-building programme, Building Schools for the Future.Template:Sfn He apologised, however, when the list of terminated school-building projects he had released was found to be inaccurate;Template:Sfn the list was reannounced several times before it was finally accurately published.Template:Sfn

Gove's second home was not in his constituency, but in Elstead, in the South West Surrey constituency. Gove sold the house and began to commute to his constituency.Template:Sfn

During the 2010 Conservative Party Conference, Gove announced that the primary and secondary-school national curricula for England would be restructured, and that study of authors such as Byron, Keats, Austen, Dickens, and Hardy would be reinstated in English lessons as part of a plan to improve children's grasp of English literature and language.Template:Sfn Academies and free schools were not required to follow the national curriculum, and so weren't affected by the reforms.Template:Sfn Children who failed to write coherently and grammatically, or who were weak in spelling, were penalised in the new examinations. Standards in mathematics and science were also strengthened.Template:Sfn Gove won the "Minister of the Year" award at the 2011 Spectator awards.Template:Sfn

In February 2011, Gove told Parliament that one individual adviser had earned £1,000,000 in a single year, when in fact the total pay for five advisers over a four-year period was £700,000, spread across a programme covering more than 80 schools. The following month, he was criticised for suggesting that architects had "creamed off" money that could be better spent on teaching, and for misrepresenting the cost of school architecture, leading to accusations that he underestimated the importance of school design for pupils' behaviour and educational outcomes.Template:Sfn

During the Cameron–Clegg ministry, Gove was the subject of repeated criticism for alleged attempts to avoid the provisions of the Freedom of Information Act. The criticism surrounded Gove's use of various private email accounts to send emails that allegedly related to his departmental responsibilities. The allegations suggested that Gove and his advisers believed they could avoid their correspondence being subject to freedom of information requests, as they believed that their private email accounts were not subject to the Freedom of Information Act. In September 2011, the Financial Times reported that Gove had used an undisclosed private email account—called "Mrs Blurt"—to discuss government business with advisers.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn In March 2012 the Information Commissioner ruled that because emails the Financial Times had requested contained public information they could be the subject of a freedom of information request and ordered the information requested by the paper to be disclosed.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn It was also alleged by the Financial Times that Gove and his advisors had destroyed email correspondence in order to avoid freedom of information requests. The allegation was denied by Gove's department, which stated that deleting email was simply part of good computer housekeeping.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

In February 2012, when asked about the possibility of running for the Conservative Party leadership in the future, Gove said: "I'm constitutionally incapable of it. There's a special extra quality you need that is indefinable, and I know I don't have it. There's an equanimity, an impermeability and a courage that you need. There are some things in life you know it's better not to try."Template:Sfn Nevertheless, a few months later, Michael Portillo backed Gove as a serious contender in a future Conservative Party leadership contest.Template:Sfn

In September 2012, Gove announced to the House of Commons an English Baccalaureate to replace GCSEs, comprising English, Maths, Science, together with a Humanities subject and language,Template:Sfn to be first examined in 2017.Template:Sfn The English Baccalaureate would cut back heavily on the use of classroom assessment and coursework,Template:Sfn with exams at the end of the course in a return to an O-level style traditional qualification. The plans were dropped in February 2013, after a report by the Education Select Committee said the changes would mean "too much, too fast" and could threaten exam quality.Template:Sfn

In March 2013, 100 academics wrote an open letter arguing that Gove's curriculum placed too much emphasis upon memorisation of facts and rules over understanding, and would lead to more rote learning.Template:Sfn Gove retorted that "there is good academia and bad academia".Template:Sfn In response, one signatory to the letter opined that Gove suffered from a "blinkered, almost messianic, self-belief, which appears to have continually ignored the expertise and wisdom of teachers, head-teachers, advisers and academics, whom he often claims to have consulted".Template:Sfn

Gove was criticised by teachers unions for his attempts to overhaul English education.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn At the Association of Teachers and Lecturers Annual Conference in March 2013 a motion of no-confidence in Gove was passed.Template:Sfn The next month the National Union of Teachers passed a vote of no confidence in Gove at their annual conference and called for his resignation.Template:Sfn The National Association of Head Teachers and NASUWT also passed motions of no confidence at their conferences that year.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Large-scale teacher strikes were held over pay, workload, and the pace of change.Template:Sfn

