Mitral regurgitation
Template:Infobox medical condition (new) Template:Listen Mitral regurgitation (MR), also known as mitral insufficiency or mitral incompetence, is a form of valvular heart disease in which the mitral valve is insufficient and does not close properly when the heart pumps out blood.<ref name="Douedi">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=mountsinai>Mitral valve regurgitation at Mount Sinai Hospital</ref><ref name="patient.info2020">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It is the abnormal leaking of blood backwards – regurgitation from the left ventricle, through the mitral valve, into the left atrium, when the left ventricle contracts.<ref name=mountsinai/> Mitral regurgitation is the most common form of valvular heart disease.<ref name="Douedi"/> Template:TOC limit
Definition
Mitral regurgitation, also known as mitral insufficiency or mitral incompetence, is the backward flow of blood from the left ventricle, through the mitral valve, and into the left atrium, when the left ventricle contracts, resulting in a systolic murmur radiating to the left armpit.<ref name="patient.info2020"/><ref name="Douedi"/>
Signs and symptoms
Mitral regurgitation may be present for many years before any symptoms appear.<ref name="mayoclinic.org"/> The symptoms associated with MR are dependent on which phase of the disease process the individual is in. Individuals with acute MR are typically severely symptomatic and will have the signs and symptoms of acute decompensated congestive heart failure (i.e. shortness of breath, pulmonary edema, orthopnea, and paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea).<ref name=agabegi2nd-ch1/> In acute cases, a murmur and tachycardia may be the only distinctive signs.<ref name=uas/>
Individuals with chronic compensated MR may be asymptomatic for long periods of time, with a normal exercise tolerance and no evidence of heart failure. Over time, however, there may be decompensation and patients can develop volume overload (congestive heart failure). Symptoms of entry into a decompensated phase may include fatigue, shortness of breath particularly on exertion, and leg swelling. Also, there may be development of an irregular heart rhythm known as atrial fibrillation.<ref name=agabegi2nd-ch1/>
Findings on clinical examination depend on the severity and duration of MR. The mitral component of the first heart sound is usually soft and with a laterally displaced apex beat,<ref name=agabegi2nd-ch1/> often with heave.<ref name=uas/> The first heart sound is followed by a high-pitched holosystolic murmur at the apex, radiating to the back or clavicular area.<ref name=agabegi2nd-ch1/> Its duration is, as the name suggests, the whole of systole. The loudness of the murmur does not correlate well with the severity of regurgitation. It may be followed by a loud, palpable P2,<ref name=agabegi2nd-ch1/> heard best when lying on the left side.<ref name=uas/> A third heart sound is commonly heard.<ref name=agabegi2nd-ch1/>
Patients with mitral valve prolapse may have a holosystolic murmur or often a mid-to-late systolic click and a late systolic murmur. Cases with a late systolic regurgitant murmur may still be associated with significant hemodynamic consequences.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Mitral regurgitation as a result of papillary muscle damage or rupture may be a complication of a heart attack and lead to cardiogenic shock.<ref name="Harrisons">Template:Cite book</ref>
Cause
The mitral valve apparatus comprises two valve leaflets, the mitral annulus, which forms a ring around the valve leaflets, and the papillary muscles, which tether the valve leaflets to the left ventricle and prevent them from prolapsing into the left atrium. The chordae tendineae are also present and connect the valve leaflets to the papillary muscles. Dysfunction of any of these portions of the mitral valve apparatus can cause regurgitation.Template:Citation needed
The most common cause of MR in developed countries is mitral valve prolapse.<ref name='MedicineNetMVP-Kulick'>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It is the most common cause of primary mitral regurgitation in the United States, causing about 50% of cases. Myxomatous degeneration of the mitral valve is more common in women as well as with advancing age, which causes a stretching of the leaflets of the valve and the chordae tendineae. Such elongation prevents the valve leaflets from fully coming together when the valve closes, causing the valve leaflets to prolapse into the left atrium, thereby causing MR.Template:Citation needed
Ischemic heart disease causes MR by the combination of ischemic dysfunction of the papillary muscles, and the dilatation of the left ventricle. This can lead to the subsequent displacement of the papillary muscles and the dilatation of the mitral valve annulus.Template:Citation needed
Rheumatic fever (RF), Marfan's syndrome and the Ehlers–Danlos syndromes are other typical causes.<ref name=agabegi2nd-ch1/> Mitral valve stenosis (MVS) can sometimes be a cause of mitral regurgitation (MR) in the sense that a stenotic valve (calcified and with restricted range of movement) allows backflow (regurgitation) if it is too stiff and misshapen to close completely. Most MVS is caused by RF, so one can say that MVS is sometimes the proximal cause of MI/MR (that is, stenotic MI/MR) and that RF is often the distal cause of MVS, MI/MR, or both. MR and mitral valve prolapse are also common in Ehlers–Danlos syndromes.<ref>[1] NIH US National Library of Medicine, A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia, Ehlers Danlos Syndrome- PMH0002439</ref>
Secondary mitral regurgitation is due to the dilatation of the left ventricle that causes stretching of the mitral valve annulus and displacement of the papillary muscles. This dilatation of the left ventricle can be due to any cause of dilated cardiomyopathy including aortic insufficiency, nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy, and noncompaction cardiomyopathy. Because the papillary muscles, chordae, and valve leaflets are usually normal in such conditions, it is also called functional mitral regurgitation.<ref>Functional mitral regurgitation Template:Webarchive By William H Gaasch, MD. Retrieved on Jul 8, 2010</ref>