Chief Whip: 2014–2015

On 15 July 2014, Gove's four-year stint in charge of the Department for Education came to an end when he was dismissedTemplate:Sfn as Secretary of State for Education in a wide-ranging cabinet reshuffle. Gove was moved to the post of Government chief whip,Template:Sfn which was portrayed as a demotion by his detractors; Prime Minister Cameron denied this was the case.Template:Sfn Private polling had reportedly showed that Gove had become a "toxic liability" among teachers, prompting the prime minister's electoral strategist, Lynton Crosby, to advise his removal from the education brief ahead of the 2015 general election. The reshuffle also allowed Cameron to promote a number of women into the Cabinet, with Nicky Morgan replacing Gove.Template:Sfn

Gove told BBC News that he had mixed emotions about starting the new role, saying it was a privilege to become Chief Whip but that leaving the Department for Education was "a wrench".Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn The position came with a £30,000 pay cut.Template:Sfn However, Gove was given an "enhanced role in campaigning and doing broadcast media interviews".Template:Sfn According to The Daily TelegraphTemplate:'s Georgia Graham, this specific media role saw Gove on television and radio "more than a traditional Chief Whip would be".Template:Sfn

Gove missed his first House of Commons vote in the new role. Shadow Commons Leader Angela Eagle said that he "not only lost his first vote but managed to get stuck in the toilet in the wrong lobby".Template:Sfn In October 2014, Gove was reported to have "irritated senior mandarins" by being offered a standing invitation to attend their weekly "Wednesday Morning" meetings.Template:Sfn

In November 2014, MPs voted on retaining 35 EU police and justice directives – including the European Arrest Warrant (EAW).Template:Sfn A ruse was devised whereby MPs would get a vote on 11 of the 35 measures the UK was planning to opt in on, but not the EAW itself. The Government would take the passing of the 11 as a go-ahead for retaining the warrant.Template:Sfn This approach led to criticism from Eurosceptic MPs, opposition parties, and the speaker of the House of Commons, John Bercow.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Gove remained in the post of chief whip until May 2015, when the role was taken over by Mark Harper.Template:Sfn

Secretary of State for Justice: 2015–2016

File:Michael Gove government portrait 2015.jpg

Official portrait, 2015

At the 2015 general election, Gove was again re-elected, increasing his majority to 24,804 and increasing his vote share to 59.9%.Template:Sfn Following the election, Cameron promoted Gove as Secretary of State for Justice and Lord Chancellor in his newly formed Cabinet.Template:Sfn He was praised in December 2015 for scrapping the courts fee introduced by his predecessor, Chris Grayling.Template:Sfn The fee had been heavily criticised for, among other things, causing innocent people to plead guilty out of financial concerns.Template:Sfn Gove removed the 12-book limit on prison books introduced by Grayling, arguing that books increased literacy and numeracy, skills needed for making prisoners a "potential asset to society". The move, effective from September 2015, was welcomed by Frances Crook of the Howard League for Penal Reform.Template:Sfn Gove was also praised for his prominent role in scrapping a British bid for a Saudi prison contract.Template:Sfn

Within three months of his taking office, the Criminal Bar Association (CBA) voted to stop taking new work in protest at Gove's insistence that they work for lower fees.Template:Sfn The CBA subsequently praised his "courage" in reversing the proposed cuts.Template:Sfn On 14 July 2016 Gove was removed from the position of justice secretary by the new prime minister, Theresa May.Template:Sfn

EU referendum

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Pro-European Union protesters waving two banners depicting Gove (left) and UK Independence Party leader Nigel Farage (right)

Gove was a prominent figure in the campaign for Britain to leave the EU in the 2016 referendum and described his decision to take that side as "the most difficult decision of my political life".Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn In 2015, he and his family spent Christmas with the Cameron family at Chequers where, according to Craig Oliver, Cameron was under the impression that Gove would support remaining in the EU.Template:Sfn Despite this, Gove decided to support the Leave campaign. At the beginning of March 2016, he was appointed co-convenor of Vote Leave, with Labour MP Gisela Stuart, and given responsibility for chairing the campaign committee.Template:Sfn

He argued Britain would be "freer, fairer and better off" for leaving,Template:Sfn and that "[t]he day after we vote to leave, we hold all the cards and we can choose the path we want."Template:Sfn When in an interview it was claimed that there was no expert opinion to support this, Gove remarked that "the people of this country have had enough of experts from organisations with acronyms saying they know what is best and getting it consistently wrong."Template:Sfn However, interviewer Faisal Islam interrupted Gove after the word "experts",Template:Sfn causing some sources to report that he had made a general statement that "the people... have had enough of experts".Template:Sfn In 2021, Louise Richardson, the vice-chancellor of the University of Oxford, said she was "embarrassed" that Gove was an alumnus, on account of these comments.Template:Sfn