Acute MR is most often caused by endocarditis, mainly S. aureus.<ref name=agabegi2nd-ch1>Template:Cite book Chapter 1: Diseases of the Cardiovascular system > Section: Valvular Heart Disease</ref> Rupture or dysfunction of the papillary muscle are also common causes in acute cases,<ref name=agabegi2nd-ch1/> dysfunction, which can include mitral valve prolapse.<ref name=uas>VOC=VITIUM ORGANICUM CORDIS, a compendium of the Department of Cardiology at Uppsala Academic Hospital. By Per Kvidal September 1999, with revision by Erik Björklund May 2008</ref>
Pathophysiology
The pathophysiology of MR can be broken into three phases of the disease process: the acute phase, the chronic compensated phase, and the chronic decompensated phase.Template:Citation needed
Acute phase
Acute MR (as may occur due to the sudden rupture of the chordae tendinae or papillary muscle) causes a sudden volume overload of both the left atrium and the left ventricle. The left ventricle develops volume overload because with every contraction it now has to pump out not only the volume of blood that goes into the aorta (the forward cardiac output or forward stroke volume) but also the blood that regurgitates into the left atrium (the regurgitant volume). The combination of the forward stroke volume and the regurgitant volume is known as the total stroke volume of the left ventricle.<ref name="Aortic Regurgitation">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In the acute setting, the stroke volume of the left ventricle is increased (increased ejection fraction); this happens because of more complete emptying of the heart. However, as it progresses the LV volume increases and the contractile function deteriorates, thus leading to dysfunctional LV and a decrease in ejection fraction.<ref>Harrison's Internal Medicine 17th edition</ref> The increase in stroke volume is explained by the Frank–Starling mechanism, in which increased ventricular pre-load stretches the myocardium such that contractions are more forceful.Template:Citation needed
The regurgitant volume causes a volume overload and a pressure overload of the left atrium and the left ventricle. The increased pressures in the left side of the heart may inhibit drainage of blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins and lead to pulmonary congestion.<ref name="Aortic Regurgitation" />
Chronic phase
Compensated
If the MR develops slowly over months to years or if the acute phase cannot be managed with medical therapy, the individual will enter the chronic compensated phase of the disease. In this phase, the left ventricle develops eccentric hypertrophy in order to better manage the larger than normal stroke volume. The eccentric hypertrophy and the increased diastolic volume combine to increase the stroke volume (to levels well above normal) so that the forward stroke volume (forward cardiac output) approaches the normal levels. In the left atrium, the volume overload causes enlargement of the left atrium, allowing the filling pressure in the left atrium to decrease. This improves the drainage from the pulmonary veins, and signs and symptoms of pulmonary congestion will decrease.Template:Citation needed
These changes in the left ventricle and left atrium improve the low forward cardiac output state and the pulmonary congestion that occur in the acute phase of the disease. Individuals in the chronic compensated phase may be asymptomatic and have normal exercise tolerances.<ref name="Mitral Regurgitation">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Decompensated
An individual may be in the compensated phase of MR for years, but will eventually develop left ventricular dysfunction, the hallmark for the chronic decompensated phase of MR. It is currently unclear what causes an individual to enter the decompensated phase of this disease. However, the decompensated phase is characterized by calcium overload within the cardiac myocytes.Template:Citation needed
In this phase, the ventricular myocardium is no longer able to contract adequately to compensate for the volume overload of mitral regurgitation, and the stroke volume of the left ventricle will decrease. The decreased stroke volume causes a decreased forward cardiac output and an increase in the end-systolic volume. The increased end-systolic volume translates to increased filling pressures of the left ventricle and increased pulmonary venous congestion. The individual may again have symptoms of congestive heart failure.<ref name="Mitral Regurgitation" />
The left ventricle begins to dilate during this phase. This causes a dilatation of the mitral valve annulus, which may worsen the degree of MR. The dilated left ventricle causes an increase in the wall stress of the cardiac chamber as well.While the ejection fraction is less in the chronic decompensated phase than in the acute phase or the chronic compensated phase, it may still be in the normal range (i.e.: > 50 percent), and may not decrease until late in the disease course. A decreased ejection fraction in an individual with MR and no other cardiac abnormality should alert the physician that the disease may be in its decompensated phase.Template:Citation needed
Diagnosis
There are many diagnostic tests that have abnormal results in the presence of MR. These tests suggest the diagnosis of MR and may indicate to the physician that further testing is warranted. For instance, the electrocardiogram (ECG) in long-standing MR may show evidence of left atrial enlargement and left ventricular dilatation. Atrial fibrillation may also be noted on the ECG in individuals with chronic mitral regurgitation. The ECG may not show any of these findings in the setting of acute MR.Template:Citation needed
| Acute | Chronic | |
|---|---|---|
| Electrocardiogram | Normal | P mitrale, Atrial fibrillation, left ventricular hypertrophy |
| Heart size | Normal | Cardiomegaly, left atrial enlargement |
| Systolic murmur | Heard at the base, radiates to the neck, spine, or top of head | Heard at the apex, radiates to the axilla |
| Apical thrill | May be absent | Present |
| Jugular venous distension | Present | Absent |
The quantification of MR usually employs imaging studies such as echocardiography or magnetic resonance angiography of the heart.