In her memoir, Gove's wife Sarah Vine wrote that he was hoping for a respectable Leave turnout, after which he could set about repairing relationships that had been damaged during the campaign.Template:Sfn However, the Leave campaign won, leading to Cameron's resignation. In his memoir For the Record, Cameron described Gove during this period as "mendacious", adding: "One quality shone through, disloyalty. Disloyalty to me and, later, disloyalty to Boris [Johnson]".Template:Sfn

2016 leadership election

Template:See also

After Cameron announced his intention to resign as prime minister, Gove was not expected to be a candidate, having said in the past that he had no interest in becoming prime minister.Template:Sfn Instead, he was seen as a strong, highly influential supporter of Johnson for that role. In a move that surprised most political analysts, Gove withdrew his support for Johnson on 30 June 2016, hours before the deadline, without any previous notice to Johnson and announced his own candidacy in the leadership election. Subsequently, Johnson declined to run.Template:Sfn

Gove said: "I wanted to help build a team behind Boris Johnson so that a politician who argued for leaving the European Union could lead us to a better future. But I have come, reluctantly, to the conclusion that Boris cannot provide the leadership or build the team for the task ahead. I have, therefore, decided to put my name forward for the leadership."Template:Sfn The Daily Telegraph said that Gove's actions in undermining Johnson's leadership aspirations constituted "the most spectacular political assassination in a generation"Template:Sfn while The Guardian labelled it as a "Machiavellian move".Template:Sfn

By 5 July 2016, Gove was in third place in the leadership election by number of MP backers, behind May and Andrea Leadsom; the latter had gained an endorsement from Johnson. Some political analysts predicted that Gove might quit the race if he was unable to beat Leadsom in the first round of voting.Template:Sfn Later that day, it was announced that May had won the first round of voting, with support from 165 MPs, while Andrea Leadsom received 66 votes and Gove trailed with 48.Template:Sfn Gove was eliminated in the second ballot after receiving 46 votes, compared to 199 for May and 84 for Leadsom.Template:Sfn He subsequently told the media that he was "naturally disappointed" and described his two opponents as "formidable politicians", welcoming the fact that the next prime minister would be female. He also encouraged a "civilised, inclusive, positive and optimistic debate".Template:Sfn

Out of office: 2016–2017

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Gove addressing a dinner audience on 15 July 2016, the day after his dismissal as Secretary of State for Justice

On 14 July 2016, Gove was dismissed by the prime minister, Theresa May.Template:Sfn In a two-minute meeting,Template:Sfn May said: "One of the things that's very important is loyalty, and after the last few weeks I've been speaking to people in the party... I wouldn't say that you could never come back, but you need to take a period on the backbenches in order to demonstrate loyalty".Template:Sfn

In the aftermath of the EU referendum, Gove was accused by Nick Clegg of being the source of a claim by The Sun that Queen Elizabeth II made comments supportive of Brexit in a private lunch at Windsor Castle. Clegg told a BBC documentary that Gove "obviously communicated it – well, I know he did".Template:Sfn Template:Sfn The Sun said it had "multiple sources" and was confident its report was true.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

In October 2016, Gove was elected to the Exiting the European Union Select Committee.Template:Sfn That month, he was re-hired by The TimesTemplate:Sfn as a weeklyTemplate:Sfn columnist and book reviewer.Template:Sfn As well as attending meetings of the newspaper's politics team, Gove was dispatched to the United StatesTemplate:Sfn to report on campaign rallies in the upcoming presidential election.Template:Sfn

In December 2016, Gove defended a Vote Leave claim that an additional £350 million a week could be spent on the NHS when Britain left the EU. Gove said the figure was robust and it was up to the Government to decide how to spend it.Template:Sfn

In January 2017, in his capacity as a writer for The Times, Gove conducted an interview with Donald Trump, the president-elect of the United States, along with Kai Diekmann from Bild. Gove was the first British journalist to interview Trump following the 2016 United States presidential election,Template:Sfn Template:Sfn and the second British politician to meet him as President-elect after Nigel Farage.Template:Sfn Despite preferring Hillary Clinton to Trump as President of the United States,Template:Sfn Gove's interview and consequent defence of it was seen by some political commentators as praising the president-elect unduly.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs: 2017–2019

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Gove with Fergus Ewing, the Scottish government's Rural Economy Secretary, in February 2019

At the snap 2017 general election, Gove was again re-elected, increasing his majority to 24,943 and increasing his vote share to 64.2%.Template:Sfn Following the election, Gove was promoted to Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs by May during a reshuffle.Template:Sfn Gove said he "was quite surprised" to be asked to join the Cabinet after May dismissed him in 2016 after she became prime minister.Template:Sfn May said: "At this important time for our country, [the public] need stability and certainty provided by the Government, and that's what I've been doing today, putting together a Cabinet that reflects the wealth of talent and experience across the Conservative Party".Template:Sfn

Following his appointment, Gove announced that a microbead ban would be put into place by the end of 2017.Template:Sfn However, the ban arrived in early 2018. It meant that manufacturers could no longer produce the tiny beads used in cosmetics and care products. Another ban came in June 2018 which stopped shops from selling products that contained the beads. The reasoning behind the ban was to stop the beads harming marine life.Template:Sfn

In July 2017, Gove announced that a fuel combustion vehicle ban would be put into place to reduce air pollution. He said that the ban would take effect by 2040 and end the sales of new fuel combustion cars, trucks, vans, and buses that have petrol and diesel engines in the UK. The ban did not include plug-in hybrid vehicles.Template:Sfn

Gove introduced a ban on bee-harming pesticides like neonicotinoids.Template:Sfn He was praised by Greenpeace UK executive director John Sauven for his strong stance on issues like bee-harming pesticides, single-use plastic, and the future of the internal combustion engine. Sauven said: "Gove has defied many people's expectations on the environment".Template:Sfn

In October 2017, Gove issued an apology for a joke which compared tough interviews on the Today programme to a sexual encounter with Harvey Weinstein.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn He was criticised by political opponents who felt allegations of sexual abuse were not a suitable subject for jokes.Template:Sfn

Other policies Gove had announced by December 2017 were that CCTV would be used in all slaughterhouses and beavers would be reintroduced into the UK.Template:Sfn

Gove faced criticism over the appointment of Ben Goldsmith to the role of non-executive directorTemplate:Sfn at the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs as Goldsmith had previously donated cash to Gove's Surrey Heath constituency. Concerns were also raised about the selection process for the job, which was overseen by Sir Ian Cheshire, the chairman of Goldsmith's investment firm, Menhaden Capital Management.Template:Sfn

An important aspect of Gove's tenure was the introduction of laws concerning animal welfare. Maximum sentences for the crime of animal cruelty increased, as did protection for animals used by Government services, such as police dogs and horses.Template:Sfn One of the "toughest worldwide bans" on ivory trade was also introduced in 2018.Template:Sfn

May offered Gove the post of secretary of state for exiting the European Union after Dominic Raab's resignation over the Brexit withdrawal agreement in November 2018. Gove rejected the offer after May told him that there was no chance of trying to renegotiate the agreement.Template:Sfn

In January 2019, May survived a vote of no confidence in her government, after a "barnstorming" speech from Gove in her defence directed towards the Leader of the Labour Party, Jeremy Corbyn.Template:Sfn The speech, which gained significant media attention, attacked Corbyn for his foreign policy record, with Tom Rogan of the Washington Examiner describing it as "A tour de force. It was angry but not fanatical, passionate but not somber, and intellectual but simply put".Template:Sfn

In March 2019, Gove argued that "we didn't vote to leave without a deal. That wasn't the message of the campaign I helped lead. During that campaign, we said we should do a deal with the EU and be part of the network of free trade deals that covers all Europe, from Iceland to Turkey". Gove consistently voted for Theresa May's withdrawal deal, and during the referendum campaign he had written a letter alongside other MPs saying that it was "in everyone's interests to do a free trade deal".Template:Sfn

In April 2019, after having a meeting with Extinction Rebellion, Gove said he agreed with the activists that there needed to be a deeper level of public understanding over climate change, but he declined to declare a climate emergency in the United Kingdom.Template:Sfn Despite Gove's position, Parliament passed a motion to declare a climate emergency.Template:Sfn

In May 2019, Gove introduced the Wild Animals in Circuses Bill, which banned the use of wild animals in travelling circuses in England.Template:Sfn

2019 leadership election

Template:See also

"Ready To Unite Ready To Deliver Ready To Lead" written in blue block capitals.