Chest X-ray
The chest X-ray in individuals with chronic MR is characterized by enlargement of the left atrium and the left ventricle, and then maybe calcification of the mitral valve.<ref name="Clarke2002">Template:Cite book</ref>
Echocardiogram
An echocardiogram is commonly used to confirm the diagnosis of MR.<ref name="Clarke2002"/> Color doppler flow on the transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE) will reveal a jet of blood flowing from the left ventricle into the left atrium during ventricular systole. Also, it may detect a dilated left atrium and ventricle and decreased left ventricular function.<ref name=agabegi2nd-ch1/> A transesophageal echocardiogram can give clearer images if needed as the back of the heart can also be viewed.<ref name="rbht">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Electrocardiography
P mitrale is a broad, bifid notched P wave in several or many leads with a prominent late negative component to the P wave in lead V1, and may be seen in MR, but also in mitral stenosis, and, potentially, any cause of overload of the left atrium.<ref name=stedmans>medilexicon.com < P mitrale Template:Webarchive Citing. Stedman's Medical Dictionary. Copyright 2006</ref>
Quantification of mitral regurgitation
The degree of severity of MR can be quantified by the regurgitant fraction, which is the percentage of the left ventricular stroke volume that regurgitates into the left atrium.Template:Citation needed
- regurgitant fraction = <math>\frac{V_{mitral} - V_{aortic}} {V_{mitral}} \times 100\%</math>
where Vmitral and Vaortic are, respectively, the volumes of blood that flow forward through the mitral valve and aortic valve during a cardiac cycle. Methods that have been used to assess the regurgitant fraction in mitral regurgitation include echocardiography, cardiac catheterization, fast CT scan, and cardiac MRI.The echocardiographic technique to measure the regurgitant fraction is to determine the forward flow through the mitral valve (from the left atrium to the left ventricle) during ventricular diastole, and comparing it with the flow out of the left ventricle through the aortic valve in ventricular systole. This method assumes that the aortic valve does not have aortic insufficiency.Another way to quantify the degree of MR is to determine the area of the regurgitant flow at the level of the valve. This is known as the regurgitant orifice area and correlates with the size of the defect in the mitral valve. One particular echocardiographic technique used to measure the orifice area is measurement of the proximal isovelocity surface area (PISA). The flaw of using PISA to determine the mitral valve regurgitant orifice area is that it measures the flow at one moment in time in the cardiac cycle, which may not reflect the average performance of the regurgitant jet.Template:Citation needed
| Grade<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> | Degree of mitral regurgitation | Regurgitant fraction | Regurgitant Orifice area |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Mild | < 20 percent | |
| 2 | Moderate | 20 – 40 percent | |
| 3 | Moderate to severe | 40 – 60 percent | |
| 4 | Severe | > 60 percent | > 0.4 cm2 |
Treatment
The treatment of MR depends on the acuteness of the disease and whether there are associated signs of hemodynamic compromise. In general, medical therapy is non-curative and is used for mild-to-moderate regurgitation or in patients unable to tolerate surgery.<ref name="Mitral Regurgitation"/>
In acute MR secondary to a mechanical defect in the heart (i.e., rupture of a papillary muscle or chordae tendineae), the treatment of choice is mitral valve surgery. If the patient is hypotensive prior to the surgical procedure, an intra-aortic balloon pump may be placed in order to improve perfusion of the organs and to decrease the degree of MR.<ref name=agabegi2nd-ch1/>
Medicine
If the individual with acute MR is normotensive, vasodilators may be of use to decrease the afterload seen by the left ventricle and thereby decrease the regurgitant fraction. The vasodilator most commonly used is nitroprusside.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Individuals with chronic MR can be treated with vasodilators as well to decrease afterload.<ref name=agabegi2nd-ch1/> In the chronic state, the most commonly used agents are ACE inhibitors and hydralazine. Studies have shown that the use of ACE inhibitors and hydralazine can delay surgical treatment of MR.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The current guidelines for treatment of MR limit the use of vasodilators to individuals with hypertension, however. Any hypertension is treated aggressively,<ref name=uas/> e.g. by diuretics and a low sodium diet.<ref name=agabegi2nd-ch1/> In both hypertensive and normotensive cases, digoxin and antiarrhythmics are also indicated.<ref name=agabegi2nd-ch1/><ref name=uas/> Also, chronic anticoagulation is given where there is concomitant mitral valve prolapse<ref name=uas/> or atrial fibrillation.<ref name=agabegi2nd-ch1/>