Logo for Gove's leadership bid

On 26 May 2019, Gove announced he would stand for the Conservative leadership following May's resignation, entering the contest.Template:Sfn He promised to remove the charge for UK citizenship applications from EU nationals if elected,Template:Sfn and to replace VAT with a "simpler sales tax".Template:Sfn He also promised to review the High Speed 2 rail projectTemplate:Sfn and planned to increase school funding by £1 billion.Template:Sfn Unlike most other candidates who pledged to leave the EU on 31 October 2019 whether a deal was in place or not, Gove said that he would not be bound by the 31 October deadline if an agreement was within reach.Template:Sfn

By 5 June 2019, Johnson became the clear frontrunner with the bookmakers, with Gove second favourite.Template:Sfn In June, reports emerged that Gove had taken cocaine as a journalist in his twenties. Gove stated that he regretted having done so, and regarded it as having been a mistake.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn In an article for The Times in December 1999, Gove had argued against the legalisation of drugs and criticised members of the middle classes for their hypocrisy in doing so.Template:Sfn Gove's cocaine use was a key component of his bid to be leader. In reaction, Craig Oliver said it would have a negative impact on his run whereas fellow candidate for leadership Dominic Raab said he "admires [Gove's] honesty".Template:Sfn

Gove progressed following the first ballot of Conservative MPs, having received 37 votes. He received 41 votes in the second ballot, and by the third ballot had 51 MPs backing him. The fourth ballot saw him gain 61 votes, moving him into second position. In the last ballot, he had 75 votes and was voted out – losing by only two to Jeremy Hunt, the eventual runner-up.Template:Sfn

Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster: 2019–2021

Upon the election of Johnson as prime minister, Gove was appointed Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.Template:Sfn His non-portfolio role included responsibility for no-deal Brexit preparations, overseeing constitutional affairs, maintaining the integrity of the Union, and having oversight over all Cabinet Office policy.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Gove was excluded from a place on the National Security Council committee as Johnson pursued a slimming down of Cabinet operations.Template:Sfn He became a central figure in the conduction of Operation Yellowhammer, the civil servant contingency planning for the possibility of a no-deal Brexit.Template:Sfn

Writing in The Sunday Times on 28 July 2019, Gove said that a no-deal Brexit was "a very real prospect" and one that the Government was "working on the assumption of".Template:Sfn Template:Sfn He said in August that it was "wrong and sad" that the EU was "refusing to negotiate" over a new withdrawal agreement.Template:Sfn That month, an official Cabinet Yellowhammer document leaked, predicting that a no-deal Brexit would lead to food, medicine, and petrol shortages. Gove said the leaked dossier outlined a "worst-case scenario".Template:Sfn Interviewed in September 2019, Gove declined to say whether the Government would abide by legislation designed to stop a no-deal Brexit.Template:Sfn

In 2019, LBC's Iain Dale placed Gove third in a list of that year's "Top 100 Most Influential Conservatives".Template:Sfn During the 2019 Speaker of the House of Commons election, Gove nominated Labour MP Chris Bryant to replace John Bercow.Template:Sfn Gove helped to prepare Johnson for the 2019 general election debates by playing the role of the Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn.Template:Sfn He offered to stand in for Johnson during a Channel 4 debate on environmental issues but the editor of Channel 4 News said the debate was only open to party leaders.Template:Sfn At the 2019 general election, Gove was again re-elected, seeing his majority cut to 18,349, and with a decreased vote share of 58.6%.Template:Sfn

Gove won the "Minister to watch" award at the January 2020 Spectator Parliamentarian of the Year awards.Template:Sfn On 13 February 2020, he took on additional responsibilities as Minister for the Cabinet Office, succeeding Oliver Dowden, who had been appointed Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport, in Johnson's first large reshuffle of his government.Template:Sfn

During the first COVID-19 pandemic lockdown, Gove generated confusion after saying on ITV's Good Morning Britain that children with separated parents were not allowed to move between their parents' homes. He later apologised and clarified that what he had said was not the case.Template:Sfn When Johnson was self-isolating after having been tested positive for COVID-19, Gove stood in for Johnson briefly from 27 March 2020 at the daily briefings of the pandemic,Template:Sfn until Gove self-isolated himself after a family member developed COVID-19 symptoms.Template:Sfn

In May 2020, Gove was criticisedTemplate:Sfn after his wife Sarah Vine shared a bookcase picture "as a very special treat for my trolls" which featured a book by the Holocaust denier David Irving, and a copy of The Bell Curve, which controversially claims that intelligence is highly heritable and that median IQ varies among races.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Another book in the photograph was The Strange Death of Europe by Douglas Murray,Template:Sfn which, according to The Guardian, cites Enoch Powell and argues for protecting white Christian Europe from "outsiders".Template:Sfn

After Johnson said that the UK had ended trade talks with the EU in October 2020, Gove said that the door was "still ajar" if the EU made changes over issues including fishing access and that "We hope the EU will change their position and we are certainly not saying if they do change their position we can't talk to them".Template:Sfn

Gove was part of a committee of Cabinet ministers, comprising Johnson, Rishi Sunak, and Matt Hancock, that made decisions on the COVID-19 pandemic. He was chair of the COVID-19 operations subcommittee.Template:Sfn In a COBR meeting he chaired on 24 November 2020, he agreed, with the leaders of the UK's devolved governments, to a set of rules governing social mixing for the whole of the country over the Christmas period. It allowed for up to three households to form a "bubble" from 23 to 27 December,Template:Sfn but was cancelled for London and South East England, while being limited to a single day for the rest of England, after the discovery of a mutant COVID-19 strain.Template:Sfn

Under the terms of England's all-tier COVID-19 restrictions in December 2020, pubs were only legally allowed to serve alcoholic beverages with a substantial meal. Gove initially said that this did not include Scotch eggs, which he defined as a "starter" on multiple occasions; however, he later backtracked and said: "I do recognise that it is a substantial meal."Template:Sfn

Gove was co-chair of the EU–UK Partnership Council with European Commission vice-president Maroš Šefčovič.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn On 8 December 2020, after 10 months of talksTemplate:Sfn with Šefčovič, he helped reach an agreement that included post-Brexit arrangements for the Irish border. As a consequence the Government decided to abandon parts of the Internal Market Bill that could have seen the UK break international law.Template:Sfn David Frost succeeded Gove as the UK chair of the Partnership Council on 1 March 2021.Template:Sfn

In May 2021, Gove attended the 2021 Champions League Final in Porto with his son, supporting Chelsea; following his visit he was alerted by the NHS Test and Trace system of his potential exposure to the disease, and that he would need to self-isolate. Rather than isolating for the normal ten-day period, Gove was able to take part in a pilot scheme designed to investigate the efficacy of testing, which required him to undergo testing every day for a week.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

In a case brought to the High Court of Justice by the Good Law Project in June 2021, Gove was found to have acted unlawfully when the Government awarded a COVID-19 contract without a tender to a polling company owned by long-term associates of his and Dominic Cummings, then Johnson's chief adviser.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn On appeal, the Court of Appeal overturned the High Court's finding of unlawful bias.Template:Sfn

In July 2021, Gove worked part-time in Glasgow as part of the Government strategy to strengthen the Union.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn The next month, he was filmed dancing "merrily" at Bohemia nightclub in Aberdeen. He had allegedly tried to avoid a £5 entrance fee by stating he was the chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. Friends of Gove denied he had attempted to avoid paying.Template:Sfn

Secretary of State for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities: 2021–2022

In a cabinet reshuffle on 15 September 2021,Template:Sfn Gove was appointed Secretary of State for Housing, Communities and Local Government. He was given cross-government responsibility for levelling up and retained ministerial responsibility for the Union and elections.Template:Sfn Within days his department was renamed the Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities, and his title changed to Secretary of State for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities. He was given the additional title of Minister for Intergovernmental Relations.Template:Sfn

In October 2021, while walking on Horseferry Road in Westminster, Gove was accosted by COVID-19 anti-lockdown protesters. As the protesters attempted to surround him, he was protected by police officers and escorted to a nearby building.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

In December 2021, Gove was part of a trio of Cabinet ministers that self-isolated after meeting Australian Deputy Prime Minister Barnaby Joyce, who was later diagnosed with COVID-19.Template:Sfn

Gove launched a white paper on levelling up on 2 February 2022.Template:Sfn The paper included plans to increase public investment across the UK and expand devolution in England.Template:Sfn It was reported that parts of it had been copied from Wikipedia.Template:Sfn