Surgery
Surgery is curative of mitral valve regurgitation. There are two surgical options for the treatment of MR: mitral valve replacement and mitral valve repair.<ref name=agabegi2nd-ch1/> Mitral valve repair is preferred to mitral valve replacement where a repair is feasible as bioprosthetic replacement valves have a limited lifespan of 10 to 15 years, whereas synthetic replacement valves require ongoing use of blood thinners to reduce the risk of stroke. There are two general categories of approaches to mitral valve repair: resection of the prolapsed valvular segment (sometimes referred to as the "Carpentier" approach) and installation of artificial chordae to "anchor" the prolapsed segment to the papillary muscle (sometimes referred to as the "David" approach). With the resection approach, any prolapsing tissue is resected, in effect removing the hole through which the blood is leaking. In the artificial chordae approach, ePTFE (expanded polytetrafluoroethylene, or Gore-Tex) sutures are used to replace the broken or stretched chordae tendonae, bringing the natural tissue back into the physiological position, thus restoring the natural anatomy of the valve. With both techniques, an annuloplasty ring is typically secured to the annulus, or opening of the mitral valve, to provide additional structural support. In some cases, the "double orifice" (or 'Alfieri') technique for mitral valve repair, the opening of the mitral valve is sewn closed in the middle, leaving the two ends still able to open. This ensures that the mitral valve closes when the left ventricle pumps blood, yet allows the mitral valve to open at the two ends to fill the left ventricle with blood before it pumps. In general, mitral valve surgery requires "open-heart" surgery in which the heart is arrested and the patient is placed on a heart-lung machine (cardiopulmonary bypass). This allows the complex surgery to proceed in a still environment.Template:Citation needed
Due to the physiological stress associated with open-heart surgery, elderly and very sick patients may be subject to increased risk, and may not be candidates for this type of surgery. As a consequence, there are attempts to identify means of correcting MR on a beating heart. The Alfieri technique for instance, has been replicated using a percutaneous catheter technique, which installs a "MitraClip" device to hold the middle of the mitral valve closed.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Indications for surgery for chronic MR include signs of left ventricular dysfunction with ejection fraction less than 60%, severe pulmonary hypertension with pulmonary artery systolic pressure greater than 50 mmHg at rest or 60 mmHg during activity, and new-onset atrial fibrillation.Template:Citation needed
| Symptoms | LV EF | LVESD |
|---|---|---|
| NYHA II | > 30 percent | < 55 mm |
| NYHA III-IV | < 30 percent | > 55 mm |
| Asymptomatic | 30 – 60 percent | ≥ 40 mm |
| Asymptomatic with pulmonary hypertension | LV EF > 60 percent and pulmonary artery systolic pressure >50-60 mmHg | |
| Asymptomatic and chance for a repair without residual MR is >90% | > 60 percent | < 40 mm |
Epidemiology
Significant mitral valve regurgitation has a prevalence of approximately 2% of the population, affecting males and females equally.<ref>The Cleveland Clinic Center for Continuing Education > Mitral Valve Disease: Stenosis and Regurgitation Authors: Ronan J. Curtin and Brian P. Griffin. Retrieved September 2010</ref> It is one of the two most common valvular heart diseases in the elderly,<ref name=uptodate>Valvular heart disease in elderly adults Authors: Dania Mohty, Maurice Enriquez-Sarano. Section Editors:Catherine M Otto, Kenneth E Schmader. Deputy Editor: Susan B Yeon. This topic last updated: April 20, 2007. Last literature review version 18.2: May 2010</ref> and the commonest type of valvular heart disease in low and middle income countries.<ref name="Douedi"/>
In a study of 595 male elite football players aged 18–38 and 47 sedentary non-athletes, mitral regurgitation was found in 20% football players and 15% in control group. Football players with mitral regurgitation were found to have larger mitral annulus diameter compared to athletes without regurgitation, and left atrium diameter was larger in athletes with MR.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
See also
References
External links
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