During the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Gove announced his intention to draft plans to allow Ukrainian refugees to be housed in Russian oligarchs' homes in the UK.Template:Sfn He later announced the Homes for Ukraine scheme, which would arrange for British households to take in Ukrainian refugees.Template:Sfn

The Daily Telegraph journalist Matthew Lynn attacked Gove's record in government, describing him as the "driving force behind a whole series of terrible policy mistakes". In particular, Lynn identified Gove's resistance to new skyscrapers in London, his changes to the rules concerning the rental sector to make it harder for landlords to evict tenants, and his opposition to a fracking trial as damaging the economic growth prospects for the UK.Template:Sfn

On 6 July 2022, Gove was dismissed by Johnson for alleged disloyalty, after visiting Downing Street to tell him to resign, during the July 2022 Government crisis.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn A Downing Street source reportedly described him as a "snake" following the sacking.Template:Sfn

Out of office: 2022

Gove declined to run in the July–September 2022 Conservative Party leadership election.Template:Sfn He endorsed Kemi Badenoch's leadership bid and, after her defeat,Template:Sfn announced his support for Rishi Sunak.Template:Sfn

Following the election of Liz Truss, Gove variously backed and criticised the prime minister on Chancellor of the Exchequer Kwasi Kwarteng's controversial reforms to taxation.Template:Sfn According to the The SunTemplate:'s political editor, Truss floated the possibility of appointing Gove as British Ambassador to Israel or China in an attempt to neutralise his influence within the Conservative Party.Template:Sfn

Gove declined to run in the October 2022 Conservative Party leadership election.Template:Sfn He endorsed Sunak's leadership bid.Template:Sfn

Secretary of State for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities: 2022–2024

On 25 October 2022, following the accession of Rishi Sunak to the prime ministership, Gove was reinstated to his previous roles of Secretary of State for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities and Minister for Intergovernmental Relations.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Gove had previously said that he did not expect to serve in government again.Template:Sfn

According to The Times, in the February 2023 cabinet reshuffle, Sunak wanted Gove to become Secretary of State for Science, Innovation and Technology, but Gove asked to stay at the levelling up department.Template:Sfn

In February 2023, following the death of Awaab Ishak, a two-year old child living in a mould-hit flat, the Government announced that it would implement "Awaab's Law", requiring social housing providers to remedy reported damp and mould within certain time limits. Gove made the announcement as he met with Awaab's family in Rochdale.Template:Sfn

In 2023, the New Statesman named Gove as the sixth-most-powerful right-wing figure in the UK, describing him as a "great survivor" and retaining extensive influence over the potential future leaders of the Conservative Party, even as he "hints" at quasi-retirement.Template:Sfn In March 2024, he chaired the inaugural East-West Council in London.Template:Sfn

Retirement from the Commons and return to journalism

File:Michael Gove (2) (54349877597).jpg

Gove speaking at the Alliance for Responsible Citizenship, London, 2025

Gove did not stand for re-election at the 2024 general election,Template:Sfn Template:Sfn and his seat was won by the Liberal Democrat candidate, Al Pinkerton.Template:Sfn

In September 2024, Gove was appointed editor of The Spectator by the magazine's new proprietor, Sir Paul Marshall. He took on the role at the start of October.Template:Sfn

In October 2024, Gove presented a five-part series for BBC Radio 4 called Surviving Politics with Michael Gove, in which he spoke with politicians from different parties about how to deal with the job when things get tough.Template:Sfn Since September 2025,Template:Sfn he has presented The Spectator podcast Quite Right!, with journalist Madeline Grant.Template:Sfn

House of Lords

In April 2025, it was announced that Gove would be created a life peer as part of Sunak's resignation honours list.Template:Sfn On 13 May 2025 he was created Baron Gove, of Torry in the City of Aberdeen.Template:Sfn Torry was where Gove's adoptive father, Ernest Gove, was born.Template:Sfn He was introduced to the House of Lords on 22 May 2025.Template:Sfn

Political views

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} Template:Conservatism UK

Domestic issues

Gove is considered socially liberal in some areas, such as his support for same-sex marriage.Template:Sfn He has expressed his view that the state should generally not interfere in domestic affairs and has campaigned for economic freedom in certain matters. Gove has argued that "the only sustainable ethical foundation for society is a belief in the innate worth and dignity of every individual".Template:Sfn

In remarks prepared for the 2020 Ditchley Lecture, Gove portrayed what he saw as the malaise of modern society as leading to populism, because the non-intellectual classes "chose to opt for polarised identity politics rather than stay with broad-based national political movements" instead of choosing to follow the politics of diversity, inclusion, and identity politics they were force-fed by the elites. He praised Franklin D. Roosevelt as a model for his renewal of capitalism and he imagined the construction of inclusive societies with the deconstruction of Whitehall. Gove stressed "basic writing, meeting chairing and time management skills" for all policy civil servants. He ended with a paean to his purpose in public service: "to tackle inequality".Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Foreign policy

Gove is generally considered to have Eurosceptic and neoconservative positions on foreign affairs.Template:Sfn He was a prominent supporter of the United Kingdom leaving the European Union during the 2016 referendum.Template:Sfn

Gove has described himself as "a proud Zionist",Template:Sfn and supports the United Jewish Israel Appeal's fundraising activities.Template:Sfn In 2019, he spoke of his desire to "celebrate everything that Israel and the Jewish people have brought to the life of this world and hold it dear to our hearts".Template:Sfn

In popular culture

Gove was a member of the winning team in Grampian Television's quiz show Top Club,Template:Sfn and played the school chaplain in the 1994 family comedy A Feast at Midnight.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

Gove was portrayed by actor Oliver Maltman in the 2019 HBO and Channel 4 drama Brexit: The Uncivil War.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

In the 2020 revival of Spitting Image, Gove's puppet was given "beady eyes, large ears and bulging cheeks"Template:Sfn and was voiced by Lewis MacLeod.Template:Sfn

Personal life

Gove was previously in relationships with political adviser Simone Finn Template:Sfn and historian Amanda Foreman.Template:Sfn He met Sarah Vine in 1998, when he was comment editor and she was arts editor at The Times.Template:Sfn They married in October 2001Template:Sfn and have two children.Template:Sfn In July 2021, a joint statement on behalf of Gove and Vine said that they had agreed to separate and were in the process of finalising their divorce.Template:Sfn In January 2022, they were granted a decree nisi on the grounds of Gove's unreasonable behaviour.Template:Sfn As of 2025, the divorce had not been finalised, with the delay attributed to bureaucratic reasons.Template:Sfn

Gove has lived in West Kensington,Template:Sfn Notting Hill,Template:Sfn North Kensington,Template:Sfn and Mayfair.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Following his appointment as Secretary of State for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities in 2021,Template:Sfn Foreign Secretary Liz Truss let Gove move in to her grace and favour flat at 1, Carlton Gardens while she lived elsewhere, despite his being a lower ranked minister.Template:Sfn Following his appointment as Foreign Secretary, David Cameron allowed Gove to remain at the property.Template:Sfn

Gove was baptised in the Church of Scotland.Template:Sfn His adoptive father, Ernest Gove, died in 2023.Template:Sfn

Honours

File:Coronet of a British Baron.svg Life Peerage, Baron Gove, of Torry in the City of Aberdeen (2025)Template:Sfn

Notes and references

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Michael Gove

Contents

Early life

Oxford

Early career

Political career

Member of Parliament: 2005–2010

Secretary of State for Education: 2010–2014

Chief Whip: 2014–2015

Secretary of State for Justice: 2015–2016

EU referendum

2016 leadership election

Out of office: 2016–2017

Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs: 2017–2019

2019 leadership election

Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster: 2019–2021

Secretary of State for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities: 2021–2022

Out of office: 2022

Secretary of State for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities: 2022–2024

Retirement from the Commons and return to journalism

House of Lords

Political views

Domestic issues

Foreign policy

In popular culture

Personal life

Honours

Notes and references

Sources

Books and journals

News

Websites and others

External links

Navigation menu

Michael Gove

Early life

Oxford

Early career

Political career

Member of Parliament: 2005–2010

Secretary of State for Education: 2010–2014

Chief Whip: 2014–2015

Secretary of State for Justice: 2015–2016

EU referendum

2016 leadership election

Out of office: 2016–2017

Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs: 2017–2019

2019 leadership election

Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster: 2019–2021

Secretary of State for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities: 2021–2022

Out of office: 2022

Secretary of State for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities: 2022–2024

Retirement from the Commons and return to journalism

House of Lords

Political views

Domestic issues

Foreign policy

In popular culture

Personal life

Honours

Notes and references

Sources

Books and journals

News

Websites and others

External links

Navigation menu

Search